World Model United Nations 2011

Co n s e i l d Et at du S econd Em pire
Bac kgro u n d G u i d e

Conseil dEtat du Second Empire

Table of ConTenTs
Letter from the Secretary General..............................................................1 Letter from the Under-Secretary General...................................................2 Letter from the Chair...................................................................................3 Introduction...............................................................................................6 History of the Committee...........................................................................6 Topic A: Statement of the Problem........................................................................................6 History of the Problem...........................................................................................7 Bloc Positions.........................................................................................................19 Suggestions for Further Research.........................................................................20 Topic B: Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................20 History of the Problem...........................................................................................21 Bloc Positions.........................................................................................................25 Suggestions for Further Research.........................................................................26 Topic C: Statement of the Problem......................................................................................26 History of the Problem..........................................................................................26 Bloc Positions.........................................................................................................29 Suggestions for Further Research.........................................................................29 Key Actors....................................................................................................29 Language Summary...................................................................................33 Rules of Procedure..................................................................................36 Position Papers..........................................................................................36 Closing Remarks........................................................................................36 Bibliography..............................................................................................42
Cover image courtesy of Singapore Tourism Board.

Letter from the Secretary-General

March 14 - March 18 2011

REIHAN NADARAJAH Secretary-General REMEN OKURUWA Director-General IOANA CALCEV Under-Secretary-General for General Assemblies SAMIR PATEL Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Councils and Regional Bodies KATHLEEN TANG Under-Secretary-General for Specialized Agencies KENNETH LI Under-Secretary-General for Strategy CHARLENE WONG Under-Secretary-General for Administration APARAJITA TRIPATHI Under-Secretary-General for Business

Dear Delegates, It is my utmost pleasure to welcome you to World Model United Nations 2011! My name is Reihan Nadarajah, and I will serve as your Secretary-General for WorldMUNs 20th conference. The conference staff of WorldMUN has been hard at work, ensuring that you receive the best substantive experience before, during and even after conference has ended. Within this document, you will find the study guide for your committee. Each Chair has worked to display his or her interest and passion for the topics found within this guide. They have researched extensively to provide you with the best possible overview of each committees topic area. This study guide should serve as a launching pad for all your research; research that will be pivotal in ensuring you have as rewarding an experience as possible in committee. The WorldMUN Spirit asks each delegate to step into the shoes of those from entirely different cultures to yours, to gain a better understanding across borders, and this starts with your research. As you prepare for conference, look closely at this guide, and use the additional resources suggested by your Chair to learn more about the topic, and your represented position on it. Please also use the additional resources on our website: WorldMUN 101 (a guide to everything MUN), and the Rules of Procedure both of which have been revamped this year. Also feel free to e-mail your Chair, or your Under-SecretaryGeneral at any point during the preparation process if you have questions or would like assistance. Later in the winter, we will also place updates on recent developments on the topics on the website, written by your Assistant Chairs. Good luck with your preparation, and I hope you enjoy reading this Study Guide! I look forward to meeting you in Singapore in March!

Sincerely, Reihan Nadarajah Secretary-General World Model United Nations 2011 secretarygeneral@worldmun.org

Letter from the Under-Secretary-General

March 14 - March 18 2011

REIHAN NADARAJAH Secretary-General REMEN OKURUWA Director-General IOANA CALCEV Under-Secretary-General for General Assemblies SAMIR PATEL Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Councils and Regional Bodies KATHLEEN TANG Under-Secretary-General for Specialized Agencies KENNETH LI Under-Secretary-General for Strategy CHARLENE WONG Under-Secretary-General for Administration APARAJITA TRIPATHI Under-Secretary-General for Business

Dear Delegates, Hello and Welcome to the Specialized Agencies! My name is Kathleen Tang and I am the Under-Secretary-General of the SA for WorldMUN 2011. Whether you are a first time SAer or an old timer, the SA promises to be your most intensive and fulfilling MUN experience yet. Theres a reason why SA could either stand for Standardized Agencies or Seriously Addicting. The smaller committee sizes allow for everyone to have a turn expressing their opinions on a wide variety of problems ranging from: peacekeeping missions in Haiti to guerilla warfare in India. It also allows for more detailed feedback and individual attention from chairs, and is a great grounds from which to improve upon your debate skills and confidence in public speaking. The crises elements of these committees, that change depending on the decisions you make, keep committee sessions exciting and make them seem altogether too short! The study guide is a very important facet of the Model UN experience as it is where you will orient yourselves toward the topic at hand. The Chairs have labored over these papers and I encourage you to read them thoroughly and contact your Chairs with any additional questions you may have. Remember, these guides are to pique your interest and get you started on doing your own research! I truly look forward to getting to know all of you beforehand. Feel free to introduce yourselves to me via email at sa@worldmun.org. Also, please email if you have any questions, concerns, or special needs! Cheers, Kathleen Tang Under-Secretary-General, Specialized Agencies WorldMUN 2011 sa@worldmun.org

Letter from the Chair

March 14 - March 18 2011

REIHAN NADARAJAH Secretary-General REMEN OKURUWA Director-General IOANA CALCEV Under-Secretary-General for General Assemblies SAMIR PATEL Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Councils and Regional Bodies KATHLEEN TANG Under-Secretary-General for Specialized Agencies KENNETH LI Under-Secretary-General for Strategy CHARLENE WONG Under-Secretary-General for Administration APARAJITA TRIPATHI Under-Secretary-General for Business
Historical Security Council Chair: Alexandre Durand flcworldmun@gmail.com

Dear delegates, I would like to extend a warm welcome to Conseil dEtat du Second Empire, the very first French language committee in WoldMUNs history. My name is Alexandre Durand, and I am very eager to serve as your chair for this truly exciting and innovative committee. I am a sophomore at Harvard College from Larchmont, New York and plan to concentrate to in Social Studies. My father is French and my mother is Venezuelan, and I have attended a French-American school with a bilingual curriculum since I was in Kindergarten. In part because of this multicultural background and in part because of my own curiosity, I have always been very interested in foreign affairs and world history. I have expressed this passion at Harvard by working with the International Relations Council (IRC) as a Director for this committee, and a Director of Substantive Support for its high school conference, Harvard Model United Nations. I also serve as the IRCs secretary and as an associate editor for its publication the Harvard International Review. During our week together in Singapore, we will incarnate the political and governmental elites at the head of a French Empire attempting to regain its former glory. The cabinet will be dealing with issues on three fronts, as it attempts to extend the Second Empires colonial influence around the world, gain leverage and impose itself as the main power among the European states, and consolidate France and turn it into a modern state. On the world stage, we will dictate the Empires involvement in Crimea, West Africa, East Asia and South America as we consolidate it as a colonial power. In Europe, we will explore the shifting balances of power among states on the continent. In the homeland, we will restructure domestic infrastructure and socio-economic mechanisms in order to place the French Empire at the forefront of the world stage. All of the topics will provide a great amount of excitement and unforeseen turns, and the only thing you can expect is to be on your toes at all times. I am very much looking forward to what I know will be a terrific conference, and in sharing some incredible and action-packed days with all of you. Best regards, Alexandre Durand Chair, Conseil dEtat du Second Empire World Model United Nations 2011

INTRODUCTION

h e commi tte e is set in 1858, t he day of the 2 4 Ju n e reshuffl ing of Louis-N apoleon Bonapartes Third Government; you will incarnate t h e mi n i ste rs th at c om pr ise it . The pr im ary goal o f t hi s cab i n e t i s t o ensur e t he int er nal s af ety , s t a b i li ty a n d le g i t im ac y o f t he F r ench E m pi re. T he i n s t a bi li ty an d v io l enc e t hat has char acteri z ed t h e re ce n t dome st ic sc ene has com pr om i s ed the Em pi re s soci al and t echno l o gical dev el opmen t. Na p o le on III h a s gr eat am bit io ns t o t ur n Fran ce i n t o a mod e l stat e at t he hear t of t he world s m o s t dyn a mi c and const r uc t iv e po l it ical en ti ty . T h i s w i ll on ly b e po ssibl e if t he l egit im aci es of t h e E mp e ror a n d o f t he E mpir e ar e k ept s af e f r o m p oli ti cal oppo nent s and c om pet it ors f rom a b ro ad. Th e cab inet wil l need t o wo r k t o en s ure t h i s , an d th e n to pr o mo t e t he k ind of gr o wth that w o u l d a llow th e Empir es v isio n fo r F r an ce to be re a l i ze d . S e con d ly, this cabinet wil l hav e t he d uty of w o rki n g to re s tore t he gr andeur and pow er that t h e Fre n ch Emp i r e r el inquished aft er Nap oleon s re i gn . In th i s e ndeav or , t he cabinet wi ll have t o pa y clos e atte nt io n t o t he act io ns o f f orei gn p o w ers s e e ki n g to l imit it s infl uence, as they are ve r y w ary a n d a p pr ehensiv e of F r anc es im mi n en t re t u r n to th e for efr ont t he wo r l d st age. T here a re t w o p ri mary ar enas in whic h t his s truggle w i l l play ou t. Fi rst l y, t he cabinet m ust h elp the Fre nch Emp i re must asser t it s do minance i n the c o nt i n e n ta l Eu r opean dipl o mat ic battlef i eld , w he r e a comp le x and ev er -shift ing sys tem of a l l i a n ce s an d treat ies has been engineered as a re s ult of th e Fr ench R ev o l ut io n in 17 8 9 an d t h e Nap ole on i c War s ear l ier in t he century to p r eve n t a i mb a lance o f po wer l o cal l y. Secon d ly , t h e c olon i a l ra ce has k ick ed int o ful l gear, an d i f t h e cab i n e t does not st r iv e t o incr e as e the Fre nch Emp i re s pr esence gl obal l y, t hen i t wi ll f a l l b e h i n d i ts r iv al s and be r el egat ed to the b a c kg rou n d of w or l d affair s. These t wo g oals are o b v i o u s ly close ly l ink ed, and decisions taken i n o ne s p h e re w i ll undo ubt edl y affec t t he o ther; i t i s t he re fore cru c ial t o ac t wit h gr eat prud en ce, w i t hou t allow i ng t his caut io n t o l imi t the c a b i n e ts a mb i ti ons.

T O PIC AREA A: T h E D O m E s T I C F R O n T

Statement of the Problem

h e re w as a widespr ead sense in nineteen th c e n tu ry Eu rope t hat peopl e wer e l ivi n g i n a n ew , mode rn soc iet y. The ser ies of p oli ti cal c o nf l i ct i g n i te d by t he F r enc h R ev ol ut ion i n 1 7 8 9
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led to a gen eral reas s es s men t of the m i l l e nni u m old govern men tal s y s tems bas ed l a r g e l y o n mon archal rule that had prevai led thr o u g h o u t t h e con ti n en t. Q ues ti on s of s overei gn ty a nd so c i a l organ i z ati on , n ati on bui ld i n g an d n a t i o na l i sm , an d E mpi re an d colon i ali s m led th i nk e r s a nd the gen eral s en ti men ts they i n s pi re d t o d e si g n a n ew E urope on poli ti cal, s oci o- i d e o l o g i c a l , an d techn ologi cal f ron ts . T he d eca p i t a t i o n o f Ki n g Loui s XV I of Fran ce an d hi s Q u e e n Ma r i e A n toi n ette s howed E uropean s that t h e d i v i ne l y man d ated authori ty of thei r roy al f am i l i e s w a s i n f act n ei ther i rref utable n or n eces s ary; t h e R e i g n of T error that en s ued s howed the Eu r o p e a n ari s tocraci es that they were replac e a b l e . Th e crumbli n g of the abs oluti s t mod el thu s p a v e d t h e way f or the con ceptuali z i n g an d exe c u t i o n o f a n ew s oci al thought. P oli ti cally , the n i n eteen th cen t u r y o p e ne d i n E urope wi th N apoleon I of Fran c e s i m p e r i a l rampage throughout the con ti n en t , f u r t h e r putti n g the an ci en t d y n as ti c mon arc h i e s a t r i sk . T he reacti on ary res pon s e to thi s d an g e r i ni t i a t e d by C lemen s von M ettern i ch s C on cert o f Eu r o p e , whi ch con s i s ted of a power s hari n g a g r e e m e nt between the maj or E uropean power s, w o u l d i n the lon g term prove to s ubd ue the pr o b l e m o nl y momen tari ly . H owever, i t guaran tee d a c e r t a i n d egree of con ti n en tal s tabi li ty t h r o u g h o u t the begi n n i n g of the cen tury . T h e se e d s o f N apoleon s campai gn s , however, h a d p e r h a p s been s own too d eeply alread y , an d th e no t i o ns o f s tatehood , n ati on al i d en ti ty , an d un i f i c a t i o n r o se to the f oref ron t of poli ti cal thought a t t h e t i m e , i f n ot i n tellectually , then certai n ly p o p u l a r l y . M ovemen ts attempti n g at n ati on al u ni f i c a t i o n s pran g about i n I taly i n 1 8 4 8 , as a certa i n G i u se p p e Gari bald i return ed to the terri tory to f i g h t i n t h e Fi rs t I tali an W ar of I n d epen d en ce, a nd si m i l a r n ati on ali s t s en ti men ts were f elt thro u g h o u t t h e con ti n en t. I n Fran ce, the Revoluti on s o f 1 8 4 8 c o st Ki n g Loui s - P hi li ppe the thron e, an d l e d t o t h e i n s taurati on of the s hort- li ved S econ d R e p u b l i c , whi ch Loui s - N apoleon Bon aparte g o v e r ne d a s pres i d en t f rom 1 8 4 8 to 1 8 5 2 . T hus , b y t h e t i m e he as cen d ed to the thron e an d becam e N a p o l e o n I I I , the an ti q uated poli ti cal organ i z a t i o n, w h i c h had been govern ed by of s ort of pa n-Eu r o p e a n oli garchy , had been prof oun d ly s hake n t h r e e f o l d by the Fren ch Revoluti on i n 1 7 8 9 , the N a p o l e o ni c W ars of the turn of the cen tury , an d th e sw e e p i ng revoluti on s of 1 8 4 8 . E uropean s at l a r g e w e r e d es perately s eeki n g a n ew, mod er n f o r m o f poli ti cal organ i z ati on to carry them i nt o t h e f uture. I t i s up to the C oun ci l to res p o nd t o t h i s
Conseil dEtat 6

d e m a n d e ffi ci e n t l y and pr om ot e t he int e res ts of t h e Fre n ch p e op l e in t his pur suit . C on te mp or ar y t o t he r eassessmen t of t h e p oli ti cal n at ur e o f E ur ope, t hink ers an d g o v ern me n t off icial s examined t he s oci al c h a n ge i n te ri or t o t he indiv idual soc iet i es that c o m p os e d th e cont inent . Infl uent ial works a d d re s s i n g th e s ocial nat ur e of m ank ind, s uch as Ho b be s Le vi a th an, R ousseaus Soc ial Con tract, S m i t h s Th e Weal t h o f Nat ions, Diderot an d d A l e mb e rts En cyc l o pedia, and o f cou rs e the w o rk of He n ri de Saint -Simo n, t o nam e j us t a f ew , w orke d th e ir way int o t he com mo n s oci al c o ns ci ou s n e ss, and in effec t pr o mpt ed t he rad i cal s o c i a l ch an g e ob ser v ed in l at e eight eent h cen tury Eu ro pe . Ma rx a n d E ngel s Com munist M an i f es to g a ve th e s e i ssu e s a set t ing and an appli cati on . T h e con ce p ts of inequal it y inher ent t o t he ai li n g Eu ro pe a n mon archal syst em began com i n g i n to d i re c t con fli ct w it h t he per sonal deman d s of an i n c r easi n g ly fru st r at ed pr ol et ar iat . The Spri n g of Na t i on s , th e con t inent -wide r ev ol ut ions of 1 8 4 8 , s t a n d at a crossr oads bet ween soc iop oli ti cal u n c erta i n ty an d econom ic difficul t y, an d are t h u s p e rh a p s th e mo st v iv id il l ust r at o rs of the w i d es p re ad ch a llenge t o do mest ic aut hor i ty that n i ne t e e n th ce n tur y cit izens wer e wil l ing to pos e. I n Fra n ce alon e, t he power st r uc t ur e vari ed s i g n i f i ca n tly th ro ugho ut t he epoc h, depen d i n g t h e n a tu re of the r ul er and t he gov ern men t; t h e F re n ch w i ll hav e k no wn t wo c onst ituti on al m o n arch i e s, a n at t em pt ed r et ur n t o t he A n ci en t R gi me , a re p u b l ic, and an empir e by the ti me C o u n ci l fi rs t con v enes. E ur opean, and especi ally Fre nch , s oci e ty is ev o l v ing. Once agai n , the C o u n ci l w i ll b e char ged wit h r espo n d i n g to t h e soci al re q uest s of t he F r enc h wi thout c o m p romi s i n g Frances pl ac e in t he wo r l d . P e rh ap s the m ost imm ediat e and con crete re pre s e n ta ti on of mo der nit y in E ur ope i n the n i ne t e e n th ce n tu r y cam e under for m o f the Fi rs t I n d u stri a l Re vol ut io n. Or iginat ing in Great Bri t a i n i n th e e i ght eent h cent ur y, t his peri od of s t e ep te ch n olog i cal pr ogr ess found it s way on to t h e c on ti n e n t i n t he ear l y par t s of t he fo llowi n g o ne . W i th n at ions c om pet ing o n vari ous n a t i o n ali s ti c front s, t he t echno l o gical ed ge can p r o ve d e ci si ve in t he l o ng-r un dom esti c an d f o re i gn p ow e r s tr uggl e. It is al so essent ia l to the c o ns tru cti on of a m oder n soc iet y. This C oun ci l w i l l s e e k to e n cour age t he dev el opment of n ew t e c hn olog i cal ad vance and impl ement t h em i n to t h e n ew s oci e ty i t seek s t o fo r ge.

History and Discussion of the Problem

A Political History of France

he Fren ch populati on i s on e that i n t h e p a st has alway s li ved through hi s tori c a l sy m b o l s, an d con ti n ues to d o s o tod ay . Fro m t h e v e r y begi n n i n gs of con ceptual Fran ce t o m o d e r n Fran ce, lead ers have had to d eal wi t h p r o b l e m s of legi ti macy an d of authori ty . N apo l e o n I I I w a s a keen s cholar of hi s tory , an d un d er st o o d a l l o f the rami f i cati on s i t had had on hi s co u nt r y i n t h e pas t, n otably i n the cas e of hi s un cle , N a p o l e o n I . For the ef f ecti ve f un cti on of thi s Co u nc i l , i t i s i mperati ve that each member un de r st a nd no t on ly the f actual occurren ces that mak e u p F r e nc h hi s tory , but thei r rami f i cati on s on t h e F r e nc h i d en ti ty as well. T hree con cepts i n pa r t i c u l a r a r e i llus trated i n thes e even ts an d are of p a r a m o u nt i mportan ce i n the Fren ch mi n d s e t . F i r st o f all, there i s an i n heren t mi s trus t o f a u t h o r i t y d ati n g f rom the Fren ch Revoluti on , a nd w h i c h has pai n ted all Fren ch lead ers s i nc e t h e n a s authori tari an s an d s uppres s ors . S eco nd l y , t h e r e i s a s tron g, albei t recen t trad i ti on o f r e v o l t an d publi c d emon s trati on f i rs t m a ni f e st e d through the Fron d e ri ght bef ore Lou i s X I V f u l l y as cen d ed to the thron e. T hi rd ly , the i m p o r t a nc e of s y mboli s m mus t n ot be un d eres ti m a t e d . Th e Fren ch people have f ollowed the ra l l y i ng c r i e s of great lead ers an d are wi lli n g t o c o nt i nu e hon ori n g thei r s pi ri t an d legacy . A s i m p l e m o t i f or utteran ce can retri gger thes e s ent i m e nt s. I t i s thus of great i mportan ce f or the Co u nc i l t o un d ers tan d what has mad e s ome lead e r s r e v e r e d an d others revolted agai n s t i n ord er no t o nl y t o pres erve the legi ti macy of the regi me b u t a l so t o gi ve i t an i d en ti ty of i ts own .

The Dark and Middle Ages

hi le the Fren ch terri tory was f i r st t r u l y un i f i ed by the s pears of the Rom a n l e g i o ns, the emergen ce of Fran ce as an ind e p e nd e nt geopoli ti cal en ti ty i s ty pi cally trac e d b a c k t o the bapti s m of the M erovi n gi an k i ng o f t h e Fran ks , C lovi s , i n 4 9 6 i n Rei ms . 1 T h i s i nst a nc e s i multan eous ly cemen ts the terri tory c o nq u e r e d f rom the Roman s by C lovi s as the d e f i ni t i v e homelan d of the S ali an Fran ks , wi th P a r i s a s i t s capi tal, an d perhaps as i mportan tly , c h o o se s t h e Roman trad i ti on of C hri s ti an i ty over t h e Hu nni sh on e embraced by C lovi s f ather C hi ld e r i c . I f t h e authori tati ve trad i ti on of Roman E m p e r o r s su c h as D i ocleti an s urvi ved the tes t of ti m e , t h e l e g a l , ad mi n i s trati ve an d govern men tal i nst i t u t i o ns of the Roman E mpi re d i d n ot. Fu r t h e r m o r e ,
Conseil dEtat 7

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t he st r o ng cen tral aut ho r it y seen un d er Cl ov is sl owl y began t o er o de, as inf i ghti n g and suc cessio n wars ac cent uat ed the aut o no my of regi on al l eader s and g rad ually br o ught t he coun try int o so cial an d po l it ical st agn ati on , symbo l ized by the r o is fainants an d t heir no tori ous ly l ax gr ip on the affair s of s tate. 2 H owev er , in 732, t he F r ench ki n gd om Clov i s conquered much of and t he Chri s ti an scored a cur rent day France, and i s Chur c h decisiv e vi ctory considered by and large to have been the f irst leader of as Char l es M artel hal t ed t he M us li m France. at n ear h t t p : / / f r i v o l o u s e n d e a v o u r. inv asio n Tour s, c emen ti n g f i l e s . w o r d p r e s s . as c o m / 2 0 1 0 / 0 8 / c l o v i s . Chr ist ianit y t he r el igion of the gif&imgrefurl=http:// 3 Hi s s on f r i v o l o u s e n d e a v o u r . F r ench. Pepin t he S hort wordpress.com/tag/clov i s/ woul d t hen lead a u n i f i cati on campaign, expanding t he bord ers o f t he ki n g dom, a l egacy car r ied o n by hi s own s o n, th e se mi - m yt hical Char l emagne, w ho was c ro wn e d Emp e ror of t he H o l y R om an E mpi re b y t h e P op e L e o III in 800. 4 Char l emagn e mad e i m po r ta n t stru ctur al c hanges t o his empi re, c o nc e n tra ti n g ce nt r al power in Aix-l a-C hapelle, t h e cu ltu ral an d adm inist r at iv e capit al of the Em pi re . 5 Th e C arolingian dynast y fel l pr ey to s ame i n t ern a l di vi s i ons as t he M er o v ingian on e had p r evi ou sly, as h e ir s t o t he t hr o ne fought a mon gs t e a c h oth e r for cont r ol o f t he whol e E mpi re, an d , o nc e a g ai n , th e cent r al aut ho r it y of t he e mperor d i s s i p a te s. Ami dst al l o f t he cont ender s f or the c ro wn , Hu g h C apet becom es k ing in 9 8 7 hi s b l o o dli n e w ou ld r em ain on F r ench t hr on e f or o v er e i g h t ce n tu ries, for ming a c l o se r el ati on s hi p w i t h th e C h u rch. 6 In addit io n, dur i n g the m ed i e va l p e ri od , F r ench so ciet y st ar t s to d ri f t t o wa rd s a th re e - est at e cl ass syst em , div ided i n to n o b i li ty, cle rg y, and com mo ner s, wit h P hi li ppe I V o ffi ci a lly conv ening t he E st at es-Gen eral f or t h e fi rst ti me i n 1302. 7 Geopol it ic al l y, Fran ce w a s i n volve d i n a num ber o f significant wars ,
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both on d omes ti c s oi l an d abroad . Th e F r e nc h ki n gs prolon ged commi tmen t to th e Cr u sa d e s was perhaps bes t embod i ed by Loui s I X , w h o se parti ci pati on i n the ei ghth an d n i nt h c r u sa d e s led the C hurch to can on i z e hi m i n 1 2 9 7 . 8 H owever, the mos t n otable mi li tary c o nf l i c t t h e Fren ch were i n volved i n d uri n g the m i d d l e a g e s was the H un d red Y ears W ar, tri gge r e d i n 1 3 3 7 by clai ms to the Fren ch thron e f rom t h e V a l o i s hous e an d the P lan tagen et hous e f ro m Eng l a nd af ter the las t C apeti an ki n g was lef t w i t h no m a l e hei r. 9 T he res ult was a lon g an d bloo d y c o nf l i c t , d uri n g whi ch much of the Fren c h t e r r i t o r y f ell i n to the han d s of the Bri ti s h, u nt i l a f i na l coun terof f en s i ve s pearhead ed by t h e i c o ni c Joan of A rc ulti mately f orced the B r i t i sh t o leave Fran ce, an d lef t the V aloi s d y na st y i n so l e con trol of the coun try . 1 0 T he med i e v a l c h a p t e r of E uropean hi s tory i s gen erally close d i n 1 4 9 2 wi th the d i s covery of the A meri cas . Wh i l e no t a s i mmed i ately relevan t to Fran ce as i t w a s t o o t h e r n ati on s on the con ti n en t, i t would no ne t h e l e ss be a mon umen tal even t f or Fren ch f o r e i g n p o l i c y over the n ext f ew cen turi es , as i t thr u st Eu r o p e i n to a colon i al rat race that pers i s ts t o t h i s v e r y d ay .

The Renaissance and the Rise of Humanism

i th the I tali an pen i n s ula s as c e nsi o n a s the cultural capi tal an d econ o m i c c e nt e r of E urope i n the f i f teen th cen tury , F r e nc h k i ng s turn ed thei r atten ti on to the area a nd l e a d a s eri es of i n vas i on s s tarti n g throu g h o u t t h e f ollowi n g cen tury . T he Ren ai s s an ce f o u nd i t s way i n to Fran ce un d er emblemati c k i ng F r a nc i s I who erected an d ren ovated man y c a st l e s a l o ng the Loi re Ri ver an d con vi n ced i mpor t a nt I t a l i a n arti s ts , n otably Leon ard o d a V i n ci , t o m o v e t o Fran ce. 1 1 I f thi s peri od i s n oteworthy b e c a u se i t marks the return of Fran ce on to th e f o r e f r o nt of the E uropean cultural an d poli t i c a l st a g e , i t i s perhaps more s o f or a couple o f p u nc t u a l even ts that occurred outs i d e of Fr a nc e . F i r st of all, i n the mi d f i f teen th cen tur y J o h a nne s Guten berg i n ven ts the pri n ti n g pres s , w h i c h h a s an i mmed i ately prof oun d ef f ect on i nt e l l e c t u a l d y n ami cs all throughout E urope. But e v e n m o r e con s eq uen ti ally f or Fran ce, i n 1 5 1 7 Ma r t i n Luther pos ted hi s N i n ety - Fi ve T h e se s, t h u s s etti n g i n moti on the P rotes tan t Ref o r m a t i o n. 1 2 A s a res ult, much of the late s i xteen th c e nt u r y i n Fran ce would be s pen t i n blood y con f l i c t b e t w e e n the two C hri s ti an f acti on s , i n a per i o d k no w n as the W ars of Reli gi on . T he clas h r e a c h e d i t s
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c l i m ax at th e S t . B ar t hol om ews Day M as s acre o f 1 5 7 2, i n w h i ch t housands o f Pr o t est an ts were s y s t e mati cally p er sec ut ed and m ur der ed i n on e d a y on th e di re ct ion o f Cat her ine de M edi ci , the m o t h e r of th e king Char l es IX . 1 3 The r eli gi ous t e ns i on s b e tw e e n t he Pr ot est ant s, who us ually c o m p os e d a la rg e po r t ion o f t he int el l ectual an d e c o n omi c e li te s i n t he count r y and t he t r a d i ti on al C a t holi c sta te w o ul d l ead t o a mass ex od us of m erc h an ts, th i n ker s, and ar t ist s, who went to f i n d re f u g e i n oth e r n at io ns. A Pr o t est ant k ing, H en ry I V, w ou ld e ve n tual l y m ak e his way t o t he thron e i n 1 5 93, b u t n ot befo r e pr agm at ical l y c onverti n g t h e C ath oli ci s m. 1 4 H e woul d bec om e on e of Fra n c e s mos t i conic and bel o v ed m onar chs , an d i n s t i t u te d a n u m ber of pr o gr essiv e meas ures , i n c l u di n g th e e nac t ing t he E dic t o f Na n tes i n 1 5 9 8 , w h i ch g u ar ant eed r el igious fr eed om f or P r o t e s tan ts an d put and end t o t he bl oo d s hed . 1 5 L a t e r ki n g s w oul d pr o gr essiv el y undo much o f t he le e w a y h e made in t he r eal m reli gi ous t o l e r an ce , an d Louis X IV final l y r ev oked the Ed i c t of Na n te s in 1685. H enr y IV was t ragi cally a s s a s si n a te d b y a fanat ic al cat hol ic Fran oi s Ra va i llac i n 1610, and r emains t o t his d ay on e o f t he mos t b e lov ed m onar chs in F r enc h hi s tory b e c a us e of h i s connect io n wit h t he com mon man . W h i le th e cul t ur al r enewal o f E u rope i s g e ne r ally th e p r incipal idea asso ciat ed to the Re na i s s a n ce , i ts int el l ec t ual and so cial i mpact h a d a p e rh ap s m or e r eso unding infl ue n ce on Fra n c e . Th e ri s e o f humanism in t he arts an d

s ci en ces was on e of the f i rs t open a f f r o nt s t o the s ubj ugati on of M an bef ore God , a nd t h u s i n d i rectly of the C atholi c C hurch. T h i s c o nc e p t als o en couraged i n tellectuals to q u e st i o n t h e role of abs olutely authori tati ve f i gu r e s su c h a s mon archs or cleri cal lead ers , an d th u s r e t h i nk the s oci al ord er of the coun try . I n p a r a l l e l , i n tellectual d evelopmen t was greatly a c c e l e r a t e d by Guten berg s pri n ti n g pres s , an d th e e x c h a ng e of i d eas acros s bord ers boomed lik e i t ne v e r had bef ore then . T hi s con cocti on o f m i nd se t s an d techn ologi cal ad van ces i s what a l l o w e d a n i s olated i n ci d en t li ke the releas e of t h e N i ne t y Fi ve T hes es i n German y to caus e a f u nd a m e nt a l revi s i on of reli gi on an d take Fran ce t o t h e b r i nk of C i vi l W ar. I f the abs olute mon archa l p o w e r w a s res tored i n the y ears f ollowi n g the R e na i ssa nc e , the challen ges to authori ty of d uri n g t h e f i f t e e nt h an d s i xteen th cen turi es paved the wa y f o r m o r e comprehen s i ve s oci al chan ge i n later c e nt u r i e s.

The Absolute Monarchy

The ass assination of Henr y IV marked an impor tant tur ning point for France, as it def initively tur ned its back on Protestanti sm. http://w w w.culturalres ources.com/images/ Henr y4Death.jpg&imgref url=http://w w w. culturalres ources.com/BAR6.html Harvard WorldMUN 2011

he explorati on boom f ollowi n g th e d i sc o v e r y of the A meri cas at the very e nd o f t h e f i f teen th cen tury prompted an acu t e i nt e r e st f rom E uropean powers to expan d the i r i nf l u e nc e outs i d e of the con ti n en t. Fran ce, of c o u r se , w a s n o excepti on , an d throughout the se v e nt e e nt h an d ei ghteen th cen turi es the coun try se nt v a r i o u s exped i ti on s aroun d the world , s uch a s J a c q u e s C arti er to the A meri cas an d Lou i s A nt o i ne d e Bougai n vi lle E as t A s i a. A s i t s o l i d i f i e d i t s pres en ce i n vari ous terri tori es abro a d , F r a nc e became on e of the man y E uropean na t i o ns t o en gage i n tri an gular trad e, whi ch e sse nt i a l l y con s i s ted of s en d i n g weapon s an d f i n i sh e d g o o d s to A f ri ca i n exchan ge f or s laves , wh o w e r e se nt to the A meri cas , an d i n Fran ce s case t h e We st I n d i es , an d trad ed f or raw materi al s t h a t w e r e s en t back to E urope. H owever, i f Fran ce s i n f luenc e a b r o a d s eemed to be growi n g s tead i ly , i t s d o m e st i c poli ti cal s tabi li ty was very preca r i o u s. Th e f ri cti on between the n obi li ty an d L o u i s X I I I s ri ght han d man the C ard i n al Ri ch e l i e u , w h o as s umed extraord i n ary powers i n th e f a c e o f a weak ki n g, i n a s en s e pref aced the s oc i a l t e nsi o ns that would f ollow s hortly af ter. 1 6 Fr o m 1 6 4 8 t o 1 6 5 3 , a wave of d i s s en t kn own as the Fr o nd e sh o o k Fren ch s oci ety to i ts core as both t h e no b i l i t y an d the common ers d i rectly an d v i o l e nt l y challen ged the mon archy s autho r i t y . 1 7 Th i s epi s od e prof oun d ly marked a y oun g L o u i s X I V ; upon as s umi n g f ull powers f or him se l f a f t e r
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t h e d e a th of th e infl uent ial st at esman M az ari n The Revolution i n 1 6 61, h e ce n t r al ized bot h t he ar my an d the i th the Fren ch s tate f alli n g prey t o c r i p p l i ng n o b i li ty, w h i ch had gr o wn used t o exerti n g d ebts , ki n g Loui s XV I called t h e Est a t e ss i g n i f i ca n t re g i onal infl uences in it s pr ov i n ces . 1 8 Gen eral to d eal wi th the f i n an ci al p r o b l e m i n L o u i s XIV ma n d at ed t hat ev er y no bl eman mus t 1 7 8 9 . 2 1 I n ef f ect, on ce the f i n an c e s m i ni st e r l i v e i n th e royal c our t , t hus mak ing it eas i er Jacq ues N ecker had bri ef ed the p a r t i c i p a nt s f o r h i m to ke e p a t ight er gr ip o n dissen ti ous regard i n g the s i tuati on , a d i s pute b r o k e o u t i n f l u en ce s w i th i n t he no bil it y. In c ont r as t to hi s amon g the d elegates of the es tates , a s m e m b e r s f a t he r w h os e i n fluence was v er y t enuou s , Loui s of each es tate could n ot agree on p r o c e d u r a l XI V wa s a ve ry aut hor it at iv e r ul er and came to matters . T he clergy an d n obi li ty , whic h t o g e t h e r e pi t o m i ze th e ab sol ut e mo nar c hy. H is abus es of had a li ttle un d er half of the d elegate s, p r e f e r r e d p o w er, su ch as the no t o r io us l et t er s de cachet voti n g to be d on e by es tate, gran t i ng t h e m a t h ro ug h w h i ch he c oul d enact ar bit r ary legal two- thi rd s maj ori ty , whereas the t h i r d e st a t e m ea s u re s w i th out t he po ssibil it y o f app eal an d pus hed to make voti n g by head , g u a r a nt e e i ng h i s ve ry h i g h taxes al so c am e t o sym boli z e the them a maj ori ty . 2 2 T he three es tates c o nv e ne d i n e x t r eme p olari zat io n o f t he F r ench soc i ety , as V ers ai lles on 2 0 Jun e 1 7 8 9 at the S a l l e d u J e u T h i rd Es tate b ec am e ev en m or e s u b ju g ate d a n d dist anced fr o m t he o t he r Es tate s th an befor e. A pat r on o f t h e arts, h e fost er ed pl aywr ight s s u c h as Moli e re and R acine, and m u s i ci an s s u ch as Lul l y and or der ed t h e c on s tru cti on o f t he Chat eau de Ve r s ai lle s, on e of t he m ost l av ish a n d e xtrava g ant m onum ent s in Fra n c e . 1 9 D e sp i te t his, he was hugel y u n po pu lar w i th t he peo pl e by t he e nd of h i s re i g n in 1715, as t he high t a x a t i on le ve l a nd c onst ant war s he w a s w a g i n g le ft F r anc e on t he br ink o f b a n kru p tcy. Whil e t he measur es h e ha d ta ke n may hav e al l o wed him t o b e c o me on e of the m ost r ec ognizabl e a n d emb le mati c mo nar c hs in F r enc h h i s t o r y, th e y a lso pr epar ed t he st age f o r gre at soci al u pheav al . http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ W h i le th e po l it ical c l im at e of a r c h i v e / 6 / 6 d / 2 0 0 6 0 3 1 8 1 5 0 3 2 1 ! L e _ S e r m e n t _ d u _ J e u _ d e _ p a u m e . t h e ei g h te e n th ce nt ur y in F r ance was j p g & i m g r e f u r l = h t t p : / / c o m m o n s . w i k i m e d i a . o r g / w i k i / F i l e : L e _ p r et t y ta me , w i th t he E m pir e mainl y a c q u i ri n g th e Lorr aine, Cor sica and t he republi c d e P aume to d raf t a con s ti tuti on , th u s f o r m i ng o f Ge n e s, th e i n tel l ec t ual cl im at e, m uc h li ke i n the coun try s f i rs t ever N ati on al Co nst i t u e nt p a r t s of th e Re naissanc e put int o quest i on the A s s embly an d the bi rth of a repre se nt a t i o na l va l i d ity of a b solut e mo nar c hal r ul e. The A ge s y s tem of govern men t i n Fran ce. O n 1 4 J u l y , o f E nli g h te n me n t, as it c am e t o be k no wn , s aw P ari s i an i n s urgen ts took con trol of t h e B a st i l l e m a ny th i n ke rs such as Vol t air e, M o nt es q ui eu, pri s on , whi ch had become a n ati on al sy m b o l f o r D i d e r ot, an d Rousseau, t heor ize o n gov ern men t the arbi trary i mpri s on men ts , an d by e x t e nsi o n a n d its role , a so r t of dir ect academ ic af f ron t to arbi trary power, of the Fren ch mona r c h y . 2 3 O n t h e mon arch y i n po wer . 2 0 The ideas evoked by 4 A ugus t, the A s s embly aboli s hed th e p r i v i l e g e s t h e s e p h i los op h er s, such as t he separ a ti on of that the clergy an d the n obi li ty ben e f i t e d f r o m , p o w ers an d b a s i c human r ight s, wo ul d become thus putti n g an en d to the f eud al s y s t e m t h a t h a d i n c r easi n g ly i mp or t ant issues as t he F r en ch s tate been i n place f or almos t ei ght cen tur i e s, a nd o n i n c he d clos e r to a com pl et e ov er haul . 2 6 A ugus t, i t pas s es the D eclarati on o f t h e R i g h t s of M an an d of the C i ti z en . 2 4 Fi n all y , i n 1 7 9 1 , i t pas s es the maj or poi n ts of the Co nst i t u t i o n of 1 7 9 1 , hi ghli ghti n g mai n ly the c o nc e p t s

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o f s e p ara ti on of power s and of l imit ati on of ro y a l a u th ori ty. H owev er , t his exer ci s e i n c o ns ti tu ti on al monar c hy was sho r t -l iv ed , as the Re pu b li c i s p rocl aimed in Sept ember 1 7 9 2 an d L o u i s XVI i s tri e d for t r eason and exec ut ed us i n g t h e n o tori ou s g u il l o t ine on 21 Januar y 17 9 3 . 2 5 Concerned by the implications of the French Re v o lu ti on i n th eir own count r ies, neighbori n g Eu ro pe a n mon a rc hs incl uding Leo po l d I I of the Ho l y Roma n Empir e and F r eder ic k Wil l iam I I of P r u s si a i s s u e d th e Decl ar at io n of Pil l nit z i n 1 7 9 1 , w hi c h th re ate n e d sev er e consequences i f the ro y a l fami ly w a s har m ed. Seeing t he declarati on a s a n a ct of aggr essio n, t he F r enc h N ati on al A s s emb ly vote d to decl ar e war on t he Ar chd uchy o f A u stri a. In rebut t al , a unified ar my wi th a p r i nc e of th e Hol y R om an E mpir e Charles I I at i t s c omma n d mar c hed acr o ss t he R hine Ri ver an d i n t o Fra n ce . A fter t he execut ion of Lou i s XV I , t h e k i n g d oms P or t ugal and Spain bot h j oi n ed t h e u n i te d e ffort s against t he F r enc h Republi c, w hi c h h a d de clar ed war t o Gr eat B r it ain an d to t h e Du tch Re p u bl ic . H owev er , t he F r en ch army w a s h i g h ly d i s or ganized, st r uggl ing t o recrui t s o l d i e rs , a n d fa cing int er nal t umul t t hroughout t h e cou n try. 2 6 Whil e t he init ial st ages of the c a m pai g n w e re difficul t , as t he war pr ogres s ed t h e r e volu ti on a ry ar my final l y st ar t ed to f i n d s u c c e ss on n u mer ous fr o nt s, a per iod d uri n g w hi c h a ce rtai n Napo l eon B onapar t e ros e to p r o mi n e n ce w i thin t he m il it ar y, and even tually s a w se ve ral of i ts o pponent s wit hdr aw f rom the c o nf l i ct. O n th e h om e fr ont , F r anc e was plun ged i n t o a b lood y ch aos k no wn as t he r eign o f T error. A f t e r th e san s -c ul ot t es, a gr o up o f rad i cal re v o l uti on a ry mem ber s o f t he Thir d E s tate, s t o r m e d th e Tu i l er ies Pal ace on 10 Augus t 1 7 9 2 a n d force d L ou i s X VI and his famil y w ho were re s i d in g th e re to t ak e r efuge wit h t he Leg i s lati ve A s s emb ly. Me an whil e, t he coal it ion o f European p o w ers h a d cros sed t he F r enc h bo r der s an d was m a k i ng i ts w ay t o Par is. Dur ing t his peri od , t h e Pari s C ommune o f 1792 assum ed con trol o f t he cou n try o n an int er im basis, and , un d er s i g n i f i ca n t i n flu e nc e fr o m t he incr easingl y rad i cal J a c o b i n s , b e g i n s t o seek out and pur g e thos e t h e y con si d e re d enemies of t he R ev oluti on . Fu rt h e rmore , on t he heel s of t he firs t real m i l i t ary su cce ss aft er a ser ies of dishearten i n g d e f e ats , th e Fi rs t R epubl ic pr o cl aimed, an d the Na t i on a l C on ve n t io n subst it ut ed t he Legi s lati ve A s s emb ly, e le cted by univ er sal suff rage i n o r d er to d raft a new c onst it ut ion. H owever, f u nd ame n ta l i d eo l o gical differ ences between
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Robespier res re volution came crashing dow n on him and transfor med into a beast he could not control, spaw ning a tradition of mi str u st of the people. h t t p : / / w w w. h i s t o r y. c o m / i m a g e s / m e d i a / s l i d e s h o w / f r e n c h - re v o l u t i o n / R o b e s p i e r re . j p g & i m g re f u r l = ht t p : / / w w w.hi stor y.com/photos/f rench-re volution/photo

the two mai n parti es of the C on v e nt i o n, t h e M on tagn ard s an d the Gi ron d i n s , l e a d t o a n i n creas e i n poli ti cal ten s i on an d su sp i c i o n. T he C ommi ttee on P ubli c S af ety , es t a b l i sh e d i n A pri l 1 7 9 3 , s erved as the executi ve a r m o f t h e govern men t, an d would later act as th e p r i nc i p a l motor of repres s i on when i t f ell u nd e r t h e con trol of the rad i cal i n f luen ce of M a x i m i l i e n d e Robes pi erre an d became the Gran d Co m m i t t e e on P ubli c S af ety . T he C ommi ttee w o u l d se nd ten s of thous an d s to the gui lloti n e , i nc l u d i ng f ormer alli es s uch as Georges D ant o n b e f o r e bei n g s tri pped of i ts power on 2 7 J u l y 1 7 9 4 a s a res ult of an i n s urrecti on agai n s t Ro b e sp i e r r e s Rei gn of T error. Robes pi erre was e x e c u t e d t h e n ext d ay , an d the C ommi ttee d i s band e d i n 1 7 9 5 wi th the es tabli s hmen t of the D i recto r y , m a r k i ng the en d of Fren ch Revoluti on .

Napoleon

he D i rectory , a bod y compose d o f f i v e d i rectors that held the execu t i v e p o w e r i n Fran ce, turn ed out to be wi d ely u np o p u l a r becaus e of allegati on s of corru p t i o n a nd f i n an ci al mi s man agemen t, d es pi te t h e m i l i t a r y s ucces s of the coun try un d er i ts le a d e r sh i p . 2 7 O n 9 N ovember 1 7 9 9 , the Revoluti o na r y A r m y hero Gen eral N apoleon Bon aparte l a u nc h e d a coup s upported by vari ous emi n en t p o l i t i c a l pers on ali ti es s uch as the d i rectors Em m a nu e l Jos eph S i ey s , Jos eph Fouch, Ro g e r Du c o s, C harles - M auri ce d e T alley ran d an d h i s b r o t h e r Luci en Bon aparte. 2 8 H e overthrew the Di r e c t o r y ,
Conseil dEtat 11

Napoleons coronation wa s one of the strong est di splays of author ity in Fre nch hi stor y since Charle mag nes in 8 0 0. http://forquignon.com/histor y/global/france/napoleon/jacques_louis_david_coronation_of_ napoleon_1808. jpg&img ref url=http://forquig non . com / hi stor y/ g lobal / f rance / napoleon / index .htm a n d alon g w i th Duc os and Sieys, assumed the s uch as the aboli s hmen t of pri vi leges r e l a t i ng t o ro l e of p rovi si o nal Co nsul , ev ent ual ly bei n g bi rth an d f reed om of reli gi on . e l e c t ed Fi rs t Consul fo r l ife aft er d raf ti n g T o d emon s trate hi s own autho r i t y b e f o r e t h e C on sti tu ti on o f t he Y ear VIII, whi ch was poli ti cal ri vals , Bon aparte crown e d h i m se l f m o d e le d afte r the st r uct ur es and v al ues of the E mperor N apoleon I an d hi s wi f e J o s p h i ne Ro m an Re p u b li c, o n Chr ist mas E v e of t hat y ear. d e Beauharn ai s E mpres s Jos phi n e I o n 2 S u b s eq u e n tly, Franc e wo n essent ial v i ctori es D ecember 1 8 0 4 . 3 1 O n the battlef i eld , h e l e d t h e a g a i n st Au stri a u nder B o napar t es l eader s hi p, an d Fi rs t E mpi re to man y hi s tori c vi c t o r i e s o v e r w a s ab le to e s tab lish a per io d o f r el at iv e mi li tary ri val E uropean n ati on s , n otably a g a i nst t h e s t a b i li ty i n Eu rope, as m any of t he war s Fran ce A us tri an s an d Rus s i an s at A us terlit z i n 1 8 0 5 h a d e n g a g e d i n dur ing t he R ev o l ut io n simmered an d the P rus s i an s at Jen a i n 1 8 0 6 , t h u s g r e a t l y d o wn . 2 9 He als o m ade impor t ant c iv il ref orms i n creas i n g the s i z e of the E mpi re a nd g i v i ng t h a t re mai n th e s tr uc t ur al base o f t odays s oci ety , hi m a s emi - my thi cal i mage. 3 2 A t i ts a p o g e e , t h e s u c h as a ta x code, r enewed infr ast r ucture, the Fi rs t E mpi re s i n f luen ce s tretched f r o m Sp a i n e s t a b l i s h me n t of a cent r al bank , and perhaps to I taly an d s ome German i c s tates a l o ng t h e m o s t i mp orta n tly, t he Napo l eonic C od e i n Rhi n e. 3 3 H owever, amon g hi s n umero u s v i c t o r i e s 1 8 0 4 . 3 0 Th e C ode set up t he l egal gr oundwork to were s ome res oun d i n g d ef eats , i n p a r t i c u l a r b e u s ed th rou g h out t he count r y and it s h old i n gs , the Rus s i an campai gn of 1 8 1 2 , wh i c h a l m o st e s t a b l i s h i n g a codified r ul e o f t he r ul e o f law an d en ti rely d eci mates hi s gran d e arme o f 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 d i c t a ti n g th e fu ndam ent al s o f F r ench s oci ety , s old i ers . 3 4 A lthough he was able to r e c o nst i t u t e
Harvard WorldMUN 2011 Conseil dEtat 12

p a r t of h i s army, t he ot her E ur o pean n ati on s , re i nvi g ora te d b y t he Napol eo ns m assiv e los s es o n t he Ru ssi an f r ont , pr essed t he E m pi re an d , a f t er th e y ma rched o n Par is, he was fo rced to a b d i ca te a n d w a s consequent l y exil ed t o E lba i n 1 8 1 4 . 35 W i th Nap ol eo n away fr om t he E uropean p o l i t ical a n d mil it ar y fo r efr o nt , t he other p o w ers i n th e regio n gat her ed fr om September 1 8 1 4 to Ju n e 1815 t o disc uss t he fal l out f rom t h e Nap ole on i c War s. Chair ed by Kl emen s von Me t t ern i ch of A ust r ia, t he Co ngr ess of V i en n a re d i s t ri b u te d th e l and conquer ed by t he Fren ch a f t er 1798, an d tr ied t o ensur e gener al s tabi li ty i n E urop e b y pr ev ent ing t he r ise o f an other Na p o le on . How ev er , unsat isfied wit h bei n g s e c l u d e d from the r est o f E ur o pe, N apoleon e s c a pe d Elb a i n F ebr uar y 1815, and, upon re ga i n i n g th e Fre nch m ainl and, m ar ched to P ari s a n d ou ste d th e B our bo n k ing Louis X V I I I who h a d re store d to t he t hr one in his abse n ce. H e t o o k p ow e r for a per io d k nown as t he H un d red D a y s , i n s ti g a ti n g an imm ediat e r eac t io n f rom t h e Con g re ss of V ienne, whic h or der ed a mas s i ve m i l i t ary coa li ti on t o put an end t o his rule. 3 6 T a ki n g th e offe n siv e, Napo l eon met t he alli an ce a t W a te rloo i n Bel gium o n 18 June 181 5 . T hat d e f e at marke d the end t he H undr ed Day s , an d Na p o le on w a s fi nal l y sent t o spend t he res t of h i s da ys se clu d e d in t he At l ant ic Oc ean i n S t. He l e na. He di e d on 5 M ay 1821.

h e n Na p oleon was sent int o exil e i n E lba, th e C on g re ss o f Vienna had no int en ti on s to i n c l u de Fran ce i n it s nego t iat io ns unt il Talley ran d m a na g e d to con vince t he v ict o r io us nati on s to re s t o re a Bou rb on k ing t o t he F r ench t hr one. T hus b e ga n Fran ce s second for ay int o const ituti on al m o n arch y i n 181 4, and Lo uis X VIII, t he n ewly a p po in te d ki n g , o pt ed t o maint ain much of the l eg a l a n d g ove rnm ent al fr am ewo r k from the Na p o le on i c C ode. 3 7 H o wev er , as he at t em pted to g o b a ck on man y o f t he soc ial adv ances of the Re v o lu ti on , h i s init ial po pul ar it y began to d i p, a n d h e fle d th e co unt r y upon Napo l eon s return f o r t he On e Hu ndr ed Days. Aft er t he def eat at W a t erloo, L ou i s XVIII r et ur ned t o t he t hron e to f i nd th e san cti ons imposed on F r anc e t o b e much m o re se ve re th an t hey wer e l ast t im e aroun d , a s t he cou n try was or der ed t o pay 700 mi lli on f r a nc s i n i n de mnit ies and it s bor ders were re d u ce d to w h a t t hey wer e in 1790. Loui s XV I I I d i e d in S e p te mb er 1824, and his br o t her C harles
Harvard WorldMUN 2011

The Bourbon Restoration and the July Monarchy

X then took over hi s place at the h e a d o f t h e s tate. Backed by an ultra- roy ali s t c o nt i ng e nc y , he attempted to un d o s ome of the g a i ns o f t h e Revoluti on , to the gen eral d i s app r o v a l a nd d i s con ten t of hi s s ubj ects . 3 8 D es pi te Ch a r l e s X s s ucces s i n colon i z i n g of A lgeri a i n Ju l y 1 8 3 0 , t h e P ari s i an populati on d uri n g the July R e v o l u t i o n topples hi m on 2 9 July of that y ear, i n t h e f a c e of a s eri es of econ omi c s etbacks and a g e ne r a l f rus trati on wi th hi s reacti on ary poli c i e s. 3 9 A s t h e E uropean powers that had d ef eated Na p o l e o n I i n 1 8 1 5 chos e n ot to act on thei r previ o u s d e c i si o n to preven t an y revoluti on i n E urope , a se r i e s o f n ati on ali s t movemen ts s weep throu g h Eu r o p e , n otably i n I taly . A f ter the three d ay s of uph e a v a l t h a t en d ed C harles X s rei gn , kn own as t h e Tr o i s Glori eus es , Loui s - P hi li ppe d O rlan s t o o k o v e r the thron e an d became Loui s - P hi li ppe I , no t k i ng of Fran ce, but ki n g of the Fren ch, an i m p o r t a nt d i s ti n cti on that hi ghli ghts the as s er t i o n o f t h e n ewf oun d authori ty of the Fren ch c i t i z e nr y . 4 0 Loui s - P hi li ppe I als o marks an i mporta nt c l e a v a g e wi th hi s pred eces s ors by choos i n g t o a v o i d t h e pomp an d s oci al haughti n es s that w a s c l o se l y as s oci ated wi th the Fren ch n obi li ty i n t h e p a st an d s urroun d i n g hi ms elf by ban kers a nd b u si ne ss magn ates . H owever, hi s ei ghteen y ea r s i n o f f i c e proved n ot to be as s table as the c o m p r o m i se hi s as cen s i on repres en ted promi s ed . 4 1 Ca u g h t between ri gi d roy ali s ts on the ri ght a nd f e r v e nt s oci ali s ts on the lef t, Loui s - P hi li ppe I s r e i g n w a s characteri z ed by the wi d es pread un po p u l a r i t y o f hi s d ogmati c ref orms an d i n f lexi ble g o v e r nm e nt , which did little to appease tensions on either side. 42 E arly s peculati on s eemed to i n d i cat e h e w o u l d be a more f lexi ble lead er than hi s p r e d e c e sso r s were, but much of the wi d es pread r e f o r m h i s govern men t was en acti n g was li ttle m o r e t h a n d i s gui s ed attempts to rei n f orce the ru l i ng e l i t e s d omi n an ce. T hi s i s mos t clearly i llus t r a t e d b y t h e i n creas es i n gen eral en f ran chi s ement st e m m i ng f rom electoral ref orm; however, as su f f r a g e w a s s ti ll on ly cen s al un d er Loui s - P hi li ppe I , o nl y t h e very wealthi es t could vote. T he bi tt e r t e nsi o ns between the bourgeoi s i e an d the work i ng c l a sse s were largely born d uri n g thi s ti m e , a s t h e govern men t con ti n ually d oled out bene f i t s t o t h e mos t af f luen t members of s oci ety , m o st ne a t l y i llus trated by i ts reparti ti on of r a i l w a y a nd mi n i n g con tracts to alli es of the gove r nm e nt . I n res pon s e to an y on e who q ues ti on ed t h e r e g i m e s parti cular man agemen t an d blatan t f a v o r i t i sm toward s the ri ch, the Ki n g s P res i d e nt o f t h e C oun ci l Fran oi s Gui z ot had on ly o ne p i e c e o f
Conseil dEtat 13

poli ti cal gatheri n gs , acti vi s ts s et u p a se r i e s ban q uets , la C ampagn e d es Ban q ue t s i n 1 8 4 7 to f reely cri ti ci z e the govern men t i n p l a c e . Wh e n s uch even ts were f orbi d d en i n Feb r u a r y 1 8 4 8 , the Republi can s an d li beral O rlean i st s, f o r m e r alli es of the Ki n g, took to the s tree t s. F i g h t i ng broke out an d the extremely un pop u l a r G u i z o t res i gn ed on 2 3 February of that y ear, p r o m p t i ng a mob to en ci rcle the M i n i s try o f F o r e i g n A f f ai rs , where, af ter f ai li n g to con trol t h e c r o w d , of f i cers d ef en d i n g the bui ld i n g s ho t i nt o t h e crowd ki lli n g more than f i f ty peopl e . 4 3 A t t h i s poi n t P ari s became s omethi n g of a wa r z o ne , w i t h wi d es pread pan i c gri ppi n g the ci ty . A s a r e su l t , Loui s - P hi li ppe I abd i cated an d f led t h e c o u nt r y , an d the govern men t d eclared a p r o v i si o na l republi c.

T
T he French people had high hopes for L oui s Philippe when ar r ived to power ; the y were larg ely di s appointed throug hout hi s r ule . http://www.01men.com/diaporamas/ images/1704_caric_3.jpg&imgrefurl=http:// w om e n sl e n s . bl o g s p ot . c om / 2 0 1 0 / 1 2 / l a - c ar i c at ure hebdomadaire-s atir ique.html a d vi c e to Fre n ch cit izens: enr ic hissez - vous . C i v i l u n re st w a s far fr o m uncom mo n t hroughout t h i s p e ri od . T h e fir st r ev ol t of no t e t oo k place i n L y on i n th e v er y next year aft er Loui s P hi l i pp e I b e ca me k ing. The Canut R ev o lt, as i t b e c a m e kn ow n , init iat ed near l y t wo dec ad es of s o c i o p oli ti cal i n sec ur it y and dissat isfacti on , as i n s u r re cti on s b rok e o ut t hr o ugho ut t he coun try i n 1 8 34, a n d a s er ies of sho r t l iv ed gov ern men ts s t ru g g le d to i n s tit ut e any for m o f l ast ing i mpact. A s t he Ki n g s p e rceiv ed disint er est becam e more p r ed omi n an t, for mer al l ies such as Ado l f e T hi ers b e ga n to tu rn on him. The R o i B o urgeoi s i n c r easi n g u n p opul ar it y and inept it ude, marri ed w i t h th e b a llooning t ensions bet ween the w o rke rs an d th e bo ur geo isie, and withi n the b o u r ge oi s i e b e tween t he haut e and peti te o ne s , h a d lai d th e foundat ions fo r uphea val. T he c o nd i ti on s w ou ld ful fil l t hem sel v es in the mi d 1 8 4 0 s. Th e Fre n ch fr ee pr ess, t ak ing no te of the s o c i a l a dva n ce s being pr om ul gat ed acros s the c h a n ne l, g ave a v o ice for pol em icist s, s uch as t h e a n arch i s t P i er r e-Jo seph Pr o udhon. I n ord er t o c i rcu mve n t l egisl at ion for bidding f ormal
Harvard WorldMUN 2011

The Second Republic and 2 December

he mon ths f ollowi n g the f all o f L o u i sP hi li ppe I lef t Fran ce i n polit i c a l l i m b o wi th cen tri s t republi can s an d rad i ca l so c i a l i st s f i ghti n g over the rei gn s to the c o u nt r y . A temporary govern men t rees tabli s he d u ni v e r sa l male s uf f rage, s et up gen eral electi ons i n Ma r c h of that y ear an d d ef i n i ti vely ban n ed sl a v e r y i n Fren ch colon i es i n A pri l. 4 4 T he s oci alist i nf l u e nc e was als o f elt through the power s tru g g l e , a s t h e govern men t gran ts them the creati on o f na t i o na l works hops to provi d e work f or the u ne m p l o y e d an d the workd ay i s s horten ed to ten ho u r s i n P a r i s an d eleven i n the res t of the coun try. Ho w e v e r , the republi can un an i mi ty i s s hort li v e d ; w i t h i n weeks , the coun try i s red i vi d ed poli t i c a l l y i nt o mod erate republi can s , roy ali s ts , s oc i a l i st s a nd rad i cals . T he C on s ti tuti on al A s s emb l y v o t e d o n 2 3 A pri l 1 8 4 8 was d i s s olved les s th a n a m o nt h later as a d emon s trati on i n f avor of s oc i a l i st s su c h as Barbs f orced the en try of vari ous p o l i t i c i a ns. P ari s relaps es i n to rebelli on , an d the r e p u b l i c a n gen eral C avai gn ac s army vi olen tl y r e p r e sse s the i n s urrecti on i s ts . 4 5 T he s oci ali s t c o nc e ssi o ns are revers ed an d s everal thous an d s a r e e x i l e d to A lgeri a. T he C hurch, whi ch the w o r k e r s h a d placed i n a f avorable li ght i n the s p r i ng , si d e d wi th the reacti on ary party , an d los t a l l p o p u l a r s upport. H owever, con s ervati s m gai ne d p u b l i c acceptan ce, as mon archi s ts f oun d the i r w a y i nt o the govern men t. T he res t of the y ear t h o u g h w a s largely d ed i cated to the electi on s pla nne d f o r 2 D ecember. 4 6 W hi le the Republi can s sp l i t t h e i r can d i d atures between C avai gn ac, Lam a r t i ne , a nd Led ru- Rolli n , an d the s oci ali s ts prese nt R a sp a i l , i t i s Loui s - N apoleon Bon aparte who r u ns a w a y
Conseil dEtat 14

w i t h t h e e le cti on wit h t hr ee-quar t er s o f t he vote, m o re th an 55% ahead of his c l o sest com peti tor. A t t h e h e a d of a st r ongl y mo nar c hist gov ern men t, Bo na p a rte w orks t o br eak do wn his r epubli can o pp o si ti on , an d in t he 1849 l egisl at iv e electi on s , t h e mode ra te r epubl icans ar e pr a cti cally s t a m pe d ou t. Fu r t her m or e, t he el ect o r a l law of 3 1 May 1850 re duced t he el ec t o r at e by ri d d i n g i t o f u n de si ra bl es. Disagr eem ent s r e gard i n g t h e mi li tary i n te r v ent ion in It al y underli n e the g ro wi n g p arty ri f t s t hr o ugho ut t he nat io n . I n an a t t e m p t to re vi se t he c onst it ut ion t o al low hi m t o ru n for p re si dent again in 1852, B o n aparte p l e a de d w i th the Assem bl y, whic h ul ti mately re f u s e d th e Re vi sion of 19 Jul y 1851. H e i n i ti ated p r ep arati on s for t he c oup in August o f t hat y ear, a n d on D e ce mb e r 2, 1851, t hr ee year s t o the d ay a f t er h e w as e le ct ed, Lo uis-Napo l eon B on aparte, w i t h th e h e lp of t he ar my, disso l v ed the A s s emb ly, an d, a f t er t he r esist ance was q uas hed , re es t a b li s h e d u n iv er sal suffr age and engages a p l e b i sci te to s u p por t his sho w of for ce and to gi ve h i m t h e p ow e rs t o el abor at e a new Co nst i tuti on . T h e p e op le vote in fav or of B onapar t e an d gi ve h i m th e ri g h t to mo dify t he 1848 consti tuti on . O n 7 Nove mb e r 1 852, t he E m pir e is r eest a bli s hed b y s e natori a l de cree and v al idat ed t hr o ug h a n ew p l e b i sci te a fe w week s l at er , and Louis-N apoleon Bo na p a rte b e comes Napol eo n III o n 2 December 1852.

S i mon an d hi s d octri n e that are of si g ni f i c a nt i mportan ce to the s oci al red evel o p m e nt o f Fran ce i n the n i n eteen th cen tury , as h e h i m se l f n ever wi eld ed s i gn i f i can t poli ti cal p o w e r , b u t the i n f luen ce hi s beli ef s had on oth e r t h i nk e r s of the f ollowi n g gen erati on , n otably i n t e r m s o f econ omi c appli cati on s . 4 9 I n the y ears f ollowi n g S a i nt -Si m o n s d eath, man y ad epts of hi s , ty pi cally g r a d u a t e s o f s chools li ke P oly techn i q ue, were ena m o r e d b y the i d ea of i n f i n i tely growi n g prod u c t i o n, a nd f rom the late 1 8 2 0 s on ward s , a s lew pr o f e ssi o na l s i n s erted S ai n t- S i mon i an i d eals i n to t h e i r c r a f t . 5 0 T he mos t n otable of them was the gre a t v i si o na r y of i n d us tri al progres s an d f ree marke t l i b e r a l i sm M i chel C hevali er. 5 1 H e i s the on e to f i r st e m p l o y the term C oup d tat I n d us tri el, w h i c h w a s

Socio-Ideological Modernization Saint-Simonianism and the Saint-Simonian economy

en ri d e S ai n t-Simo n was an ear l y nineteen th c e n tu ry Fre nc h t hink er who se t heo ri es an d s o c i a l mode ls w oul d hav e an enor mo us i mpact o n t h e org a n i zat ion of F r enc h soc iety later i n t h e ce n tu ry. B or n int o ar ist o cr acy i n 1 7 6 0 , S a i nt - S i mon w as sent t o fight in t he Ameri can Re v o lu ti on a ry War , an exper ienc e t hat mad e a p r o f ou n d i mp re ssion on him. H e was fas ci n ated b y t he org a n i zation o f Amer ic an so ciet y , whi ch i n s pi re d h i m to wr it e his own ideas o n s oci al o r ga n i zati on . In t he ear l y par t of t he c entury , he e x pl ai n e d h i s vi e ws in wo r k s suc h as LIn d us tri e, L a P oli ti q u e a n d LOr ganisat eur . Ac cor d i n g to S a i nt - S i mon , h u manit ys fat e did no t depen d on the political or governmental structure in place but o n t h e e con omi c o ne. 4 7 H e point ed t o ind us tri al d e v elop me n t and t echno l o gical adv an cemen t a s m o tors for a mo r e pr oduc t iv e and ad van ced s o c i ety as a re p lacem ent for t r adit ional values , a n d b e li e ve d th at an indust r ial age wo ul d en d the e x pl oi ta ti on of men. 4 8 It is no t so much S ai n tHarvard WorldMUN 2011

L oui s - Napoleon B onapar te rode the unce r tain waves of the Fre nch political s ea in 184 8 to become preside nt of the countr y. http://de.academic.ru/pictures/dewiki/78/ Napoleon - 3. j p g
Conseil dEtat 15

l a t er u s e d to q ual ify dec r ees pr o mul g ated by L o u i s- Nap ole on B o napar t e, and his ideas were p u b l i sh e d i n L e Gl o be fr om Dec em ber 1 8 3 1 to Fe b r uary 1832. 5 2 H e was an ar dent supporter of t h e i mp rove me n t of t r anspor t at io n and rai lroad s i n p arti cu la r, as no t ed in one o f his ar ti cles i n L e G lob e , i n w h ic h he ev o k es a t ime in whi ch a t r ave le r le a vi ng l e H av r e in t he mo r ni n g can h a ve lu n ch i n P ar is, dinner in Lyo n, an take the s t e a mb oat from To ul on t o Al ger t hat ev e n i n g. 5 3 T h e s e i de as w e re t he beginning o f a c entrali z ed , i n d u stri a li ze d a n d unified F r anc e. Chev ali er lai d o u t t h e g rou n d wor k for o t her am bit io us f eats o f s oci o- i n d u s tr ial mo der nizat io n, includ i n g t h e b ori n g of canal s t hr ough t he Panama an d S u ez i sth mu s e s , a fl eet o f st eambo at s i n the Me d i t e rra n e an , and a count r ywide network of b a n k s a n d mu s eum s. 5 4 H e est imat ed the cos t a t a r ou n d w h a t t he B r it ish had spent o n thei r w a r s ove r th e last six dec ades. 5 5 Ot her S ai n tS i m o ni an s p u rsu ed t hese ideal s fer v ent l y at the t i m e, b u t th e i r ideas pet er ed o ut t hr oughout t h e n e x t cou p le o f decades as t he coun try was g ri p pe d w i th s ocial and pol it ic al inst abili ty . In 1851, Chev al ier r et ur ned from an i n v es ti g a ti on i n t he Unit ed St at es, w hi ch he w en t on to d e s cribe as a m odel so ciet y, revi vi n g i n t ere st i n S a i n t -Simo nian t hought , al l . A t the s a m e ti me , th e b rot her s m il e and Isaac P erei re, a l s o di sci p le s of t his l ine of t hink ing, marri ed t h e o ry an d p ra ct ic e as heads of t he fir st Fren ch ra i l wa y comp a n y, which buil t t he famo us S ai n tG e r mai n Li n e , and as par t icipant s in t he bai lout t h a t save d th e c ol l apsing bank ing sys tem i n 1 8 4 8 . 5 6 mi le P er eir e po sit ed t hat a neces s ary c o nd i ti on to p ro gr ess was t he dev el o pmen t of c re d i t , w h i ch h e fel t was far t o o expensi ve. H e i n s i s t e d th a t th e int er est r at es needed to d rop a n d t h at th e Bank of F r anc e sho ul d l ead the c h a rg e b y low e ri ng it s disc ount r at e and pri n ti n g m o re mon e y. 5 7 T he ear l y 1850s t hus open ed the p a t h for S ai n t- Simo nian ideas t o find s oci al a p pl i c ati on s an d fo r c apit al ist dev el o pmen t to f l o u r ish i n Fran ce. M uc h o f t his suc cess i s d ue t o L ou i s- Na p oleon B o napar t es o wn i n teres t i n econ omi c an d indust r ial mat t er s. 5 8 H avi n g t ra ve l e d e xte n si v el y t hr oughout E ngl and i n the 1 8 3 0 s b oth b y r ail way and st eambo at , he was a l s o e x p ose d to the ideas of R ober t Owen , Jean Ba p t is te S ay, A d am Sm it h and of c our se H en ri d e S a i nt - S i mon , vi a his fr iend Nar cisse Vie i llard . 5 9 I n h i s you th , Bonapar t e was conv inced that the s t a t e s i n frastru c t ur al , indust r ial , and ec on omi c p r o b le ms cou ld be r eso l v ed wit h pr o d ucti ve i n v es tme n t; on ce in po wer , he buil t his en ti re
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econ omi c poli cy on that n oti on . 6 0

The Revolution of Credit

n e of the d ef i n i n g trai ts of the eco no m y u nd e r Loui s - N apoleon Bon aparte was th e m o ne t a r y expan s i on that i mmed i ately f ollowed h i s r i se t o power. Gold rus hes i n C ali f orn i a i n 1 8 4 7 a nd i n A us trali a i n 1 8 5 1 caus ed a boom i n p r o d u c t i o n of rare metals , an d Fran ce s s urplus i n b a l a nc e o f pay men ts attracted a large porti on of t h e m . 6 1 Th i s mas s i ve en try of gold caus ed a d ere g u l a t i o n i n the mon etary regi me, albei t wi thout h a m p e r i ng i ts f un cti on too s everely . 6 2 M ore i mpo r t a nt l y , t h e mon etary abun d an ce caus ed a great a m o u nt o f movemen t i n gen eral pri ces ; whi le th e d e a r t h o f mon ey f ollowi n g the revoluti on had l e d t o a sl o w d ecli n e i n pri ces , the n ew i n f lux of g o l d c r e a t e d balloon i n g i n f lati on , an d caus ed the m t o sp i k e s harply . 6 3 I n gen eral, however, thi s r e su l t e d i n an i n creas e i n i n ves tmen ts an d led to a n o v e r a l l expan s i on of the econ omy . 6 4 A lon g wi th the tran s portati o n i nd u st r y , the cred i t s ector i s the great bene f i c i a r y o f thi s expan s i on . C en tral to i ts grow t h w a s t h e s emi - publi c Ban k of Fran ce. 6 5 E s ta b l i sh e d i n 1 8 0 0 , the es tabli s hmen t was brou g h t t o i t s kn ees by the cri s i s of 1 8 4 8 , but i n i t s a f t e r m a t h the Ban k of Fran ce grew to d i men si o ns i t h a d n ever kn own bef ore. 6 6 A f ter havi ng a nne x e d an d tran s f ormed n i n e d epartmen tal b a nk s i nt o bran ches of i ts cen tral of f i ce i n P aris, t h e B a nk i t f urther plun ged i ts elf i n to the c o nq u e st o f the coun try s i d e by open i n g eleven ne w o u t l e t s between 1 8 5 2 an d 1 8 5 7 . 6 7 T he law of 9 J u ne 1 8 5 7 tran s f ormed the Ban k s ri ght to open ne w o u t l e t s i n to a legal obli gati on , to total at l e a st o ne i n each of Fran ce s d epartmen ts . 6 8 T hi s na t u r a l l y caus ed a s i gn i f i can t i n creas e i n the cir c u l a t i o n o f curren cy throughout the coun try , an d no t a b l y o f paper mon ey , whi ch travels f as ter th a n m e t a l l i c on e. 6 9 T he law of 1 8 5 0 makes Fran ce r e a d o p t t h e gold s tan d ard , whi ch i t had d roppe d j u st t w o y ears earli er, an d allows the Ban k o f F r a nc e t o s elect the q uan ti ty of d ebt i t i s s ues , w h i c h h a d been previ ous ly li mi ted . 7 0 H owever, d e sp i t e i t s growth, the Ban k of Fran ce has run i nt o so m e cri ti ci s m by the S ai n t- S i mon i an s , wh o a r e u p se t that the Ban k has red uced the d ue d ate o n i t s l o a ns to 7 5 d ay s an d i n creas ed i ts d i s count r a t e t o 6 % i n the wake of the econ omi c d own tur n o f 1 8 5 7 . 7 1 T he publi c reacted poorly to thes e m e a su r e s, an d the govern men t was f orced to re sp o nd w i t h the law of 9 Jun e 1 8 5 7 , whi ch allow s t h e B a nk to i n creas e i ts d i s coun t rate to abov e 6 % . 7 2 Th e
Conseil dEtat 16

s h i f t i n e con omic pol icy in t he Second E mpi re h a s allow e d n e w and exc it ing possibil i ti es f or t h e d e ve lop me n t of F r anc e, and t his C oun ci l i s en t ru s te d w i th t he k eys t o k eep t he coun try p r o s p e rou s.

The Revolution of Urbanism

ap ole on III i nher it ed fr o m his unc l e the i d ea t h at h e n e e ded t o guar ant ee t he greatn es s o f r ei g n th rou g h t he gr eat ness o f his capi tal. 7 3 Hi s stu dy of S ai nt -Simo nianism wit h his f ri en d Vi e l l iard le ft h i m doubt l essl y indiffer ent to the p r e- H au ssma n n i an ideas of Chev al ier . 7 4 I t i s a l s o p e rh a p s n e cessar y t o m ent io n t he inf luen ce t h a t t h e g re at capit al in whic h he inhab i ted f or a l o ng ti me an d t he cent r al r o l e Lo ndon play ed a t t he h e a rt of t he B r it ish E mpir e had on hi s s e ns i b i li ti e s . 7 5 F o r F r ance, Lo ndon r emai n ed a s h i n i n g e xampl e of efficiency and gran d eur t h ro ug h ou t th e ninet eent h c ent ur y. It had been c o m p le te ly de ci mat ed by a gr eat fir e in 1 6 6 6 , a l l o wi n g i t to dev el op int o a spac ious, mod ern city. 76 New technologies implemented into the city, s u c h as a me ti cu lous cont r ol of t he t ides than ks

to hy d rauli c machi n ery , li ghti n g by g a s l a m p s, an d i n telli gen t urban plan n i n g of n eig h b o r h o o d s i n to s elf - con tai n ed en ti ti es i n terco nne c t e d b y a s y s tem of lon g an d ample arteri e s. 7 7 L a r g e l y i gn oran t to the con f us i n g an d i n tri ca t e st r u c t u r e of early n i n eteen th cen tury P ari s upo n h i s r e t u r n to Fran ce a f ew mon ths bef ore hi s e l e c t i o n i n 1 8 4 8 , Loui s - N apoleon Bon aparte m a d e i t a pers on al mi s s i on to ed ucate hi ms el f r e g a r d i ng i ts archi tectural an d i n f ras tructural c o m p o si t i o n i n the ti me that f ollowed . 7 8 Bey on d t h e sy m b o l i c an d d evelopmen tal reas on s to res tr u c t u r e t h e capi tal, N apoleon I I I als o con s i d ere d st r a t e g i c reas on s . 7 9 T he n i n eteen th cen tury h i st o r y o f P ari s was i n tri n s i cally li n ked wi th t u m u l t a nd rebelli on , wi th n o les s than n i n e m a j o r p u b l i c revolts s tri ki n g the ci ty s i n ce the be g i nni ng o f the cen tury . 8 0 H e was d etermi n ed no t t o f a l l vi cti m to the s treets of P ari s . T he m a n sl a t e d wi th carry i n g out thi s mod ern i z ati o n i s G e o r g e H aus s man n . T he P res i d en t- P ri n ce h a d no t i c e d H aus s man n s organ i z ati on al tale nt s when touri n g through Bord eaux i n O ctobe r 1 8 5 2 , a nd he rati f i ed P ers i gn y s choi ce to make Ha u ssm a nn

T he trag ic f ire of L ondon in 16 66 proved to be an oppor tunity to reshape the c ity, and tran sfor m into the capital of an empire on the r i s e. h t t p : / / w w w. w i l s o n s a l m a n a c . c o m / i m a g e s 2 / s e p 2 _ g r e a t _ f i r e 2 . j p g & i m g r e f u r l = h t t p : / / w w w. w il s on s almanac . com/book /s ep2.html
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t h e p r e fe ct of th e Seine r egion on 23 June 1 8 5 3 . 8 1 T h e t w o me t for l unc h upon H aussmanns arri val i n P a ri s, a t w h i ch point t he E m per o r show ed hi m a m a p of P ari s as he wished it conceiv ed , an d s o b eg an th e P romet hean t ask of r edesigni n g the h e a r t of th e Emp ir e.

Technological Modernization He The Beginnings of the Industrial Revolution

h e e con omic r oo t s of t he Ind us tri al Re volu ti on wer e sewn in mid-eighteen th c e nt u ry Bri tai n , wher e a ser ies of parti cular c o nd i ti on s w e re unit ed. Techno l o gical l y, Great Bri t a i n e n te re d t he ninet eent h c ent ur y s everal d e c a de s a h e ad o f F r ance, hav ing inv en ted an d p erf ecte d th e s te am machine, mechanical s ewi n g, a n d th e u se of pet r o l eum c ok e in met a llurgy . 8 2 T h e t ran s format ion of t he agr ic ul t ur al s ector f r o m a se ri e s of smal l pl o t s int o an o perati on c o ns i s ti n g of fewer l ar ge pl ant at io ns d rove m a ny ru ra l i n h a bit ant s int o t he c it y in search of l a b o r, p re ci p i ta ting a r apid ur banizat ion . 8 3 T he p o p u l ati on of France dur ing t he R est o rati on i s a c o mp ose d of 80 per c ent o f peasant s em ploy i n g ru d i me n ta ry far ming t echniques, who , alon g w i t h a mod e s t ar t isanal base, wer e l ivi n g i n s e m i - au ta rch y. 8 4 The c ont inual dam age i n f li cted b y r evolu ti on u pon r ev ol ut ion l eft F ran ce at m a r k ed fi n a n ci a l and econom ic disadv an tage i n c o m p ari s on to i ts neighbor ac r o ss t he Ch an n el. 8 5 T h e r u ra l e xodu s was dam pened in F r ance by the re a l l o cati on of land fol l o wing t he R ev ol uti on of 1 7 8 9 , w h i ch d i d not giv e peasant s an inc en ti ve to m i gra te to th e cit ies. 8 6 F ur t her m or e, t he gen eral a b s e nce of a ke y r aw mat er ial in F r ance, coal, w hi c h w as ab u n dant in B r it ain, added to the g e ne r al lack of econom ic dynamism r es ulti n g f r o m th e a b se n ce of a st r o ng yo ut h, m ost o f whi ch w a s k i lle d off d u ring int er nal war s. 8 7 F inally , the Bri t i s h Emp i re s supr em e nav al mast er y allowed i t t o g e n e rate muc h m or e inc om e fr o m trad e t h a n Fra n ce , w ho se nav y was t ec hno logi cally u n d ere q u i p p e d , ev er c oul d. 8 8 In Fra n ce , t he mo t o r o f t he In d us tri al Re v o lu ti on w a s the l oc om ot iv e. R ail way s y s tems a n d t rai n s d e manded a l ar ge m at er ial inv es tmen t. T h e m e tallu rg i c indust r y, whic h was st ill us i n g a rc h a i c me th ods in 1814, gr ew t r emendous ly i n t h e 1 830s an d 184 0s t o sat isfy t he inc r edible n ew d e m a n d. 8 9 Th e n ew demand for coal al so l e d to the d i s c ove ry of mi n es in t he no r t her n departmen ts t o f ulfi ll i n te rn al c onsum pt ion. 9 0 H o wever, the ra i l wa y b oom of t he ear l y 1840s t r ans f ormed i n t o a s ort of rail way m ania by 1847, b ri n gi n g
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about over i n d us tri ali z ati on , an d an e c o no m i c collaps e alon g wi th i t. 9 1 Rai l compa ni e s sp r o u t lef t an d ri ght, to total 3 6 by that y ea r . 9 2 F a i l u r e by the rai lway compan i es to ad eq uate l y e st i m a t e con s tructi on cos t, f luctuati on s i n m a t e r i a l pri ces , an d i n creas es i n labor cos t d ue t o t h e v a st i n creas e i n works i tes led compan i es t o i ssu e v a st quantities of new stock to recuperate their losses. 93 M ean whi le, s tockhold ers , pan i cked by t h e d r a st i c acti on of the corporati on s , began d u m p i ng t h e i r s hares ; i n an elon gated chai n reactio n, r a i l w a y corporati on s s top ord eri n g parts f rom m e t a l l u r g y f i rms , who i n turn s top buy i n g raw m a t e r i a l s. 9 4 T he S tate ref us es an y f urther con ce ssi o ns a nd lets the s truggli n g compan i es s i n k. 9 5 H o w e v e r , a t the en d of the July M on archy , Fran c e o w ns l e ss than 2 , 0 0 0 ki lometers of rai lway , w h e r e a s b o t h E n glan d , an d the German s tates own o v e r 5 ,0 0 0 . 9 6

f ter the econ omi c d ebacle that b e f e l l t h e July M on archy , the S econ d E mpir e w a s v e r y caref ul n ot to repeat the errors m a d e b y t h e previ ous govern men ts . I t i n s ti tuted a r i g o r o u s a nd coheren t rai lroad poli cy , compri s ed e sse nt i a l l y o f three poi n ts : red uci n g the n umber of c o m p a ni e s through mergers s o that each would b e ne f i t f r o m a s uf f i ci en t n etwork an d rati on ali z e d se r v i c e s; allowi n g thes e n ew con glomerates l o ng l a st i ng con ces s i on s , 9 9 y ears , an d guaran t e e i ng t h e m thei r loan s i n ord er to provi d e the m w i t h t h e mean s n eces s ary to f ulf i ll thei r mi s s io n; d e m a nd i n exchan ge f or thes e pri vi leges se c o nd a r y li n es to s ervi ce poor an d outly i n g a r e a s. 9 7 A t the cen ter of thi s proj ect put i n p l a c e d u r i ng the f our mon ths of legal d i ctators hip f o l l o w i ng the 1 8 5 1 coup were the P erei re b r o t h e r s, who became heavi ly i n volved i n g o v e r nm e nt n egoti ati on s , es peci ally af ter the cre a t i o n o f t h e C rd i t mobi li er, a cen terpi ece of th e e c o no m i c growth of the early an d mi d 1 8 5 0 s . 9 8 T h e P e r e i r e s become the champi on s of the n ew rai l w a y b o o m , an d are i n volved i n the con s tructi on o f l i ne s a l l throughout the N orth an d the S outh o f F r a nc e , where there was an es peci ally i mpor t a nt d e a r t h of rai lroad n etworks previ ous to the i r a r r i v a l 9 9 . T hey als o became i n volved i n othe r Eu r o p e a n coun tri es , mos t memorably i n the A u st r i a i n 1 8 5 5 . W eaken ed f i n an ci ally by the C r i m e a n Wa r , A us tri a called upon I s aac P erei re as a c o nsu l t a nt to d evelop thei r rai lway s y s tem. 1 0 0 Co m p e t i ng agai n s t the Roths chi ld clan f or c o nt r o l o f E uropean rai lway con tracts , the P ere i r e b r o t h e r s s cored thei r mos t i mportan t vi ctory i n O c t o b e r
Conseil dEtat 18

The Revolution of Transportation

Emile and Is aac Pereires ballooning inf lue nce in e ig hteenth centur y France wa s one of the motors of the countr ys moder ni z ation and economic e xpan sion. http://chatounotreville.hautetfort.com/ archive/2008/08/0 4/train-de-1 83 7.html 1 8 5 6 w h e n th e y wer e giv en t he r ight s to 1 , 0 0 0 ki l o me te rs of ra i lway l ines t o connect Vi en n a to Be l g rad e an d Budapest t o Pol t shach, a s tati on o n t h e Vi e n n a- Tr iest e l ine. 1 0 1 A pan-European n et w o rk i s b orn . An oth e r impor t ant o bjec t iv e of the S ec o nd Emp i re i s t he bo r ing o f t he Suez C an al. T h i s p roje ct fi rst cam e t o l ight in an exp ed i ti on Na p o le on IIIs uncl e Napol eo n B o napa rte was s e nt on b y th e Dir ec t o r y t o t r y t o pie rce the S u ez i s th mu s. 1 0 2 U nfo r t unat el y, t he cal culati on s re ga rd i n g th e topo gr aphy of t he r egio n, carri ed o u t b y Je an - Bapt ist e Lepr e, wer e hi ghly i m pre ci s e , an d no l ast ing pr ogr ess could be e s t a b l i s h e d . 103 Saint -Sim onian pr opagan d a re i gn i te d p u b li c int er est in t he pr oject m ore than a qu arte r of a ce nt ur y l at er , and a m ul ti tud e of f a i l e d or ab a n d oned pr o jec t s t hen fol lowed . 1 0 4 A f t e r th e 1848 rev ol ut ion, t hese pr o po sals were a b a n don e d u n ti l t he deat h o f E gypt ian vi ceroy
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A bbas - P acha i n 1 8 5 4 . 1 0 5 H i s s ucc e sso r Sa d i n vi ted Fren chman Ferd i n an d d e L e sse p s t o E gy pt, an d les s than a mon th later, L e sse p s h e l d the exclus i ve ri ghts to con s ti tute and d i r e c t a compan y to bore an d con trol the S u e z Ca na l . 1 0 6 A s E gy pt was a ves s el to the O ttoman Em p i r e i n T urkey , Les s eps traveled to C on s ta nt i no p l e i n 1 8 5 5 to obtai n an agreemen t. 1 0 7 I n i tia l l y h o st i l e to an agreemen t that could i n crease Eg y p t i a n i n d epen d en ce i n the area, the O tto m a ns w e r e f orced to recon s i d er thei r pos i ti o n, a s t h e y coun ted on Fran ce s s upport i n th e Cr i m e a n W ar. 1 0 8 T hey d eci d ed to play Fran ce a g a i nst t h e Bri ti s h E mpi re, whi ch was f erven tly o p p o se d t o proj ect, an d wei gh the of f ers of warti m e su p p o r t when they would come. 1 0 9 H owever, ne i t h e r o f the coun tri es was wi lli n g to compr o m i se t h e i r n ewf oun d alli an ce, d es pi te the great m i st r u st t h e Bri ti s h had i n Fren ch i n ten ti on s i n t h e a r e a . 1 1 0 Les s eps i s i n ces s an tly run n i n g f r o m c a p i t a l to capi tal try i n g to appeas e the unsu p p o r t i v e Bri ti s h, i n f luen ced by s taun chly a nt a g o ni st i c P almers ton , an d to recei ve a f i rmer p r o p o si t i o n f rom the vaci llati n g O ttoman s . 1 1 1 P o l i t i c a l chan ges i n the Bri ti s h E mpi re i n 1 8 5 7 h a v e proven to be of li ttle d i f f eren ce to th e si t u a t i o n; P almers ton s replacemen t Ben j ami n D i sr a e l i a l so pron oun ced hi ms elf to be agai n s t the c a na l , a nd S i r H en ry Bulwer, the n ew Bri ti s h a m b a ssa d o r to C on s tan ti n ople i s as ri gi d ly opp o se d t o t h e proj ect as hi s pred eces s or Lord St a r t f o r d o f Red cli f f e was . 1 1 2 T hus , thi s f eat of e ng i ne e r i ng an d geopoli ti cal chan ge s tan d s at the c r o ssr o a d s of a very complex d i plomati c s i tu a t i o n. I t i s es s en ti al to begi n bori n g thi s can al t o d e f e nd Fren ch i n teres ts i n the M ed i terran ea n, b u t i t i s as i mportan t n ot to i n s ti gate hos ti li tie s w i t h t w o of the mos t powerf ul empi res i n the w o r l d .

Bloc Positions

The Rothschild Family and Other Prominent Businessmen

he n i n eteen th cen tury marks the f i r st t i m e i n Fren ch hi s tory i n whi ch poli cy i s d i r e c t l y i n f luen ced by econ omi c power. Th i s t r e nd became relevan t i n Fran ce d uri n g t h e r e i g n of Loui s - P hi li ppe I , an d s i n ce then a c l a ss o f bus i n es s men an d ban kers has ri s en t o so c i a l promi n en ce. A n d there are n on e more i nf l u e nt i a l than the Roths chi ld s . W i th a f ami l i a l ne t w o r k s pan n i n g acros s E urope, they exerc i se a g r e a t amoun t f i n an ci al an d econ omi c i n f l u e nc e , a nd hold i mportan t s oci al an d cultural po si t i o ns. Th e curren t patri arch of the Fren ch bra nc h , J a m e s
Conseil dEtat 19

d e R oth sch i ld, i s a high so cial it e and pr o mi n en t b u s i n e ssma n . He pr epar ed t he l oan package that s a ve d th e Ju ly M o nar c hy fr om c ol l apse i n 1 8 3 4 a n d ow n s C h e mins de F er du Nor d, o n e of the m o s t i mp orta n t r ail way c om panies in t he n ati on . He w i e ld s a s i gnific ant am ount o f p oli ti cal p o w er, h a vi n g b een a cl o se fr iend of t he H ous e o f O r le an s . Hi s com pet it or s, not abl y t he P erei re b ro t he rs, w i e ld s im il ar so cial infl uence, albei t to a l es s e r e xte n t, and ar e al so wo r t h not ing. D eali n g w i t h th e s e fi g u re s in an effect iv e manner wi ll be ke y in mode rn i zing bot h t he F r ench econ omy a n d i n fra s tru ctu re.

European Cultural Circles

p a rti cu la rly v ic ious br eed, t he E uropean s oci a li te s attain a signific ant soc ial inf luen ce a s c o mmu n i ca ti o n syst ems bet ween n ati on s d e v elop . Nap ole on IIIs mar it al indiscreti on s f u el h i s b lack legend and ar e t he source of d i s d a i n th rou g ho ut t he cont inent , actually p o s i n g a le g i ti mat e danger t o his conti n en tal a u t h ori ty i n p r o foundl y dev o ut pl aces s uch a s A us tri a an d Russia. H is per sonal se cretary , F l i x Baci occh i , wil l be in char ge o f maki n g s ure ru m o rs a n d di strac t io ns do not get out of han d , b u t if th e s oci a l el it es ar e not k ept happy , i t c o u l d h a ve con cret el y negat iv e consequen ces on t h e c ommi tte e s ac t io ns and pr oposed poli ci es . Fu rt h e rmore , th e cr it icism o f impor t ant poli ti cal a n d cu ltu ra l fi gur es, suc h as Ado l phe T hi ers a n d m ost n otab ly o f t he bel ov ed aut hor V i ctor Hu g o, w h o e xi led himsel f aft er t he coup an d f a m o us ly re fe rre d t o him as Napol eo n le peti t, h a ve h u rt h i s i m age in t he eyes of his subj ects . I t i s i mp orta n t t o k eep t hese dist r act io n s f rom b a l l o o n i n g ou t of c ont r ol t o ensur e t he proper f u nc t i on of th i s Cabinet .

af ter thi s d ate can n ot be us ed i n c o m m i t t e e . T hi s bei n g s ai d , f eel f ree to be i n s p i r e d b y t h e mi n d s et an d gen eral atti tud es d es cri b e d i n t h e se s ources to s hape y our acti on s i n c o m m i t t e e . A d ri en D an s ette has wri tten at len g t h o n t h e S econ d E mpi re, an d he i s a pretty goo d a u t h o r t o take a look at i n ord er to d eepen wh a t h a s b e e n d es cri bed i n the gui d e. H owever, to really complete y o u r r e se a r c h , I s tron gly recommen d that y ou look a t p r i m a r y s ources f rom the era, whi ch, whi le n ot ne c e ssa r i l y read i ly acces s i ble, can certai n ly s h e d l i g h t o n the vari ous i s s ues thi s C abi n et wil l e x a m i ne . S peci ali z ed maps s howi n g i n f ormati o n su c h a s rai lroad li n es an d s treet lay outs , esp e c i a l l y o f P ari s , would be a great way to compl i m e nt y o u r res earch an d wi ll make an excelle nt r e so u r c e i n commi ttee, provi d ed they are p u b l i sh e d bef ore commi ttee begi n s ( y ou could no t u se a map of Fran ce i n 1 8 5 8 that was ma d e i n 1 9 6 7 f or example) . A s thi s commi ttee wil l b e t a k i ng place en ti rely i n Fren ch, pri mary so u r c e s y o u i n ten d to us e i n commi ttee mus t be i n F r e nc h a s well, or i n thei r lan guage of ori gi n ; a t r a nsl a t e d d ocumen t wi ll n ot be permi tted . H o w e v e r , i t would be abs olutely acceptable f or y o u t o u se an E con omi s t arti cle f rom 1 8 5 8 that w a s w r i t t e n i n E n gli s h, f or example. A good b a l a nc e o f techn i cal i n f ormati on f oun d i n pri m a r y so u r c e s an d of an aly ti cal i n f ormati on f oun d i n se c o nd a r y on es i s en couraged i n prepari n g f or th i s Ca b i ne t . Fi n ally , I urge y ou to a lot of res ea r c h o n t h e characters y ou are repres en ti n g. A ll o f t h e m a r e promi n en t poli ti ci an s f rom the era , a nd t h e i r li ves an d careers have been d ocumen te d a t l e ng t h . U n d ers tan d i n g y our character s own a t t i t u d e s, trai ts , an d areas of experti s e wi ll rea l l y h e l p t h e commi ttee act i n a more coord i n ated f a sh i o n.

Suggestions for Further Research

TO P I C A R E A B : T h E E u R O P E A n F R O n T

W h i le I hav e pr esent ed an overvi ew o f t h e soci oe conom ic c ondit ion o f F ran ce i n 1 8 5 8 , th e re i s muc h m or e t o add o n t his topi c. A n u n d e rsta n d i ng of F r ench hist or y t hat goes b e y o n d th e ou tl ine pr ov ided in t his g ui d e i s c e r t a in ly d e s i rabl e, but it woul d be m or e us ef ul t o l o ok more p recisel y at t he pol it ic s of the S ec o nd Emp i re . Simpl y go ing t o t he l ibrary an d p i c k i ng ou t s ome bo ok s on t he t o pic is a good f i r s t ste p , b u t they wil l l ik el y go bey on d the d a t e at w h i ch com mit t ee st ar t s. Whil e y ou are o b v i o u s ly more than wel com ed t o l o ok at thes e s o u r c e s, ke e p i n m ind t hat we ar e in 24 Jun e 1 8 5 8 a n d a n y i n format io n r el at ing t o ev ent s oc curri n g
Harvard WorldMUN 2011

Statement of the Problem

apoleon I , whos e li f e- lon g am b i t i o n h a d been to un i f y E urope an d wh o l a u nc h e d blood y an d cos tly campai gn s to atta i n i t , h a d , i n a certai n s en s e, s ucceed ed i n h i s a t t e m p t . But i t was E urope who had d ef eated N a p o l e o n, an d n ot vi ce- vers a, un i n ten ti on ally c r e a t i ng a s en s e of E uropean commun i ty that w o u l d l a st all throughout the f i rs t part of the e i g h t e e nt h cen tury . T hrough power s hari n g agre e m e nt s a nd s y n chron i z ed acti on the s tates threat e ne d b y t h e N apoleon i c armi es ban d ed together, in sp i r i t a nd i n s ubs tan ce. H owever, thi s commu ni t y c o u l d n ot s ti f le the ambi ti on s each of i ts me m b e r s h e l d
Conseil dEtat 20

re ga rd i n g th e i r pl ace in t he soc ial or d er, an d i n he r e n t fri cti on began t o becom e m or e an d more a p pa re n t on th e road t o 1848. To com po un d the s t ro ng fe e li n g of nat ional ism br ewing amon gs t t h e i nh a b i ta n ts of eac h of t hese differ en t s tates , e c o n omi c h ardship, int er nal so cial t ensio n s , an d e x t ern al i n te rve nt io ns c r eat ed an under curren t o f d i vi si on an d inst abil it y, t hat final l y came t o s urface u n de r t he for m of cont inen t wi d e re v o l uti on s du ri ng t hat year . Loo k ing in at the c h a o s, ve ry mu ch under t he spel l o f his un cle s a s p i r ati on s , L ouis-Napol eo n B onapar t e s ei z ed h i s c han ce to ri s e t o t he hel m of t he F r enc h S tate, a n d by 1852 stood as E m per o r of t he Fren ch a m i d st a Eu rop e an bat t l efiel d r eady t o erupt. Th e Eu ropean power s t hat col l a borated t h ro ug h th e C on gr ess o f Vienna aft er N apoleon I s d e fe at w e re nat ur al l y al ar m ed by t he ri s e of Na p o le on III an d o f t he Second E mpir e, both of w hi c h p os e d a si gnific ant t hr eat t o t he s tabi li ty o f t he con ti n e n t and t o t he hegemo ny of thei r a l l i a n ce . Fe ari n g he wo ul d at t empt t o emulate h i s i l lu stri ou s kinsm an and dec l ar e war on hi s n ei g h b ors i n order t o ext end t he F r enc h E mpi re d o m e sti cally, th ese po wer s o bser v ed the f i rs t i n s t a nce s of h i s r eign wit h gr eat war in es s an d c u ri os i ty. To a ppease t his sent im ent of f ear, re s en tme n t, a n d host il it y, Napol eo n III f amous ly d e c l a re d lEmp i r e, cest l a paix t he E mpi re i s pe ace i n a n appear ance in B o r dea ux very s h o r t ly afte r th e c onsol idat io n of his power. Bu t , i n sp i re d b y his uncl e and enamo red wi th t h e ide a of a hegem onic F r anc e, he has n o i n t en ti on of allowing ot her E ur opean n ati on s t o a c t i n a si mi lar l y aggr essiv e o r bo l d man n er. Fu rt h e rmore , h i s st r o ng bel ief in nat ion hood , pri n ci p e de s n at ional it s, al so fuel s his s tron g f o re i gn p oli cy, a nd he does no t hesit at e to as s ert h i m s elf w h e n h e bel iev es it is just ified . T hi s c o nc e p t i s s e e n thr o ugh t he Napol eo nic c on cepts o f a u n i fi e d Italy and o f a unified E ur o pe . I n thi s c a p a c i ty, a n d i n t he spir it o f Napol eo n I , thi s c o m mi tte e w i ll seek t o upho l d t hese pr in ci ples , t h e i n te re sts of F r anc e, and t he int er est of true, o r ga n i c n ati on - st at es in t he fac e o f miscon d uct o f o t h e r on e s .

wi th the Roman E mpi re, the las t tr u e f o r c e o f un i f i cati on E urope has ever kn own . A nu m b e r of expan s i on ary an d i mperi al ef f o r t s w i t h i n the con ti n en t have attempted to em u l a t e t h i s con trol over E urope, but n on e of t h e m w e r e able to create an y thi n g las ti n g. I n f ac t , si nc e t h e begi n n i n g of the mi llen n i um, E urop e a n b o r d e r s have remai n ed relati vely s table; the r e t u r n t o promi n en ce of the H oly Roman E m p i r e i n t h e M i d d le- A ges an d S pan i s h Recon q u i st a t h a t brought wren ched much of the pen i nsu l a f r o m M us li m N orth A f ri can con trol are so m e o f t h e mos t s i gn i f i can t phy s i cal terri tori al sh i f t s si nc e then . E uropean n ati on s , however, h a v e b e e n goi n g to war wi th an d agai n s t each o t h e r a l m o st perpetually s i n ce then as well. T he r e su l t i s a complex y et very ten uous balan ce o f p o w e r i n E urope that req ui res a very s ubtle an d p r o a c t i v e d i plomacy to mai n tai n or d omi n ate.

The Napoleonic Wars

History and Discussion of the Problem

A Brief Historical Background

h e last tru e unifying for ce o n t he European c on ti n e n t that managed t o inc orporate t e r r i t ori e s from t he Iber ian Penins ula, to t h e B ri ti sh Isle s, t o t he sit e of t he E as tern S l a vi c p e op le h a s faded ov er a m il l ennium ago
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hi ls t the Fren ch Revoluti on o f 1 7 8 9 w a s on e of the f i rs t even ts i n rec e nt h i st o r y that f orced the cohes i on of mon archa l Eu r o p e a n s tates agai n s t a pos s i ble i n tern al thr e a t t o t h e i r legi ti macy an d poli ti cal con trol, N a p o l e o n I s i n curs i on s i n to vari ous parts of th e c o nt i ne nt have s oli ci ted perhaps a more i mm e d i a t e a nd telli n g reacti on , an d have un i n t e nt i o na l l y been at the cen ter of the creati on o f a ne w E uropean i n tern al poli cy . H avi n g c o m m a nd e d the Revoluti on ary A rmy that war d e d o f f a coali ti on of reacti on ary s tates looki n g t o q u a sh Republi can Fran ce, N apoleon s e x p e d i t i o ns, f i rs t as Gen eral N apoleon Bon apart e a nd t h e n as E mperor N apoleon I , took hi m f ro m Sp a i n t o Rus s i a. U n d er hi s lead ers hi p, the Fre nc h Em p i r e an n exed parts of A us tri a, parts of P o l a nd , Sp a i n, s ome I tali an s tates an d s ome Germ a ni c st a t e s, an d then con verted them i n to cli en t st a t e s. Hi s large- s cale i n vas i on of Rus s i a prov e d t o b e a turn i n g poi n t i n the f ate of the Frenc h Em p i r e , as hi s gran d e arme was largely d e c i m a t e d af ter the f ai led i n curs i on , an d the s c o p e o f t h i s d ef eat gave other E uropean coun tri e s t h e h o p e an d con f i d en ce n eces s ary to f orm a c o h e si v e alli an ce. A n umber of s uch coali ti o ns a c h i e v e d li mi ted to s ubs tan ti al s ucces s i n co u nt e r a c t i ng hi s i mperi ali s t d ri ve, but on e f i n al l y d e f e a t e d N apoleon I , f i rs t 1 8 1 4 when i t man ag e d t o se i z e P ari s , then d ef i n i ti vely at W aterloo in 1 8 1 5 a f t e r he es caped exi le f rom E lba an d regai ne d p o l i t i c a l con trol i n Fran ce. A s a s y mbol an d as a h i st o r i c a l remi n d er f or Fren chmen an d other Eu r o p e a ns,
Conseil dEtat 21

Na p o le on I b e cam e o ne of t he k ey fig ures of n i ne t e e n th ce n tur y E ur o pean pol it ic s.

The Congress of Vienna

n re a cti on to t he gr eat t umul t sur r oun d i n g N a p ole on Is E ur o pean c am paign, a group of c o nt i n e n ta l amb assado r s and st at esmen con ven ed t o f orm th e C ongr ess of Vienna und er the l ea d e rs h i p of A u st r ian K l emens v on M et tern i ch. Me et i n g from 1814 t o 1815, t he Congr e s s gave i t s e l f th e mi ssi on of r edr awing t he E ur opean map a f t er th e e xp losi on o f t he F r ench E m pir e an d of h a n d l i n g th e fallout fr o m t he F r enc h R ev oluti on , t h e Na p ole on i c war s, and t he dissol ut ion of the Ho l y Roman Empir e. It s par t icipant s i n clud ed a wi d e array of E ur opean nat io ns, in clud i n g D e nma rk, S w i tzer l and, Por t ugal , and S pai n ,

T alley ran d was aptly able to craf t a n a l l i a nc e wi th s ome of the mi n or coun tri es , a nd c a t a p u l t Fran ce i n to the more i mportan t di sc u ssi o ns. I n the en d maj or chan ges to the map o f Eu r o p e i n clud ed an expan s i on of Rus s i a i n to P o l a nd a nd Fi n lan d , a s i mi lar i n creas e of s i z e i n P r u ssi a , t h e un i f i cati on of the N etherlan d s , the a c q u i si t i o n of n ew colon i al terri tori es i n A f ri ca a nd A si a b y the U n i ted Ki n gd om, an s ubs tan ti al i nc r e a se i n s i z e of A us tri a, the reorgan i z ati on of t h e f o r m e r H oly Roman E mpi re, an d the res t o r a t i o n o f Fran ce to i ts s i z e i n 1 7 9 5 , thus s tri p p i ng a l l o f i ts terri tori al gai n s s i n ce the Revolu t i o n. Wh i l e the con crete terri tori al res ults of th e Co ng r e ss are n aturally of a certai n con s eq u e nc e , i t i s perhaps even more i mportan t to c o nsi d e r t h e poli ti cal repercus s i on s of thi s con v e nt i o n. Th e C on gres s of V i en n a l e g i t i m i z e d collus i on between E urop e a n p o w e r s i n the f ace of a powerf u l i nt e r na l oppon en t an d i n s ti gated a c o m p l e x alli an ce game that has ca r r i e d o n t o thi s d ay . Furthermore, i t s f a i l u r e t o ad eq uately as s es s the em e r g e nc e o f li beral an d n ati on ali s ti c m o v e m e nt s throughout the con ti ne nt g a v e cred en ce to N apoleon I s a m b i t i o ns to s tri p d own n on - n a t i o na l i st i c s tates , a ten d en cy N a p o l e o n I I I would i n heri t.

he C on gres s of V i en n a m a r k e d t h e begi n n i n g of an age of d i p l o m a t i c temperan ce between the Eu r o p e a n s tates , kn own as the Co nc e r t o f T he C ong ress of Vienna would deter mine the Europe would be E urope. C on ven i n g perio d i c a l l y i n vari ous ci ti es , thi s s y s tem p r o m o t e d shaped throughout the rest of the centur y. h t t p : / / g e n e r a l - h i s t o r y. c o m / w p - c o n t e n t / u p l o a d s / 2 0 1 0 / 1 0 / the q uad ruple alli an c e o f t h e C o n g r e s s Vi e n n a . j p g & i m g r e f u r l = h t t p : / / g e n e r a l - h i s t o r y. c o m / U n i ted Ki n gd om, A us tr i a , R u ssi a , P rus s i a, an d even tually F r a nc e . Th e the - cong ress -of -v ienna -1 81 41 5 E uropean s oci opoli ti cal l a nd sc a p e b u t mos t s i g n ificant l y Aust r ia, r epr es en ted was alteri n g at much more rapi d r a t e t h a n i t b y Me tte rn i ch him sel f, t he Unit ed K i n gd om, had i n the pas t, as n ati on ali s ti c m o v e m e nt s re pre s e n te d b y the F o r eign Secr et ar y, V i s coun t s wept through the con ti n en t, an d t r a d i t i o na l C a s t l e re ag h a n d t hen by t he Duk e o f Welli n gton , eli tes , havi n g wi tn es s ed the blood s he d a nd c h a o s P r u s si a, re p re s e nt ed by it s chancel l o r P ri n ce eman ati n g f rom the Fren ch Revolutio n o f 1 7 8 9 , Ha rd e n b e rg , Ru ssia, r epr esent ed by it s Forei gn mad e a pri ori ty to res trai n an y s uch cu r r e nt s. Th e S ec re ta ry C ou n t Nessel r ode, and t he d ef eated s pread of li berali s m an d the N apol e o ni c Co d e Bo u r bon Fra n ce, r epr esent ed by it s Forei gn i n terri tori es con q uered by the Frenc h Em p i r e Mi n i ste r Talle yrand. un d er N apoleon Bon aparte exci ted na t i o na l i st s In th e e a rl y c oncept io n of t he Con gres s , an d revoluti on ari es acros s the con ti n e nt , a nd a n Fra n c e w ou ld hav e had no par t wha ts oever emergen ce of movemen ts that were d a ng e r o u s t o i n i t s more s e rious consider at io ns. However, the i d eals held by the ruli n g powers w a s o f g r e a t
Harvard WorldMUN 2011 Conseil dEtat 22

The Concert of Europe

c o nc e rn to th e m or e r el igio usl y and s oci ally re a c t ion ary p ow er s. The Kingdom of P rus s i a, t h e Au stri an Empir e, and not abl y t he Rus s i an Em pi re joi n e d to fo r m t he H ol y Al l iance, wi th t h e a r ti cu la te d g oal of pr eser v ing mo nar c hal an d C hri sti a n valu e s t hr oughout t he c ont inen t, at t h e b e h e st of Tsar Al exander I of R uss i a, who s a w h i mse lf as car r ying out a div ine m i s s i on . I n re a li ty, Me tter nic h used t he H o l y Alli an ce t o c omb a t n ati onal ism and t o pr ev ent t he an ti re l i g i ou s rh e tori c fr o m t he F r enc h R ev o luti on to s p i l l i n to mos t E ur o pean c ount r ies. This s y s tem o f p o w e r s h ari n g and o f condit ional alli an ces p r o mi s e d to g u a rant ee E ur o pean st abil ity i n the l o n g ru n . How e ver , pol it ic o-ec onom ic r i valri es b e t we e n me mb e rs began t o t ear t he Con cert of Eu ro pe a p a rt, a nd gov er nm ent s wer e gen erally l es s c on ce rn e d wit h t he go od of t he c on ti n en t t h a n th a t of th e ir o wn nat io ns. The suc ces s i on o f re volu ti on s i n 1848 dem onst r at ed n ot on ly a c l e ar fa i lu re on t he Co nc er t s par t t o con trol s u b ve rs i ve cu rre nt s wit hin t he c ont inent, but i t a l s o t h re w i n to quest ion t he physic al r eparti ti on o f l a nd a g re e d u po n at t he Congr ess of V i en n a. Ho we ve r, th e s trengt h o f t he E ur opean alli an ces w o u l d b e more st er nl y t est ed a few year s later by t h e s i tu ati on i n Cr imea.

The Foreign Policy of Napoleon III As President

o ui s - Nap ole on B o napar t e fir st ac ced ed to p o w e r i n p articul ar l y pr ec ar ious c ond i ti on s i n l a te 1848. H av ing com e t o o ffice wi thout a p o li ti ca l p arty, B onapar t e fo und him s elf i n t h e mi dst of i n ter nal quibbl ing, and w as very q u i c kly su b je cte d t o po l it ical pr essur e from both t h e s o ci ali s ts to t he l eft and t he mo nar c hi s ts to t h e ri g h t, d e s p i te his ov er whel ming m argi n of vi c t o r y. 1 1 3 In addit io n, he was c onfr o n ted to a p l e t hora of domest ic and int er nat ional i s s ues t h a t ye ar. In te rnal l y, t he go v er nment had to m a k e s u re th a t a new r ev o l ut io nar y o utbreak w o u l d n ot occu r as t he t hr eat of dom est i c un res t a n d c i vi l w ar li n ger ed o n. 1 1 4 In R o me, t he pope w a s f orce d to flee as a r epubl ic was pr o clai med o n 8 F e b ru ary 184 9. 1 1 5 Tensio ns l inger ed between t h e P ru s s i a n s and t he Danes as a r esul t of the t e r r i t ori al d i s p u te r egar ding t he E l be Duchi es . 1 1 6 T h e F re n ch an d B r it ish fl eet s wer e fo rced to i n t erfe re i n Nap l es t o separ at e t he go v e rn men t a n d t h e re b e lli ous Sicil ian subjec t s in an ef f ort t o p r e ve n t b loodshed. 1 1 7 F inal l y, in t h e E as t, Ru s s i a n a rmi e s lined t he H ungar ian fr o n ti ers to i n t erve n e i n case t he Aust r ians fail ed t o suppres s
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M agy ar upri s i n gs . 1 1 8 I t was i n N or t h e r n I t a l y however, that hi s atten ti on was most l y f o c u se d , as the S ard i n i an s , who had attempted t o o u st t h e A us tri an s out of N orthern I taly an d h a d b e e n d ef eated on e y ear earli er, took ad van t a g e o f t h e i n s ecuri ty gen erated by the turbule nc e w i t h i n A us tri a to con f ron t the A us tri an t h e Em p i r e on ce more. 1 1 9 C auti ous ly , d uri n g hi s f i r st m o nt h s i n of f i ce, Bon aparte s ought to avoi d a ny o v e r t con f li cts , avoi d ed bi n d i n g commi t m e nt s a nd urged gen eral mod erati on . 1 2 0 Fren ch a ssi st a nc e was key i n the res torati on to power o f t h e P o p e af ter the proclamati on of a republic i n R o m e , thus s ecuri n g d omes ti c C atholi c s y m p a t h y . Fren ch f orei gn poli cy con tinu e d a l o ng mod erate li n es f rom 1 8 4 9 to 1 8 5 3 , tru l y g r a sp i ng the es s en ce of the E uropean C on c e r t . 1 2 1 Th i s bei n g s ai d , Fran ce took a more pro a c t i v e r o l e i n E uropean d i plomati c af f ai rs , tak i ng l e a d i ng roles i n n egoti ati on s an d con f li ct prev e nt i o n a nd med i ati on . 1 2 2 I n the pers pecti ve of th e Co ng r e ss of V i en n a, con f ron tati on s acros s Eu r o p e w e r e han d led by the great powers i n ord er t o m i ni m i z e s tructural an d con s ti tuti on al d amage . 1 2 3 St a r t i ng wi th the Roman af f ai r i n 1 8 4 9 , event s i n w h i c h Bon aparte s Fran ce became d i p l o m a t i c a l l y i n volved f ollowed q ui ckly , i n cl u d i ng t h e S chles wi g- H ols tei n q ues ti on , the d i s p u t e b e t w e e n A us tri a an d P rus s i a i n 1 8 5 0 , an d the p r o b l e m o f Greek s ucces s i on i n 1 8 5 2 . 1 2 4 W hi le h e h a d y e t to f ully con s oli d ate hi s power bef or e t h e c o u p , Bon aparte began to s how d i f f eren ces o f o p i ni o ns regard i n g f orei gn poli cy wi th the c o nse r v a t i v e f orces i n E urope, creati n g a d i ploma t i c c l e a v a g e that would li n ger on throughout the d u r a t i o n o f hi s rule.

The Crimean War

he C ri mean W ar began wi th the Ho l y P l a c e s d i s pute, an i d eologi cal con f li ct b e t w e e n t h e Lati n an d Greek O rthod ox C atholi cs t h a t w o u l d soon take political and later military dimensions. 125 S ome Fren ch ci rcles f elt i n creas i n gl y a g g r i e v e d an d res en tf ul of the way T urki s h r u l e r s w e r e progres s i vely n eglecti n g an ci en t tr e a t y r i g h t s accord ed to Roman C atholi cs , a f ee l i ng sh a r e d by Bon aparte. 1 2 6 T hi s bei n g s aid , d e sp i t e the pers on al con vi cti on s of memb e r s w i t h i n the Fren ch govern men t, there was a g e ne r a l agreemen t that the O ttoman i s s ue wa s no t t o b e reopen ed , that i t was a wholly E urop e a n m a t t e r , that i t had been res olved by the trea t y o f 1 8 4 1 , an d that Fran ce s i n teres ts lai d i n gu a r a nt e e i ng the d ef en s e of O ttoman i n teres ts . 1 2 7 Wh i l e t h e
Conseil dEtat 23

n eg o t i ati on s took that A u st r i a w o u l d a s l o w tu rn , cza rist li kely su p p o r t intervention i t or a t t h e v e r y in h op e s of leas t remain promulgating n eutral b e c a u se o f the O rth od ox Rus s i a s su p p o r t cause h amp e red in q u a sh i ng any sort of the r e v o l u t i o ns s e t t l e me n t; de sp i t e of 1848. But t h i s , th e Fre n ch A us tri a a l so f e l t w ere looki n g t o threate ne d by a vo i d con fli ct Rus s i a s m i l i t a r y at all cos t. 1 2 8 movem e nt s, a nd P r i nce Ale x a n der whi le i t d i d no t Me ns h i kov, a i m m e d i a t e l y s p ec i al e n voy from d eclare w a r o n Czar Ni ch olas Rus s i a, i t r e f u se d I, mad e i n i tial to g u a r a nt e e d e m a n ds th a t w e r e n eutral i t y . I n a m ee k ly acce p ted The Cr imean War wa s the f irst militar y conf lic t to involve f i n al a t t e m p t t o by th e Fre n ch s e veral maj or contine ntal powe rs since the Napoleonic e ra . avert a f u l l -sc a l e i n o rde r to p ut h t t p : / / w w w . b r i t i s h b a t t l e s . c o m / c r i m e a n - w a r / con f li c t , t h e a l l i e s t h i s w h ole affair balaclava /1 1th-hu ss ars . j p g propos e d four b e hi n d th e m. 1 2 9 con d i ti o ns for How e ve r, so on aft er , M enshik o v r eturn ed peace, kn own as the Four P oi n ts . T hese m a nd a t e d w i t h n e w d e man ds fo r t he Ot t o man E m pi re that that Rus s i a reli n q ui s h i ts protector st a t u s o v e r w ere con s i de re d unaccept abl e t o F r ance, Bri tai n , the D an ubi an P ri n ci pali ti es , aban d on i t s r i g h t t o a n d t h e O ttoman E mpir e. 1 3 0 B y 1853, N apoleon i n terven e i n the O ttoman E mpi re o n b e h a l f o f I I I wa s s ti ll ve ry r el uct ant t o go t o war , whereas O rthod ox C hri s ti an s , the S trai ts C o nv e nt i o n o f h i s F ore i g n Mi nist er Dr ouyn de Lhuy s was 1 8 4 1 be revi s ed , an d all n ati on s be gra nt e d a c c e ss m u c h le ss. 1 3 1 Ec onom ical l y, war in the eas t to the D an ube. T he cz ar ref us ed thes e p o i nt s, a nd c o u l d comp romi se his po sit io n in F r ance, as the the C ri mean W ar was f ully un d erway. p o o r s u mme r h ar v est o f 1853 meant t here were O n 8 S eptember 1 8 5 5 , Fren c h d i v i si o ns c o u ntryw i d e food shor t ages. 1 3 2 Dipl o mati cally , play ed a key role i n breaki n g d own the d e f e nse s o f a n o v e rly a g g re ssiv e at t it ude wo ul d r eawaken the the Rus s i an f ort of S ebas topol, s ecuri ng m i l i t a r y Na p o le on i c compar ison, and he r isk ed havi n g hon or an d Fren ch pres ti ge. 1 3 8 H owe v e r , F r a nc e t h e e nti re Eu rop ean com munit y t ur n on hi m. 1 3 3 was growi n g weary of war, an d was l o o k i ng f o r T h e la s ti n g atte mpt s t o m aint ain st abi li ty i n opti on s that could put the con f li c t t o r e st . 1 3 9 t h e con ti n e n t bo il ed do wn t o an ul t imatum: N apoleon I I I outli n ed three cours es o f a c t i o n i n Eu ro pe a n n a ti ons wo ul d no t al l o w either the a letter to Q ueen V i ctori a of Bri tai n i n N o v e m b e r O t t o man Emp i re or R ussia t o per m anently alter 1 8 5 5 , propos i n g ei ther a li mi ted war o f a t t r i t i o n, t h e Eu rop e a n stat us quo . 1 3 4 The Sul t an d eclared peace n egoti ati on s alon g the li n es o f t h e F o u r w a r i n late Octob er o f t hat year , and m ov ed troops P oi n ts wi th A us tri a as an ally , or a w i d e -r a ng i ng t o wa rd s th e Ru ssian ar mies in t he Danube. T he n ati on al appeal, wi th the rees tabl i sh m e nt o f s i t u a ti on w a s compo unded when R ussia s an k a P olan d , the i n d epen d en ce of Fi n lan d , o f Hu ng a r y T u rki sh troop co nv o y at Sinope, r ight un d er the an d of C i rcas s i a. 1 4 0 O n 1 5 Jan uary 1 8 5 6 , t h e n o s e s of Fre n ch and B r it ish t r o ops, whose hon or Rus s i an i mperi al coun ci l agreed to a c c e p t t h e w a s p i q u e d b y t he incident . 1 3 5 On 29 Jan uary A us tri an ulti matum un con d i ti on al l y . 1 4 1 P e a c e 1 8 5 4 , Nap ole on III m ade a final bid fo r peace n egoti ati on s were un d erway i n 1 8 5 6 t h r o u g h t h e t h ro ug h a le tte r t o t he czar , r efer enci n g the C on gres s of P ari s , at N apoleon I I I s u r g i ng . 1 4 2 A s q u e s t i on n a ti on al dignit y po sed by t he S i n ope a res ult, both the O ttoman E mpi re a nd R u ssi a i n c i d en t, a n d p r esent ing a final al t er nati ve of s aw thei r mi li tary pres en ce n ear the B l a c k Se a c o o p erati on or r upt ur e. 1 3 6 The ov er t ure was a d i mi n i s h con s i d erably , an d all of t h e m a j o r f a i l u re , a n d on 27 and 28 M ar ch 1854, B r itai n an d E uropean powers vowed n ot to i n t e r f e r e w i t h Fra n c e d e cla re d war o n R ussia. 1 3 7 R ussia beli eved O ttoman s overei gn ty .
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Bloc Positions

The British Empire

a ki n g th e m ost of t he m il it ar y and p oli ti cal trou b le s that t he cont inent al E uropean p o w ers fa ce d i n the wak e of t he F r enc h R ev oluti on a n d t h e Nap ole onic War , t he B r it ish E m pi re has t a ke n an a mp le so cial , st r uc t ur al and poli ti cal l ea d ove r th e re st o f t he cont inent . The Bri ti s h h a ve s i mp ly i n dust r ial ized fast er and ex pan d ed m o re q u i ckly th an any ot her E ur o peans have, a n d t h a t th i s p oint st and as t he m ost culturally i n f l u en ti al an d mil it ar il y power ful nat io n i n the w o rl d. T h e i r h oldings st r et c h fr o m t he Ameri cas , t o I n di a , to East Asia and Oc eania. Napoleon I I I s p en t some ti me in Londo n in his yo ut h, an d was i n s pi re d b y b oth the c it y and t he E m pir e of whi ch i t s t ood at th e cent er . H e int ends t o c los e the g a p be tw e e n b oth nat io ns, and t ur n F r ance i n to a c o m p e ti n g g lob al for ce. In E ur opean affai rs , the Bri t i s h are s ome what m or e det ac hed t ha n other c o nt i n e n ta l p ow er s, but t his do es not preven t t h e m from g e tti ng inv o l v ed when t hey feel thei r i n t ere sts a re at st ak e. This Cabinet wil l have to d e a l wi th th e Bri tish E m pir e r epeat edl y, both on Eu ro pe a n an d g lo bal issues, and so met im es even re ga rd i n g d ome st ic ones. It is t hus imperati ve t o ma ke s u re that t he Sec ond E mpire keeps p a c e p oli ti cally wit h t he B r it ish E m pir e, whi le s t i l l ma i n ta i n i n g a dipl o mat ic bal an ce that w o u l d p re ve n t b ot h E mpir es t o engage in a war o f m utu a l a n n i hil at ion. Cur r ent l y, t he Bri ti s h a n d th e Fre n ch ar e on sound t er m s, havi n g b o t h p arti ci p a te d in t he v ic t o r y o f t he O ttoman Em pi re ove r th e R ussians in t he Cr imean W ar, b u t s ou rce s of tensions ar e in no way lacki n g a n d th e Eu rop e an po l it ical st age wil l force our i n t ere sts to come int o confl ic t .

two of the con ti n en tal gi an ts agai n s t e a c h o t h e r , that i s to s ay Rus s i a an d the O ttom a n Em p i r e , has d emon s trated the ad vers e poli t i c a l r e su l t s when the s y s tem of d i vi s i on of po w e r b r e a k s d own . A s ti me has pas s ed an d leade r sh i p h a s chan ged han d s , the Great P owers hav e t a c i t l y se t n ew poli ti cal agen d as f or thems elve s, p a r t s o f whi ch con f li ct wi th the i d eals of the Co nc e r t o f E urope. T hi s C abi n et i s charged wi th st r a d d l i ng the f i n e li n e between con f li ct an d conc e ssi o n a nd promoti n g Fren ch i n teres ts i n the f a c e o f o t h e r con ti n en tal on es , be they S pan i s h, P r u ssi a n o r Rus s i an .

The Italian States

Continental European Powers

h e le g a ci e s of t he F r enc h R ev o l ut io n an d of Na p ole on I s tir r ed a par t ic ul ar l y r eac ti on ary re s pon se from the c ont inent al E ur opean powers , e pi t o m i ze d b y th e Congr ess of Vienna. The power s h a ri n g ag re e me nt r esul t ing fr om t his s ummi t, c o nc e p tu a li ze d as t he Concer t of E ur ope, has c re a t ed an i n ter est ing pol it ic al dyna mi c i n t h e con ti n e n t. Whil e t he Gr eat Po wers have m a i nta i n e d th e i r com mit ment t o st abil it y , thei r va ri ou s u n d e r the t abl e deal ings and c omplex a l l i a n ce n e tw orks hav e endanger ed t his end eavor. T h e re volu ti on s in 1848 fur t her c om pl icated the m a t t er, as a n a ti onal ist sent im ent cr eeps over the c o nt i n e n t a n d p oses a t hr eat t o t he l eg i ti macy o f t he se p ow e rs . The Cr imean War , which pi tted
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lemen s von M ettern i ch on ce f am o u sl y no t e d that I taly was n othi n g but a g e o g r a p h i c expres s i on . T hi s turn of phras e cap t u r e s q u i t e accurately the d egree to whi ch th e a r e a w a s f ragmen ted , as i t has n ot been un i f i e d si nc e the f all of the W es tern Roman Em p i r e . Ye t there i s a gen ui n e wi ll to un d ertake t h e p r o j e c t of con s tructi on of the I tali an s ta t e b y t h e i n habi tan ts of the regi on , largely s pu r r e d o n b y the n ati on ali s ti c s en ti men ts expres s e d t h r o u g h art an d li terature, s uch as A les s an d ro Ma nz o ni s T he Betrothed . H owever, the pro p o ne nt s o f a un i f i ed I taly f ace res i s tan ce f rom t h e P o p e P i us I X an d the P apal s tates . T he e v e nt s o f 1 8 4 9 are s ti ll f res h i n the mi n d of t h e p a p a c y , whi ch f ears that reli n q ui s hi n g an y a u t h o r i t y of the reas on wi ll j eopard i z e the i nt e r e st o f I tali an C atholi cs . Furthermore, the r e a c t i o na r y an d an ti - revoluti on ary poli ci es of t h e v a r i o u s E uropean crown s af ter the C on gres s o f V i e nna s uppres s ed the revoluti on ary s en t i m e nt s f o r over f our d ecad es , an d has led to th e f o r m a t i o n of covert movemen ts , the mos t f amo u s o f w h i c h was the C arbon ari , d eep i n hi d i n g a f t e r w a v e s of s uppres s i on , as an y as s oci ati on w i t h t h e m could res ult i n a d eath s en ten ce. T hei r i nf l u e nc e , however, has spread throughout the land, reaching the Ki n gd om of S ard i n i a, the Gran d Du c h y o f T us can y , an d the Ki n gd om of Lombar d y -V e ne t i a . I n the Ki n gd om of S ard i n i a, Ki n g V i t t o r i o E mman uele I I has recen tly n amed C o u nt Ca m i l i o d i C avour P ri me M i n i s ter. T he latter i s a sh r e w d poli ti ci an , an d by ali gn i n g hi ms el f w i t h t h e Fren ch an d the Bri ti s h d uri n g the C r i m e a n Wa r , he i s hopi n g to gai n thei r s upport i n f i g h t i ng the A us tri an s occupy i n g N orthern I t a l y . I n t h e E uropean poli ti cal ches s board , the I t a l i a n a nd A us tri an q uagmi re repres en ts a pi vo t a l i nst a nc e i n the f uture of con ti n en tal power. Th e Em p i r e
Conseil dEtat 25

all of the vari ous parti es i n volved i s p a r a m o u nt , an d havi n g a keen un d ers tan d i n g of t h e m o t o r that d ri ves thei r i n teres ts wi ll be ne c e ssa r y . I t would als o be very us ef ul to kn ow the d i p l o m a t i c s tan ces between thes e parti es , as t h i s w i l l b e very helpf ul i n un d ers tan d i n g th e c o m p l e x n i n eteen th cen tury alli an ce s y s tem . Th e r e i s ample d ocumen tati on on thes e mat t e r s, a nd i t s hould n ot be too d i f f i cult to f i n d a c c u r a t e a nd d etai led pri mary an d s econ d ary s our c e s a t y o u r local or un i vers i ty li brary .

TO P I C A R E A C : T h E C O l O n I A l F R O n T

Statement of the Problem

C avour i s a Piedmontes e politician who s ee m s poi s ed to play an increa singly impor tant role in European politic s . ht t p : / / helios . hampshire . edu / ~ jj w S S / acade mic s / cours es /irongold/Images/C avour.j pg h a s a ve ste d i n ter est in t he sit uat ion, a lthough o n w h i ch si d e e xac t l y is uncl ear at t his poi n t, a n d w h olly u p to t he Cabinet t o decide.

Suggestions for Further Research

s I n ote d p r ev iousl y in t he guide, a good mi x of p ri mar y sour c es and secon d ary o ne s w i ll p rovi de you wit h t ec hnic al k nowled ge a n d an a lysi s, b ot h o f whic h wil l be us ef ul i n c o m mi tte e . Re g ar ding t he E ur o pean si tuati on , t h e r e i s a w e alth o f soc ial com ment ary an d p o l i t ical docu ment s fr om t he t im e, an d thus f i nd i n g p ri mary so ur ces shoul d not be too d i f f i cu lt. I w ou ld o nc e again l ik e t o st res s the i m po r ta n ce of m aps; hav ing t he geo graphy of Eu ro pe i n 1858 fir ml y in m ind wil l be ab s olutely n ec e ssary. In addit ion, I r ecom mend that y ou b e c o me w e ll a cq uaint ed wit h t he pr ecise mi li tary a n d d i p lomati c pr ac t ic es and pr oc edures of t h e t ime , top i cs not c ov er ed at l engt h i n thi s s t u d y g u i d e . In addit ion, k no wing t he S econ d Em pi re s p re ci se dipl om at ic r el at ionshi p wi th
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he d i s covery of the A meri cas tr i g g e r e d a n exploratory an d colon i al race b e t w e e n t h e E uropean powers that would las t t o t h e d a y thi s C abi n et i s f ormed . D es pi te t h e v a r i o u s con tras ti n g poli ci es of the man y r e g i m e s a nd ad mi n i s trati on s that have held p o w e r si nc e that i n s tan ce, f rom abs olute mon arc h y t o so m e con cepti on of d emocrati c govern m e nt , F r a nc e has alway s mad e exten d i n g i ts i n f lu e nc e t o t h e kn own an d un d i s covered parts of t h e w o r l d a pri ori ty . W hi ls t S pan i s h an d P ortugue se a t t e nt i o n was f i rmly turn ed toward s the n ewly d i sc o v e r e d con ti n en t, the Fren ch opted f or a mo r e u ni v e r sa l approach, es tabli s hi n g con tact i n all c o r ne r s o f the globe, f rom N orth A meri ca, to A f r i c a , t o A si a . H owever, the poli ti cal tumult i t has h a d t o d e a l wi th on the mai n lan d has preven ted F r a nc e f r o m really s oli d i f y i n g i ts colon i al i n f lue nc e i n t h e man n er that the Bri ti s h E mpi re has. N a p o l e o n I I I has gran d ambi ti on s f or the S eco nd Em p i r e , an d i s i n ten t on exten d i n g Fren ch i nt e r e st s t o the res t of the world . T erri tori ally , t h i s Ca b i ne t has very li ttle to work wi th con cret e l y a t f i r st , but i t i s expected to help promote the se i nt e r e st s f rom the A meri cas to A s i a.

History and Discussion of the Problem

Africa & Asia Africa

ef ore the n i n eteen th cen tury , Eu r o p e a n i n teres t i n A f ri ca was li mi ted to e c o no m i c exchan ges to f uel the tri an gular com m e r c e t h a t s en t weapon s f rom E urope to A f ri ca, sl a v e s f r o m A f ri ca to the A meri cas , an d raw mat e r i a l s f r o m the A meri cas to E urope. E uropean s sa w A f r i c a purely as a s uppli er of un pai d ma nu a l l a b o r ; they thus had n o n eed to laun ch com p r e h e nsi v e explorati on or colon i z ati on expe d i t i o n a nd con ten ted thems elves wi th es tabli s hing o u t p o st s
Conseil dEtat 26

a l o n g i ts We ste rn sho r e. The int er nal fig hti n g of t h e early n i n e te ent h cent ur y when Napoleon I ru l ed Fra n ce ke p t no t onl y t he F r enc h away f rom s e r i o u s colon i a l endeav or s, but it foc use d other Eu ro pe a n n ati on s mil it ar y r eso ur ces o n domes ti c f i gh t i n g ra th e r than expansionist agenda s . S ti ll, Fra n c e move d to oc cupy E gypt in 1798 an d the Bri t i s h , a n d la te r t he Ot t om ans r et o r t ed bef ore i t b e c a m e a n e arly independent st at e in 18 2 0 . T he Bri t i s h a lso moved t o sec ur e set t l em ent s i n S outh A f ri c a arou n d this t im e. M issionar ies pion eered e x pe di ti on s i n to t he hear t l and o f t he con ti n en t, b u t a l l i n a ll i t re mains v ast l y unmapped an d f ree o f E urop e a n s e tt l ement . The o nl y ar eas to have kn o w n e sta b li s h ed E ur opean cont act r emai n the s h o r eli n e s , b u t i nt er est in t he int er io r is growi n g a s r u m ors of va s t nat ur al r eso ur ces ar e reachi n g e a r s on th e oth e r side o f t he M edit er r anean . Fran ce b e gan it s conquest of Senegal i n t h e late se ve n teent h c ent ur y by est abli s hi n g a f ew tra di n g post s al ong t he Senegal Ri ver, n o t a b ly S a i n t- Louis. R ec ent l y, under G overn or L o u i s Fai d h e rb e , t he E m pir e has st ar t ed to pus h f u r t he r i n la n d , put t ing in pl ace west ern - s ty le i n f ra stru ctu re and war r ing wit h t he l oc als i n an a t t e m p t to soli d i f y F r ench pr esence t her e , whi ch re m a i n s q u i te l oo se. The E mpir e al so hold s o t he r a re as a lon g t he c oast , but t her e is t oo li ttle a d va n ce d s e ttle m ent for it t o be consi d ered a c o l o ny. O th e r Eur o pean power s hav e a s i mi lar re l a t i on s h i p w i t h t he cont inent , c ontrolli n g s o m e coa s tal trading ar eas, but not hing f urther. Fra n c e s mos t s i gnific ant inv o l v em ent in A f ri ca h o we ve r i s i ts conquest of Al ger ia, l aunched by Bo u r bon ki n g C har l es X in 1830 and f i n i s hed u n d er Lou i s - P hil ippe in 1848. The regi on p r o mp tly b e came par t o f t he F r ench t er ri tory , as o pp o se d to a colony, and wav es o f eager s ettlers f l o o d e d th e a re a. Napo l eon III has a v er y r oman ti c p erc e p ti on of A l ger ia, and whil e he ha s y et to e ng a g e i n a n y s or t of m eaningful cont a ct wi th i t s a dmi n i strator s, it r emains an ar ea of great i n t ere st to h i m. The r est of t he c ont inent, largely u n ex p lore d an d unset t l ed, r epr esent s a great o pp o rtu n i ty for po t ent ial c ol onial exp an s i on , t h o u gh a comp r ehensiv e pl an concer n i n g thi s m a t t er h as ye t to be put in pl ace.

to the con ti n en t, con trolli n g, ei th e r t h r o u g h the crown or through the Bri ti s h Ea st I nd i a C ompan y , I n d i a, Bri ti s h M alay a Bu r m a , Ho ng Kon g, an d S i n gapore. I n thei r attempt s t o f u r t h e r thei r econ omi c con trol of mai n lan d Ch i na , t h e Bri ti s h d eman d ed a ren egoti ati on of t h e Tr e a t y of N an ki n g, allowi n g them to legali z e t h e o p i u m trad e. C hi n a s ref us al led to a Bri ti sh m i l i t a r y res pon s e, an d i t called upon the Fre nc h Em p i r e an d the U n i ted S tates f or as s i s tan ce . N a p o l e o n I I I s en t C harles Ri gault d e Gen oui lly t o a i d i n t h e hos ti li ti es , an d f ollowi n g great s uccess, a p p r o v e d a j oi n t Fren ch- S pan i s h mi li tary i n terv e nt i o n i nt o V i etn am led by Ri gault d e Gen oui ll y f o l l o w i ng d i plomati c breakd own an d the execu t i o n o f t w o mi s s i on ari es . N apoleon I I I i s ad aman t t o k e e p u p wi th Bri ti s h ef f orts , an d s ees A s i a as an i d e a l p l a c e i n whi ch to expan d Fren ch i n f luen ce, d e sp i t e t h e lack of colon i al i n f ras tructure or Frenc h c o nt a c t .

Americas History

Asia

r en ch i n volve ment in Asia in t he past h as been v ery li mi te d, m ainl y bec ause of t he f req uen t i n t ern a l u p h e ava l and t he r el at iv e weak ne s s of i ts n a v y . Th e Bri ti s h hav e made a significantly more c o m p re h e n s i ve e ffor t t o ext end t heir in f luen ce
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ran ce had been i n teres ted i n the A m e r i c a s si nc e thei r d i s covery becaus e of the opp o r t u ni t y t o es tabli s h a lucrati ve P aci f i c route. T he f i r st m a j o r exploratory an d colon i al exped i ti on s t h e r e w e r e s pearhead ed un d er Fran ci s I , who w a s a l r e a d y attempti n g a bold plan to make F r a nc e t h e cultural hegemon of E urope by emb r a c i ng a nd ef f ecti vely i mporti n g the I tali an ren a i ssa nc e . A t home, he ord ered the red es i gn i n g of th e m e d i e v a l f ortres s es i n to the more es theti cal c h a t e a u s; i n the f ar reaches of the kn own world , his e m i ssa r i e s were bri n i n g the Fren ch lan guage and c u l t u r e t o n ew peoples an d ci vi li z ati on s . I n th e A m e r i c a n cas e, he s en t I tali an - born Gi ovan n i d a V e r r a z a no to the area between Flori d a an d N e w f o u nd l a nd i n 1 5 2 4 , an d the f amous Jacq ues C art i e r i n 1 5 3 4 , but n ei ther could f i n d the P aci f i c ro u t e F r a nc i s s o d es perately s ought. D uri n g C ar t i e r s t h r e e voy ages to N ewf oun d lan d an d the St . L a w r e nc e Ri ver, the Fren ch attempted to es tab l i sh l a st i ng colon i es i n the vi ci n i ty , but they were u l t i m a t e l y overcome by s evere weather con d i ti o ns, d i se a se , an d f ri cti on wi th other s ettlers . A t t e m p t e d s ettlemen ts on the S t. Lawren ce Riv e r , i n t h e A meri can S outh, i n T exas , i n M ai n e, a nd i n N o v a S coti a all had to be aban d on ed becaus e o f m i l i t a r y con f li ct wi th locals or wi th other Eu r o p e a ns or becaus e of lack of s uppli es . O ver t h e c o u r se of the n ext f ew cen turi es , the Frenc h a m a sse d a large terri tory i n pres en t d ay C a na d a , a p t l y n amed N ew Fran ce. I n i ti ally s ettled b y Sa m u e l d e C hamplai n i n the early s even teen th c e nt u r y , t h e
Conseil dEtat 27

t e r r i t ory, w h i ch c om pr ised much of t he eas tern p a r t of C a n ad a , bec am e embr oil ed in a s eri es of m i l i t ary con fli cts wit h t he B r it ish, whic h had s et u p s e ttle me n ts al o ng t he east er n coast of what i s n o w t h e Un i te d St at es, ov er t er r it o r ial con trol. A f t e r th e tre a ty of Par is in 1763, t he par t of N ew Fra n c e loca te d i n pr esent -day Canada was ced ed t o t h e Bri ti sh . O ve r th e cour se o f t he next t wo cen turi es , Fra n c e e sta b li s h ed a fo ot hol d in t he Cari bbean , c o nt rolli n g mu ch o f t he Ant il l es, but t erri tori al c o nt rol sh i fte d quit e r apidl y fr om gen erati on t o ge n e rati on , a s t r eat ies wit h o t her European p o w ers an d p oli t ical t ur m oil on t he d omes ti c f r o n t ma de e st abl ishing a l ast ing colon i al i n f l u en ce i n th e Am er icas diffic ul t for F ran ce. I n S o u t h A me ri ca , the onl y c ol onial hol ding of n ote i s Fre n ch G u i a n a, fir st set t l ed in 1604 , bef ore b e i ng a b an don e d because of host il it ies wi th the n a t i v es an d d i s e ase. It was r eint egr at ed i n to the Fre nch colon i a l empir e in t he 1660s, an d has re m a i n e d i n Fre nc h hands ev er since, b arri n g a s h o r t A n g lo- P ortuguese spel l fr om 1809 to 1 8 1 4 . Fra n c e s mos t s i gnific ant c ol ony in t he Ameri cas t h o u gh w as S a i nt -Do mingue on t he is lan d of Hi s p an i ola . Ig n ored by t he Spanish set t lers who s t a y e d on th e e a st er n par t o f t he isl and, Fren ch p r es e n ce on th e West end gr adual l y became c o ns e q u e n ti a l e nough t o be int egr at ed i n to the Em pi re i n 1697. F or t he dur at io n of t he eighteen th c e nt u ry, S a i n t- Do mingue was o ne o f F ran ce s m o s t p ri ze d colonial po ssessio ns bec aus e of i ts i m po r ta n t su g a r and coffee indust r ies, exporti n g 4 0 pe rce n t of a ll o f t he for mer c onsumed i n Eu ro pe an d 60 p er cent o f t he l at er , m or e than all o f t he Bri ti sh W e st Indies com bined. To mai n tai n t h e s e le ve ls of p roduc t io n, t he m assiv e qu an ti ti es o f A f ri can sla ve s wer e im po r t ed o nt o t he i s lan d , f u el i ng th e tri a n gul ar com mer c e bet ween Fran ce, A f ri c a , a n d th e Amer ic as t hat fuel ed t he Fren ch e c o n omy th rou gho ut t he eight eent h cen tury , a c c o un ti n g for 4 0 per cent o f t he At l ant i c s lave t ra d e . Th e ove rwhel ming bl ack m ajo r it y of the i s l a nd s p op u lation was t hus r ul ed ov er by a h a n d f u l of w h i te ov er seer s t hat it out numbered a l m o st 16 to 1. Difficul t wor k ing cond i ti on s a n d th e i n fa mous Code No ir , which san cti on ed p hy s i ca l a n d often br ut al punishm ent , as well as a g ro wi n g class of weal t hy yet r epr essed clas s of m u l a ttos, i n sti g at ed t he H ait ian R ev ol uti on i n 1 7 9 1 . A comp le x pol it ic al and m il it ar y op erati on e nd e d i n 1804 when Jean-Jac ques Des s ali n es d e c l a re d th e i s land a fr ee r epubl ic. The even t s h o o k Nap ole on Is fait h in t he Am er icas , an d h e o f fload e d th e Lo uisiana t er r it o r y, w hi ch at
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i ts larges t poi n t compri s ed mos t of t h e m o st o f the cen tral U n i ted S tates , f rom I d aho t o e a st e r n Flori d a.

Current Situation

n 1 8 5 8 , Fren ch hold i n gs i n the Am e r i c a s a r e s tri ctly li mi ted to Fren ch Gui an a, l o c a t e d i n the n ortheas tern part of S outh A me r i c a , a l o ng the A tlan ti c S hore. I t bord ers the Em p i r e o f Braz i l, a f ormer P ortugues e colon y th a t h a s b e e n i n d epen d en t s i n ce 1 8 2 2 , to the s outh a nd Du t c h Gui an a, an as s ortmen t of terri tori al p o sse ssi o ns belon gi n g to the Ki n gd om of the N e t h e r l a nd s, to the wes t. I t has hi s tori cally prov e n t o b e a d i f f i cult place to colon i z e, as mos t o f i t s p a st s ettlers , f rom i n trepi d explorers lur e d b y t a l e s of wealth an d gold to f ollowers of R o b e sp i e r r e s en t i n to exi le, s uccumbed to ei ther d i se a se o r local hos ti li ti es . I t was even tually conv e r t e d i nt o an export cen ter f or s ugar an d s pi ces, e m p l o y i ng thous an d s of s laves , who were f ree d i n 1 8 4 8 . T hi s has res ulted i n a s tran ge s ocia l d y na m i c on the i s lan d , as the E uropean s ettl e r s l i v e o n the coas tal s tri p, the autochthon es l i v e i n t h e d eep, i n hos pi table rai n f ores t, an d t h e f r e e d s laves , or the marron s , li ve i n a s o r t o f b u f f e r z on e between the two areas . Further m o r e , t h e r e i s a large pres en ce of I n d i an , M alay , a nd Ch i ne se i mmi gran ts li vi n g i n the coas tal ci ty o f Ca y e nne . M os t of the colon y s wealth s ti ll ema na t e s f r o m i ts plan tati on s s urroun d i n g C ay en ne , b u t t h e terri tory s d ead ly reputati on , s prea d b y w a v e upon wave of d i s i llus i on ed s ettler s r e t u r ni ng to Fran ce, has kept s i gn i f i can t labor so u r c e s a t bay . Furthermore, gold was d i s cov e r e d a l o ng the bord ers of the colon y i n 1 8 5 3 , p r o v o k i ng poten ti al terri tori al con f li cts wi th B r a z i l a nd D utch Gui an a. T he Fren ch E mpi re also p o sse sse s M arti n i q ue an d Guad eloupe i n the Ca r i b b e a n. M os t colon i al powers have s i n ce exi t e d t h e a r e a , but the Bri ti s h E mpi re an d S pai n s ti l l h a v e a f e w hold i n gs there. T he res t of the con ti n en t i s n ot p a r t i c u l a r l y ri pe f or colon i al expan s i on becau se o f t h e Fren ch E mpi re s weak pres en ce i n t h e a r e a . Furthermore, the vas t maj ori ty of th e c o nt i ne nt became i n d epen d en t les s than f i f ty y e a r s a g o , mean i n g that an ti - colon i al s en ti men t r u ns st r o ng i n the area. T he U n i ted S tates have a t t h i s p o i nt expan d ed all the way to the P aci f i c O c e a n, a nd the Bri ti s h con trol almos t the en ti r e l a nd m a ss above the U n i ted S tates , an d the R u ssi a ns a r e curren tly s truggli n g to s ettle the ver y no r t h w e st of the N orth A meri can con ti n en t. P r o sp e c t s
Conseil dEtat 28

f o r exp an s i on a re no t pl ent iful in t he Ameri cas , b u t a s th e are a i s in a c onst ant st at e of poli ti cal u n c erta i n ty a n d ter r it or ial exchanges, it i s worth m o n i t ori n g for dev el opment s t hat c ould allow f o r a re e me rg e n ce of F r ench infl uence.

en ergy res earchi n g the other T opi c A re a s. Ma t t e r s that con cern the colon i al f ron t wi ll li k e l y r e q u i r e more i n tui ti ve an d creati ve s oluti on s.

Bloc Positions

The United States of America

KEY ACTORS

r an co- A me ri can r el at ions hav e r anged f rom s t r a i n e d to a micabl e ov er t he cour se of the l a s t ha lf- ce n tu ry, and t her e hav e nev er be en open h o s t i l i ti e s b e tw e en t he t wo nat io ns, despi te a f ew s c u f f le s . Nota b l e dipl o mat ic exchange i n clud e t h e 1 8 03 p u rch a sed t he Lo uisiana t er r it o ry f rom Fra n c e b y th e Unit ed St at es, whic h dou bled i ts s i ze i n th e p roce ss, whil e t he t r ansac t io n allowed Fra n c e to li mi t t he B r it ish E mpir es poten ti al i n f l u en ce i n th e ar ea. The Unit ed St at es f ought a s a n i n d i re ct al l y wit h F r ance in t he W ar of 1 8 1 2 ag a i n st the B r it ish, but r el at ions were t h e n se ve re d i n t he 1830s when Andr ew Jacks on d e m a n de d re p a rat ion m oney for dam ages caus ed d u ri n g th e Nap ol eo nic War s, but t his ten s i on b l ew ove r rath er har ml essl y. Whil e Fran ce h a s con si d e re d impeding t he Unit ed S tates w es t w ard e xp an sion, it has ul t im at el y become a g re a t su p p orte r of Amer ic an t er r it o r ial gai n s i n a n a t t e mp t to ma int ain t he bal ance o f po wer wi th t h e B ri ti sh Emp ir e. Cur r ent l y t he Unit ed S tates i s r i f e w i th i n te rnal c onfl ic t , as t he deb ate over s l a v ery rag e s th rough nat io n. The F r ench ban n ed s l a v ery u n d e r th e Sec ond R epubl ic, so t hey are i d e o l o g i ca lly a li gned wit h t he so ut h, al t ho ugh the p o s s i b le te mp ta tion o f weak ening t he Ameri can b l o c k a n d ma ki ng expansionist m ov es in N orth A m e r i ca i s ap p e al ing as wel l .

hi s C abi n et wi ll be compos ed of th e m e m b e r s of the Loui s - N apoleon Govern me nt I I I a f t e r the cabi n et res huf f le of 2 4 Jun e 1 8 5 8 . Th e y a r e pers on ally res pon s i ble to the E mpe r o r , a nd h e can n ame an d d i s mi s s them at wi ll. Fu r t h e r m o r e , there are a f ew other promi n en t p o l i t i c a l pers on ali ti es that wi ll s urely play an i m p o r t a nt i n thi s commi ttee, an d i t i s i mporta nt t h a t y o u become well acq uai n ted wi th them. A d d i t i o na l res earch on all of thes e prof i les i s we l c o m e d a nd en couraged , but make s ure to hon e i n o n t h e pos i ti on y ou wi ll be f i lli n g. Ac hi l l e F o ul d M i n i st er o f t he St a t e , th e Ho u s e o f t he Emp ero r, a n d F i n e Art s H ei r to a s ucces s f ul Jewi s h ban ker, wh o c o nv e r t e d to P rotes tan ti s m, A chi lle Fould en ter e d p o l i t i c a l li f e i n 1 8 4 2 , when he was elected a Me m b e r o f P arli amen t repres en ti n g the H aut e s-P y r n e s d epartmen t. H e i s very clos e to N a p o l e o n I I I who values hi s coun ci l hi ghly , havi n g b o r r o w e d mon ey f rom hi m bef ore an d af ter h i s e l e c t i o n campai gn i n 1 8 4 8 , an d was n amed Mi ni st e r o f Fi n an ce of the S econ d Republi c. A f te r t h e c o u p , he return ed to the govern men t a s Mi ni st e r of S tate, a portf oli o that gran ts him a l o t o f f reed om, but very f ew actual d utie s. I n t h i s capaci ty , he i s i n charge of mai nt a i ni ng t h e E mpi re an d the E mperor s pres ti ge. H e i s a g r e a t propon en t of f ree trad e, but oppos es h i m se l f t o the S ai n t- S i mon i an econ omi c vi s i o n. De sp i t e bei n g very econ omi cally li beral, he is e x t r e m e l y con s ervati ve poli ti cally an d i n to t a l , a l m o st d ogmati c ad heren ce of the authori tar i a n sy st e m . P i erre Jul es B a ro c he Mi n i st er Pr e s i de n t o f t he C o un c i l o f St a t e P i erre Jules Baroche i s on e of t h e Ca b i ne t members wi th the s tron ges t legal ba c k g r o u nd s, becomi n g a pri mus i n ter pares of h i s b a r i n 1 8 4 6 . T he n ext y ear, he was elected Me m b e r o f P arli amen t, an d becomes a f ervent o p p o ne nt of the regi me. H e organ i z ed B a nq u e t s i n protes t of the July M on archy an d es p e c i a l l y t h e con s ervati ve poli ti ci an Gui z ot, an d c a m p a i g ns i n f avor of wi d es pread electoral ref or m . I n 1 8 4 8 , he was voted to the N ati on al A s s emb l y w i t h t h e con s ervati ve vote, an d s erved as the p r o se c u t o r f or the H aute C our d e Jus ti ce d e Bou r g e s, w h i c h
Conseil dEtat 29

Suggestions for Further Research

h i s s e cti on requir es per haps a l it t l e bi t les s re se arch th a n t he pr ev ious ones in t h at i t i s a re l a t i ve ly op e n fi el d. B asic do cum ent at io n on the c l i m ate , top og ra phy, and r esour c es o f t he vari ous re gi o ns th e S e cond E m pir e c ur r ent l y con trols a ro u nd th e w orld is o f c our se enc our aged , but i t w ou ld p e rh ap s be m or e useful t o f ocus on t h e a cti on s of other col onial power s ar oun d the w o rl d, n ame ly the B r it ish, as t his Cabin et can re a l l y i n s p i re i tsel f fr om t hese act io ns. A bas i c kn o w le dg e of the Sec ond E mpir es diplomati c s t a n ce s w i th A m er ican and Asian st at e s would b e u s e fu l, b u t a s t her e is l it t l e t o no t r ack record o n t h e ma tte r, var ying by c ase of c ours e, i t i s n o t s ome th i n g I woul d be o v er l y concer n ed wi th, a n d I w ou ld s u g gest t hat yo u fo cus m or e of y our
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d e po r ts Ale x a n d re M ar t in and Ar m and Barbs a n d i mp ri son s Lo uis-August e B l anq ui an d Fra n oi s- Vi n ce n t R aspail fo r at t empt ing to caus e c i vi l u n re st. He becam e Vice-Pr esident of the Na t i on a l Le g i s lat iv e Assem bl y in 1849, an d was n a m e d Mi n i s te r of t he Int er io r in 1850. I n thi s p o s i t i on , h e p re par ed a l aw l im it ing u n i vers al s u f f rag e w i th th e back ing of Achil l e F ould i n 1 8 5 1 , b u t Lou i s - Napol eo n B onapar t es oppos i ti on i n c i t ed h i m to resign fr om t his posit ion . A f ter t h e 1 8 51 cou p , h e was named Vic e-Pr esid en t an d t h e n Pre s i de n t of t he Co uncil of St at e, a bod y i n c h a rg e of p rovi d ing adv ice t o t he gov er n men t. P i e rre Mag n e M iniste r of Finance P i erre Ma g n e st ar t ed as a l awyer bef ore b e c o mi n g i n volv ed in po l it ics in 1843 i n hi s n a t i v e D ordog n e. H e ent er ed t he cons ervati ve g o v ern me n t of Guizot in 1846 as an U n d erS ec re ta ry of S ta te in t he M inist r y of War, where h e m a de A lg e ri a his spec ial t y. H e l eft p oli ti cal l i f e i n 1848 afte r t he upr ising, but soo n r eturn ed t o t he p u b li c e ye aft er Lo uis-Napo l eon B o n aparte n a m e d h i m Un der -Sec r et ar y of St at e i n the Mi n i stry of Fi n anc e in 1849, and pr o mo ted hi m t o Mi n i ste r of Publ ic Wor k s in 1851. H e als o b e c a m e a Me mber of Par l iam ent r epr e s en ti n g D o r d o g n e th a t year . H e was t hen el ect ed S en ator i n 1 852 a n d w a s nam ed M inist er of F inan ce i n 1855. J e an Bap t is te Philibe r t Vaillant Min i st er o f W ar J ea n Bap ti s te P h il iber t Vail l ant was t he protg o f G e n e ral Fra no is H axo , whom he f ought a l o n gsi d e i n Nap o l eon Is Gr ande Ar m e i n 1 8 1 2 . He re joi n e d Napoel o n I dur ing t he Hun d red D a y s a n d p arti ci pat ed in t he defeat at Waterloo. He wa s late r p ar t o f t he expedit ion t o A lgeri a, a n d , as a L i e u te nant Gener al was giv en the tas k o f f o r ti fyi n g A lg ier s. H e was t hen pr o moted to Fi e l d Mars h al i n 1838 and pl aced in char ge of the f o rt i fi ca ti on s of Par is in 1840, a dut y a t whi ch h e w as ve ry su ccessful . H e t hen mar r ied H axo s w i d o w i n 1843, befor e l eading t he siege o f Rome i n 1 8 49 for w h i c h he is widel y com men d ed . H e f i na l l y b e come s M inist er o f War in 185 4 an d i s i n c h arg e of re organizing t he ar my. A d o l ph e Billault f or me r Ministe r o f t he I n t e rior L i ke Baroch e , A dol phe B il l aul t becam e a pri mus i n t er p are s of h is bar befor e m ov ing o n to the p o l i t ical w orld in 1837, and al so became the S ec re ta ry of th e Com missio n o n R ail ways a y ear
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later. Lef ti s t, he voted i n oppos i ti o n t o L o u i sP hi li ppe I s con s ervati ve govern ment a nd w a s a great promoter of S ai n t- S i mon i an i d e a l s. He became U n d er- S ecretary of S tate i n t h e Mi ni st r y of A gri culture an d C ommerce i n T hi e r s se c o nd govern men t. A f ter the revoluti on i n 1 8 4 8 , h e v o t e d f or the mod erate d emocrati c party o f G e ne r a l C avai gn ac, but even tually d ri f ted tow a r d s L o u i sN apoleon Bon aparte, an d s upported h i m a f t e r the coup. H e was then elected to the L e g i sl a t i v e C orps bef ore Bon aparte n amed hi m i t s P r e si d e nt . I n thi s capaci ty , he was the f i rs t to s e e t h e r e su l t of the 1 8 5 2 plebi s ci te that rees tabli s h e d t h e t i t l e of E mperor to N apoleon I I I , an d w a s t h u s t h e f i rs t to grati f y hi m wi th the ti tle S i re . Ho w e v e r , the E mperor als o wan ted to place Ch a r l e s d e M orn y at the head of the Legi s lati ve Co r p s, a nd thus n amed Bi llault M i n i s ter of the I nt e r i o r i n 1 8 5 4 . A f ter an as s as s i n ati on attempt i n J a nu a r y 1 8 5 8 , he replaced Bi llault wi th Gen era l Esp i na sse i n ord er to ti ghten s ecuri ty . W hi le h e h a s no C abi n et pos i ti on at the momen t, Bi l l a u l t i s o ne of the mos t able s tates men i n the coun t r y , a nd h i s hotly ti pped ei ther to return to the g o v e r nm e nt , ei ther to f i ll a vacan t pos i ti on i n the f u t u r e o r t o be n amed M i n i s ter W i thout a P ortf ol i o . Eug n e Ro uher M i n i st er o f A gr i cu l tu r e , C o mmerc e, a n d P ubl i c W o rks E ugn e Rouher began hi s f oray i n to p o l i t i c s i n 1 8 4 6 af ter s pen d i n g over f i f teen y ea r s w o r k i ng as a lawy er. H e ran an d los t i n the l e g i sl a t i v e electi on s that y ear as a con s ervati ve c a nd i d a t e of Gui z ot s party , whom he had m e t e a r l i e r through M orn y , on an O rlean i s t p l a t f o r m i n f avor of an authori tari an mon arch a l r e g i m e . H e then reori en ted hi ms elf as an i nd e p e nd e nt can d i d ate, purpos ef ully remai n i n g u nc l e a r w i t h regard s to the S econ d Republi c. H e r a l l i e d t o Loui s - N apoleon Bon aparte i n 1 8 4 9 , e a r ni ng h i m the pos t of M i n i s ter of Jus ti ce that y e a r . He t h e n pres en ted a law con cern i n g poli ti cal d e p o r t a t i o n bef ore the N ati on al A s s embly that s ub st i t u t e d t h e d eath s en ten ce wi th a d eportati on s e nt e nc e f o r thos e accus ed of poli ti cal cri mes . H e su p p o r t e d the 1 8 5 0 law li mi ti n g un i vers al s u f f r a g e a nd held the pos i ti on of i n teri m M i n i s te r o f P u b l i c I n s tructi on an d W ors hi p. H e was amo ng t h e f i r st to f i n d out about Bon aparte s ambi ti o ns t o st a g e a coup, an d whi le he ref us ed to parti c i p a t e i n t h e act, he d i d return to the govern men t to h i s o r i g i na l pos t of M i n i s ter of Jus ti ce. H e was t h e n na m e d M i n i s ter of A gri culture, C ommerce, a nd P u b l i c W orks i n 1 8 5 5 . H e i s i n charge of d e v e l o p i ng i n f ras tructure throughout the coun try , e sp e c i a l l y
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t h e r ai lw ay n e tw or k . H e is one o f Napo l e on I I I s m o s t tru ste d ad viser s, and a st r o ng pr opon en t of f r ee trad e an d of aut ho r it ar ianism. F erd i nand Ham elin Ministe r of the N a vy, A d miral of F ran ce A f t e r a lon g car eer at sea, F er dinand H ameli n w a s promote d to Vic e-Admir al in 1848 , but he re f u s e d th e p os i tion of M inist er o f t he N avy an d o f Colon i e s th at v er y year . In 1853, he is c alled up b y N a p ole on III t o l ead an expedit io n t o C ri mea, a n d ma s te rmi n ds so me suc cessful o perati on s a n d ke y vi ctori es, such as t he bo mba rd men t o f O de ssa. Afte r m ir acul ousl y escapin g d eath a t S eb astop ol i n 1854, he r et ur ned t o Fran ce w i t h th e ra n k o f Admir al . The next y ear, he t a ke s ove r th e p osit ion of M inist er o f the N avy f r o m th e de ce a s ed Thodor e Ducos. Des pi te hi s t re m e n d ou s su ccess and exper ienc e as a mi li tary l ea d e r, Ha me li n is no t a par t ic ul ar l y s ki llf ul p o l i t ici an , a n d has sim pl y been sat isf i ed to c o nt i n u e h i s p re dec esso r s po l ic y. A l ex and re F lorian Jose ph Colonna Wal ew ski M i n i s t er of F oreign A f f air s T h e i lle g i ti ma te so n o f Napo l eon I and M ari e W a l e ws ki , Ale x a ndr e Wal ewsk i was br ought up i n Ge n e va . Up on his r et ur n t o his nat iv e P olan d , h e b ecame a target o f t he R ussian pol i ce af ter re f u s i n g to s e rve in t he ar my. H e fl ees t o E n glan d a n d t h e n to Franc e, wher e, despit e his li beral i d e a l s, th e g ove rnm ent r efuses t o ext r ad i te hi m. He w orke d for the M inist r y of F o r eign A f f ai rs i n a cove rt ca p acit y in his yout h, c om pleti n g m i s s ion s i n P oland befo r e r et ur ning t o Pari s an d a c q u i re d Fre n ch nat io nal it y aft er t he R us s i an s b ru t a lly re p re s s ed an insur r ec t io n by t he P oli s h a rm y at Wars a w in 1830. H e l at er spent ti me i n A f ri c a w i th th e F o r eign Legio n befor e leavi n g t h e mi li tary li fe in fav o r o f a sho r t -l iv ed li terary c a re er, w h i ch e n ded when he sol d his news paper L e Me ssag e r de s Cham br es t o Adol phe T hi ers . He w a s late r se nt on o t her dipl o mat ic m i s s i on s t o Eg yp t b y Thier s and t o B uenos A i res by G u i zot. Afte r Louis-Napol eo n B onaparte was e l e c t ed P re si d e nt of F r ance in 1848, he was n a m e d a mb a s s a dor t o Napl es in 1850, t o M ad ri d i n 1 8 51, an d to Londo n l at er t hat year , where h e i s p arti cu larly r enowned for negot iati n g the re c o g n i ti on of the Sec ond E m pir e by t he Bri ti s h Em pi re . He w a s t hen pr om ot ed t o M in i s ter of Fo r ei g n Affai rs in 1855 and t hus pr esided over t h e c o n fe re n ce of Par is at t he end of t he Cri mean W a r a n d s i g n e d the Tr eat y of 30 M ar c h 18 5 6 . T he Em pe ror va lu e s Wal ewsk is c ounc il v er y hi ghly ,
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although they d i f f er s tron gly on t h e I t a l i a n q ues ti on . Gust a ve Ro ul a n d M i n i st er o f P u b l i c In st ruc t i o n a n d W o rshi p A f ter an early s ti n t as a very s ucces s f ul p r o se c u t o r i n Rouen , Gus tave Roulan d en ters t h e p u b l i c s pectrum i n 1 8 4 6 i n Gui z ot s party . I n 1 8 5 3 , he became the Gen eral P ros ecutor in t h e P a r i s court, an d pron oun ced the clos i n g s p e e c h o f t h e pros ecuti on agai n s t Gi ovan n i P i aron i , a n I t a l i a n n ati on ali s t accus ed of attempti n g to a ssa ssi na t e N apoleon I I I , bef ore he was gui l l o t i ne d . I n 1 8 5 6 , the E mperor n amed hi m Mi ni st e r o f P ubli c I n s tructi on an d W ors hi p. A t t h i s p o st , he i s con ti n ually con f ron ted by ultr a m o nt a ni st oppos i ti on , whi ch s eeks to i n creas e t h e P o p e s i n f luen ce an d power i n Fran ce. T hi s i s no t a b l y the cas e wi th res pect to hi s proj ect on e d u c a t i o n, whi ch con s i s ts of removi n g i t f rom th e Ch u r c h s con trol, although he d oes n ot s eek to se c u l a r i z e i t completely ei ther. H e s upports th e a sc e nsi o n of learn ed s oci eti es i n Fren ch, whi ch h e b e l i e v e s can d i f f us e culture an d kn owled ge t h r o u g h o u t the terri tory . P a ul d e Ro yer M i n i st er o f Just i c e Li ke man y other members of thi s ca b i ne t , P a u l d e Roy er came f rom a legal backgro u nd b e f o r e he en tered poli ti cs . H e s erved as an a t t o r ne y f o r the H aute C our d e Jus ti ce d e Bourges, f o r w h i c h Baroche was the head of the pros ecuti o n. Th e y e a r af ter he became the Gen eral P ros ec u t o r i n t h e P ari s court. H e s ubs eq uen tly appoi n t e d Mi ni st e r of Jus ti ce i n 1 8 5 1 an d a member of t h e Co u nc i l of S tate i n D ecember of that y ear. H e r e t u r ne d t o the M i n i s try of Jus ti ce i n 1 8 5 7 af ter t h e d e a t h o f Jacq ues A bbatucci , an d pres i d ed over t h e p a ssi ng of the Law of Gen eral S af ety on 2 7 Fe b r u a r y 1 8 5 8 af ter the attempt on N apoleon I I I s li f e . Th i s l a w allows the govern men t to i mpri s on a ny f o r m o f oppos i ti on an d the d eportati on wi tho u t a t r i a l o f an y on e accus ed of poli ti cal cri me. C l a ud e- Al p ho n se D el a n g l e Mi n is te r o f th e In t eri o r C laud e- A lphon s e D elan gle is particularly reputed f or hi s bri lli an t legal career, b e c o m i ng a lawy er i n the C ourt of C as s ati on , Fran c e s h i g h e st j uri d i cal authori ty , i n 1 8 4 0 . H e then w a s e l e c t e d to C hamber of D eputi es i n 1 8 4 2 , be f o r e h a v i ng hi s f un cti on s revoked by the 1 8 4 8 r e p u b l i c . He then s wi f tly j oi n ed Loui s - N apoleon s c a m p , a nd pres i d ed over the C oun ci l of S tate o n P u b l i c I n s tructi on an d Reli gi on i n 1 8 5 2 . T h a t y e a r , h e
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a l s o r e tu rn e d to t he Cour t o f Cassat io n an d s oon b e c a m e th e Fi rs t Pr esident of t he Cour t o f P ari s ; a d a y late r h e w as el ect ed t o t he senat e. H e took t h e p o rtfoli o of Minist er of t he Int er io r a f ter the G e ne r a l Es p i n asse l eft t he post . H e is r ep uted f or h i s s t a u n ch de fe nse of t he E m pir es insti tuti on s a n d h i s d i s ti n g u ished and fait hful l oyal t y to the a u t h ori ta ri an p ar t y. N a polon J os eph Char le s Pau l Bona p a rt e M i n i s t er of Alg er ia and Colonie s Na p o l on Jose p h Char l es Paul B onapar t e , kn own a s N ap ol on J r me B o napar t e, is t he s on of Na p o l on Is you ngest br o t her Jr m e B o n aparte, a n d t h u s th e cou sin of Lo uis-Napo l on B on aparte, w i t h w h om h e s pent par t of his yo ut h. H e was e l e c t ed th e re p r esent at iv e o f Co r sic a i n 1 8 4 8 o n t he ti cke t of t he ext r em e-l eft ist M on tagn e p a r t y , th u s op p osing him t o his cous i n who w a s ele cte d p re sident wit h t he suppor t of the P a r t i de lO rdre , who t hen sent him t o M ad ri d o n mi s ce llan e ou s m inist er ial dut ies in ord er to ke ep h i m aw a y from Par is. Aft er t he 185 1 coup, Na p o l on J rme ask ed Lo uis-Napo l on to eas e t h e r ep re ssi on on t he r epubl ic ans. H e c om man d ed a u ni t a t th e Bat t l e of Al m a in t he Cri mean W a r , b u t b e cau se o f v ar ious disagr eemen ts wi th G e ne r a l C an rob e r t , he r et ur ned t o F r ance bef ore t h e en d of th e confl ic t , hur t ing his publ i c i mage a n d m a ki n g h i m l o ok l ik e a c owar d. H e w as then a p po in te d mi n i s ter of Al ger ia and t he Col on i es i n 1 8 5 8 . He w as n e xt in l ine t o t he t hr o ne un ti l the b i rt h of Eu g n e - N apol o n in 1856, and i s of ten s e nt o n di p loma tic m issions. H e incar n ates the m o s t le ftw a rd le aning br anc h o f t he B o n aparte c l a n, an d h i s a n t i-cl er ic al and dem oc r ati c vi ews o pp o se h i m to a l ar ge sec t io n of his cous i n s p a r t y , mos t n otabl y E ugne R o uher . R ay m ond -Th od or e T r oplong Pr e sid en t o f t he Sen at e Ra y mon d - Th od or e Tr opl o ng is o ne of the c a b i n e t me mb e rs wit h t he m ost exper ien ce an d t h e di s ti n g u i sh e d back gr ound in c onst ituti on al l a w. O n e of th e el der s o f t he com mittee, he b e c a m e a law ye r in 1819 and was nam ed to the C o u rt of C assati on in 1835 and bec am e a member o f t h e In s ti tu t de F r anc e at t he l eg i s lati on s e c t i o n of th e Ac adm ie des Sciences M orales et P o l i t iq u e s . He w as br iefl y a Peer of F r an ce f rom 1 8 4 6 u n ti l th e a b ol it io n o f peer age in t he coun try i n 1 848. He th e n becam e pr esident o f t he C ourt o f C as s a ti on i n 1852. H e coaut hor ed the f i rs t d ra f t of th e 1852 Co nst it ut io n, finding s ubtle t h e o re ti cal a rg u ment s t o suppor t t he l eg i ti macy
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of N apoleon I I I s power an d the val i d i t y o f t h e 1 8 5 1 coup. H e then replaced Jrme B o na p a r t e as the P res i d en t of the S en ate i n 1 8 5 2 . O ne o f the mos t n otable j uri s ts an d legal s ch o l a r s o f h i s ti me, T roplon g has been the legi s lativ e a r c h i t e c t of N apoleon I I I s regi me. F l i x B a rt he F i rst P resi d en t o f t h e Co u r t o f Ac c o un t s Fli x Barthe began hi s career as a la w y e r i n t h e 1 8 1 0 s af ter movi n g to P ari s to f urther h i s c a r e e r . A f ter an upri s i n g on the P lace d e la Co nc o r d e , he s tarted to become really i n ves ted i n p o l i t i c a l tri als , i n clud i n g a n umber of hi g h -v i si b i l i t y on es . H e was then i n tegral i n mas term i nd i ng t h e T roi s Glori eus es i n 1 8 3 0 , whi ch bro u g h t d o w n the Bourbon d y n as ty an d placed Lou i s-P h i l i p p e on the thron e. A f ter bei n g elected rep r e se nt a t i v e of P ari s s even th arron d i s s emen t, he w a s na m e d M i n i s ter of P ubli c I n s tructi on an d Wo r sh i p i n 1 8 3 0 , then M i n i s ter of Jus ti ce i n 1 8 3 1 , a nd t h e ef f ecti ve pres i d en t of the C oun ci l o f St a t e . He then became a P eer of Fran ce i n 1 8 3 4 a nd t h e Fi rs t P res i d en t of the C ourt of A c c o u nt s t h a t y ear. H e was i n terrupted i n thi s f u nc t i o n f o r two s hort s ti n ts . T he f i rs t came as he r e t o o k t h e portf oli o of M i n i s ter of Jus ti ce f rom 1 8 3 7 t o 1 8 3 9 , the s econ d when he was bri ef ly exp u l se d f r o m thi s role i n 1 8 4 8 , on ly to be rei n s tat e d i n 1 8 4 9 . T he d ay of Loui s - N apoleon Bon apart e s c o u p , h e became a s en ator, albei t whi le rema i ni ng m u c h more guard ed an d con s ervati ve than h e w a s i n hi s y outh. C ha rl es d e Mo rn y P resi d en t o f t he Le gi s l a ti v e C o rp s C harles d e M orn y s f ami li al back g r o u nd i s s teeped i n Fren ch poli ti cs , as he l i e s a t t h e i n ters ecti on of two of the mos t p o l i t i c a l l y relevan t camps i n recen t Fren ch hi s t o r y . He i s the s on of H orten s e d e Beauharn ai s , m a k i ng h i m N apoleon I I I s half - brother, an d the g r a nd so n o f M auri ce d e T alley ran d . H e s tarted hi s o w n c a r e e r as an of f i cer d uri n g the con q ues t of A l g e r i a . He later purchas ed a s ugar compan y , allo w i ng h i m t o gai n an i mportan t f oothold i n local p o l i t i c s, a nd he was elected repres en tati ve of P uy -d e -D m e i n 1 8 4 2 . H e then en tered i n to wi th hi s h a l f -b r o t h e r i n 1 8 4 9 af ter the latter was elected p r e si d e nt . W hi le the two f ai led to get along i ni t i a l l y , Loui s - N apoleon Bon aparte comes to a p p r e c i a t e M orn y s en thus i as m an d vi s i on ; i t i s Mo r ny who con vi n ces hi m to play on hi s p o p u l a r i t y to expan d hi s pers on al powers . A f te r t h e 1 8 5 1 coup, he bri ef ly occupi es the pos t o f Mi ni st e r
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o f t h e In te ri or, whic h he abando ns in 1 8 5 4 to b e c o me P re si d e nt of t he Legisl at iv e Co rps . H e s u p pre sse s th e p o wer o f t he body quit e eff i ci en tly a n d acts p re d ominant l y as a per sonal ad vi s er t o Nap ole on III. H e is k nown fo r his p ers on al e x c es se s i n s p e n ding, t he bo r der l ine l egali ty of h i s poli ti cal ma neuv er s, and his l ov e f or arts a n d e s th e ti cs . P o l it ical l y, he r epr esent s on e of t h e most con s e rv at iv e fact io ns wit hin N apoleon I I I s e n tou ra g e , and he is c l o sel y t ied w i th the O r l e an i sts of th e deposed Lo uis-Phil ippe .

d an s la bas e con omi q ue d u pay s .

La rvolution de lurbanisme

l A nGuAGE summARY
Le Front Domestique

La Modernisation Socio-Idologique Le Saint-Simonisme et lconomie Saint-Simonienne

a p e n s e p ol it ique fr anaise du d but d u XIX e e st t r s for t ement inf luen ce p a r le s cri ts de H enr i de Saint -Sim on . La c o m mu n au t i n t el l ect uel l e sim pr gne d e s es i d es con ce rn ant l e dv el oppement so ci al et c o n omi q u e , n ot amm ent de l a no t io n q ue l ge i n d u stri e l fi n i rai t l expl o it at io n des ho mmes . S i S a i nt - S i mon n e xer ce pas un po uv oir p oli ti q ue d i re c t , tou te u n e gnr at io n dint el l ect uels et d e p r o f essi on n e ls vont int gr er ses point s d e vues l e u r p e n s e e t l eur s uv r es. Concr temen t, l e S a in t- S i mon i sme a appor t une base t h ori q ue au d ve lop p e ment indust r iel , no tammen t d a n s le d oma i ne fer r o v iair e. La mo n te en p u i s sa n ce d a rg ument s conom iques d an s le m o n de p oli ti q u e a aussi eu un im pact prof on d s u r l a p e n s e e t l a po l it ique de Lo uis-N apolon Bo na p a rte .

apolon I I I a hri t d e s on on cl e l a no t i o n q ue la gran d eur d e l E mpi re p a ssa i t p a r la gran d eur d e s a capi tale. A i n s i , il s e st f i x comme but la tran s f ormati on P ari s e n i d a l urbai n , un e s orte d uvre arti s ti q ue v i v a nt e . De plus , i n s pi r par le mod le Lon d on i e n q u i l a si bi en con n u, i l con oi t un e d i men s i on st r a t g i q u e au ren ouvellemen t d e s a capi tale. L h i st o i r e pari s i en n e es t plei n e d e tumultes et d e r v o l u t i o ns d epui s la f i n d u XV I I I e s i cle ; N a p o l o n I I I es t d ci d n e pas tomber vi cti me d e s r u e s d e P ari s . Lors d un e tourn e n ati on ale e n G i r o nd e , i l a con n u Georges E ugn e H aus s ma nn e t a p u obs erver lui - mme les talen ts d organ i sa t e u r d e c e d ern i er. I l lui a con f i la mi s s i on d e r e c o nst r u i r e P ari s pour mai n ten i r le pouvoi r d e l Em p i r e e t d e le ref lter

La Modernisation Technologique He Les dbuts de la Rvolution Industrielle

La rvolution du crdit

Le xp an s i on mo nt air e qui a eu l ieu la f i n d e s an n e s 1840s et au dbut des an n es 1 8 5 0 s a p e rmi s une expansion c onom iq ue d an s l es a nn e s q u i ont suiv i l a m ont e au pouvoi r d e L ou i s- Na p olon B onapar t e. E l l e pr e n d s on o r i gi n e dan s le s r ues v er s l or Cal ifo rn i en n es e t A u s tra li e n n e s, et l abondanc e mo nt ai re q ui a caractrise le dbut du rgime de Bonaparte a men u n e au g me n tation du t aux dinfl at ion, t outef oi s s a n s i n h i b e r le s possibil it s dinv est i s s emen t e t en p e rme tta nt une c r o issance conomi q ue f o rt e . En p a rall l e, l l ar gissement pr ogr es s i f d e l a B a nq u e d e France a per m it l a m ont ari s ati on d u n e g rosse p artie de l a F r anc e qui na vai t pas a c c s de s li q u i dit s aupar av ant . Tout e f oi s , les m o u ve me n ts conom iques r est ent inc er tai n s , et l a c ri s e d e 1857 tmo igne une faibl esse g n rale
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es raci n es con omi q ues d e la R v o l u t i o n I n d us tri elle se s i tuen t en G r a nd e Bretagn e et d aten t d e la f i n d u XV I I I e si c l e . T echn ologi q uemen t, elle es t en tr e d a ns l e XI X e avec plus i eurs d cen n i es d av a nc e su r l a Fran ce grce l i n corporati on d e no u v e l l e s i n ven ti on s d an s la machi n e agri c u l t u r a l e e t i n d us tri elle. A i n s i , le ras s emblement d e s p e t i t s terrai n s agri coles en vri tables e ng i ns d e prod ucti on ali men tai re a pous s les a g r i c u l t e u r s vers les vi lles af i n d e trouver d e l e m p l o i . En Fran ce, l i n s tabi li t urbai n e, le m a nq u e d e d veloppemen t techn ologi q ue, et le s r f o r m e s agrai res q ui on t s ui vi la Rvoluti o n d e 1 7 8 9 on t lai s s un pay s compos 8 0 p o u r c e nt d agri culteurs uti li s an t en core d es t e c h ni q u e s moy en geus es . D e plus , le man q ue d e c h a r b o n e t d un e f lotte marchan d e i mportan te on t d a v a nt a g e ralen ti l urban i s ati on f ran ai s e. Le m o t e u r d e la Rvoluti on I n d us tri elle f ran ai s e , c e st l a locomoti ve. L es s or d e l i n d us tri e m t a l l u r g i q u e d an s les an n es 1 8 3 0 s et 1 8 4 0 s et la d c o u v e r t e d e mi n es d e charbon d an s le n ord d u p a y s o nt prci pi t la con s tructi on f errovi ai re a u m i l i e u d u s i cle. C eci d i t, la f i n d e la Mo na r c h i e d e Jui llet, la Fran ce compte s eule m e nt 2 0 0 0 ki lomtres d e rai ls , alors q ue la Gran d e -B r e t a g ne et l A llemagn e en compten t plus d e 5 0 0 0

La rvolution des transports

Conseil dEtat 33

a monte en puissance de lindustrie ferroviaire e n Fran ce e st sur t out due aux fr r es P erei re. Ces hommes daffaires dorigine portugaise se sont i n v es ti s con s i d r abl em ent dans l es ngo ci ati on s g o u v ern e me n tales l or s de l a dist r ibut i on d es d ro i t s de con struc t io n de c hem in de fer s. I ls on t m i s e n p lace linfr ast r uc t ur e nc essaire pour a p po r te r de s tra ins dans l e nor d et dans le s ud d u pa ys , d e s e ndr o it s que l es com pagn i es d e f erro v i a i re s ava i ent pr cdem ment ngli gs . I ls s e s on t a u s s i i nv est is considr abl emen t d an s d a u t re s p ays Eu r opens, no t amm ent l A utri che, p o u r fa i re compt it ion au cl an R o t hsc hi ld . A l a u t r e b ou t de la M dit er r ane, un pr ojet q ui a le p o t e nti e l de tra n sfo r m er l e mo nde des t r a n s ports e s t en tra i n d e s e dessiner . F er dinand de Les s eps e s t c harg p ar le Sec ond E m pir e de p ercer le C a na l d e S u e z p o ur r unir l a M er M dit erran e a ve c la Me r Rouge, et do nc l Ocan I n d i en . P o u rta n t, sa r al isat io n est m ise en danger par d e s c o mp li cati ons dipl om at iques ent r e l a Fran ce, l E m p i re O ttoman et l a Gr ande-B r et agne.

U n e multi tud e d e pay s europen s o nt t reprs en ts cette run i on , mai s au c e nt r e d e s d i s cus s i on s i l y avai t n otammen t la P r u sse , l a Gran d e- Bretagn e, l A utri che, et la Ru ssi e . G r c e M auri ce d e T alley ran d , la Fran ce, qu i t a l o r s s ous le con trle d es Bourbon s , rus s it se p l a c e r au cur d es n goci ati on s . P ourtan t, l e s r su l t a t s poli ti q ues d e cet vn emen t s ont p e u t - t r e en core plus i mportan ts q ue les co ns q u e nc e s gographi q ues . S ui te au C on grs d e V i e nne , l e s y s tme d alli an ces europen es t d evenu b e a u c o u p plus complexe et parad oxal par mo m e nt s. De plus , l i n capaci t d u C on grs tr o u v e r u ne s oluti on perman en te aux mouvemen t s so c i a u x e t n ati on ali s tes a mi s en place les cond i t i o ns q u i on t permi s les rvoluti on s d e 1 8 4 8 e t l a m o nt e au pouvoi r d e N apolon I I I .

La diplomatie europenne

Le Front Europen

Le contexte historique Les Guerres Napoloniennes

u d b u t d u XIX e sic l e, l es ac t iv it s mi li tai res de Nap ol on I o nt boul ev er s l a s tabi li t p o l i t iq u e Eu rop enne et o nt m is en da n ger le p o u voi r d e s a rist o cr at ies t r adit ionnelles q ui r gn en t su r le cont inent . Lempir e de N apolon I s es t te n d u de l E spagne jusqu l a P ologn e e t s a p u i s s a n ce a l o ngt em ps m enac ses ri vaux l o c a u x, mai s la cam pagne de R ussie qui a d ci m l a pl up a rt d e sa gr ande ar me l eur a d on n l es p oi r e t la confianc e ncessair e pour f ormer u n e coali ti on e t final ement l ui infl iger un e g ra ve d fa i te Par is en 1814, puis de l e battre d f i n i ti ve me n t Wat er l o o en 1815. Le rs ultat f u t u n e Eu rop e unie par l a peur de l mergen ce d u n e fi g u re comme l ui et r sol ue pr o tger la s t a b i li t p oli ti q u e t o ut pr ix.

Le Congrs de Vienne

l a s u i te du tum ul t e qui a suiv i l es guerres n ap ol on i e n nes, l es t at s eur opens s e s on t r u ni e s Vi e n ne pour sassur er quun e telle s i t u a ti on n e s e rpt er ait jamais. M en s par le p r i nc e A u tri ch i e n Kl emens v on M et t er ni ch, les a m b assad e u rs e t ho mm es dt at s r epr s en tan t t o u s ce s p a ys on t for m l e Congr s de Vien n e d e 1 8 1 4 1815 p ou r r edessiner l a car t e de l E urope s u i t e le ffon drem ent de l E mpir e Napo lon i en .
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e C on grs d e V i en n e a marq u le d b u t d u ne re d e mod rati on poli ti q ue e n Eu r o p e , mai n ten ue par un s y s tme d alli an c e s m i s e n place pour empcher la proli f ra t i o n d u ne pui s s an ce comme lors d e la Fran ce s ou s N a p o l o n. La s i tuati on s oci opoli ti q ue euro p e nne a chan g beaucoup plus rapi d emen t q u e l l e ne l avai t d an s le pas s caus e d es m o u v e m e nt s n ati on ali s tes q ui on t balay le cont i ne nt . L e s li tes trad i ti on n elles , ay an t tmoi gn l a v i o l e nc e et le d s ord re q ui on t accompagn la R v o l u t i o n f ran ai s e d e 1 7 8 9 , s e s on t f i x com m e p r i o r i t d i n hi ber ces couran ts . D an s cette o p t i q u e , l a P rus s e, l E mpi re A utri chi en , et no t a m m e nt l E mpi re Rus s e on t f orm la S ai n te- A l l i a nc e , a v e c l obj ecti f d e prs erver les valeurs mo na r c h i q u e s et chrti en n es d an s le con ti n en t. En r a l i t , M ettern i ch a uti li s la S ai n te- A ll i a nc e p o u r lutter con tre le n ati on ali s me et po u r t o u f f e r la rhtori q ue an ti reli gi eus e d e la R v o l u t i o n f ran ai s e q ui commen ai t s e rpand r e d a ns l a plupart d es pay s europen s . C e s y s tm e d e p a r t a g e d u pouvoi r et d alli an ces con d i ti on ne l l e s d e v a i t garan ti r la s tabi li t en E urope d an s le l o ng t e r m e . P ourtan t, d es ten s i on s poli ti q ues et c o no m i q u e s on t commen c f ragi li s er ces alli a nc e s, d o nt les membres tai en t plus con cern s p a r l a pros pri t d e leurs propres n ati on s qu e p a r c e l l e d u con ti n en t.

La politique trangre Napolon III En tant que Prsident

es d buts poli ti q ues d e Louis-N a p o l o n Bon aparte f uren t trs prcai res m a l g r sa marge d e vi ctoi re i mpres s i on n an te, e t i l a t
Conseil dEtat 34

i m m di ate me n t confr o nt une sr ie de con f li ts d o m e sti q u e s e t t r anger s. A R o me, l e P ape a d f u i r Rome lor s de l a pr oc l amat io n d un e r pu b li q u e le 8 f v r ier 1849. E n Al l emagn e, d es t e ns i on s e n tre D ano is et Pr ussiens saccentuai en t d e plu s e n p lu s. Les fl o t t es B r it anni q ues et f r a nai se s on t d int er v enir Napl es pour apai s er l es S ici li e n s su r l e point de r v ol t er . A l es t, les Ru s s e s si n s tall r ent sur l a fr ont ir e hon groi s e p o u r i n te rve n i r dans l e cas o l es Aut ri chi en s n a u r ai e n t p as pu c ont enir l e soul vemen t d e s mag ya rs. Mais ct ait sur t out v er s l I tali e o s o n atte n ti on t ait l e pl us t o ur ne, car les c o nf l i ts e n tre s ar des et aut r ic hiens dev en ai en t d e p l u s e n p lu s menaant s. Dans l a pl upart d es c a s , la p oli ti q u e de B o napar t e sappuyait s ur la c i rc o ns p e cti on e t sur l e dial ogue dipl o mati q ue p l u t t q u e su r de s ac t es de v io l enc e. Nan moi n s , c e t t e p oli ti q u e pr udent e ne cac hait p as un e d i f f r e n ce dop i nio n ent r e B o napar t e et l es li tes t ra d i ti on n e lle s e ur o pennes qui saccentuai t d e p l u s en p lu s au fil du t emps.

d i vi s i on s f ran ai s es on t j ou un r l e c l l o r s d u s i ge d e la f orteres s e rus s e d e S b a st o p o l , as s uran t ai n s i le pres ti ge mi li tai re f ra n a i s. L e 1 5 j an vi er 1 8 5 6 , l E mpi re Rus s e a d ci d d a c c e p t e r l ulti matum d es alli s s an s con d i t i o ns. L e s n goci ati on s d e pai x on t t i n i ti es e n 1 8 5 6 l o r s le C on grs d e P ari s , la d eman d e d e N a p o l o n I I I . P ar con s q uen t, l E mpi re ottoman e t l Em p i r e Rus s e on t vu leur prs en ce mi li tai re a u b o r d d e l a mer N oi re d i mi n uer con s i d rablemen t , e t t o u t e s les gran d es pui s s an ces europen n es o nt j u r d e n e pas s e mler d e la s ouverai n et ott o m a ne .

Le Front Colonial

LAfrique et lAsie LAfrique

La guerre en Crime

a g u e rre de C rime a com menc av ec le li ti ge d e s Li e u x S aint s, un c onfl it ido logi q ue e nt re le s cath oli ques l at ins et gr ecs or thod oxes q u i a lla i t b i e nt t pr endr e des dim en s i on s p o l i t iq u e s e t mil it air es. Les c er cl es poli ti q ues e t i nte lle ctu e ls fr anais t aient gnr alemen t d a c c ord q u e le pr obl m e o t t om an ne de vai t pas t r e rou ve rt, q u e c t ait une sit uat io n tout f a i t e u rop e n n e , quel l e av ait t r sol ue par le t ra i t de 1841, e t que l int r t de l a F r an ce tai t d e g a ran ti r la dfense des int r t s o ttoman s . A l o r s q u e le s ngoc iat ions t ar daien t s e d e s s i ne r, li n te rvent io n du t sar dans l espoi r d e p r o mou voi r la cause o r t hodoxe a em pch toute f o rm e de di alogue. M al gr cel a, l es F ran ai s c h e r c h a i e n t vit er un c onfl it dipl o mati q ue t o ut p ri x. L e Pr ince Al exandr e M ens hi kov, e nvo y s p ci al d u t sar , a fait des deman d es q ue l es o ttoma n s, le s fr anais et l es br it anniq ues on t c o ns i d r i n acce pt abl es. E n 1853, l a N apolon I I I tai t tou jou rs t r s hsit ant sinv es ti r d an s u n e g u e rre ; s on M inist r e daffair es t r an gres D ro uyn d e Lh u ys l t ait beaucoup mo in s . A lors q u e l a g u e rre a cl at ent r e o t t om ans et rus s es en 1 8 5 4 , le mp e re u r a t ent de c hanger l av is d u ts ar e n v ai n . Fi n ale ment , une coal it ion cont in en tale, d o nt e n fa i s a i e n t par t ie l a F r anc e et l a Gran d eBre t ag n e , a p la c quat r e c ondit ions sur l E mpi re Ru s s e p ou r vi ter l a guer r e. Le t sar a ref us et l a gu e rre fu t i n it ie. Le 8 Sept em br e 1 8 5 5 , les
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van t le XI X e s i cle, les E ur o p e ns ne s i n tres s ai en t l A f ri q ue q ue d e m a ni r e s econ d ai re pour ali men ter le commerce tri an gulai re q ui en voy ai t d es armes d e l Eu r o p e l A f ri q ue, d es es claves d e l Af r i q u e a u x A mri q ues et d es mati res prem i r e s d e s A mri q ues vers l E urope. D e plus , l i nst a b i l i t poli ti q ue q ui rgn ai t s ur le con ti n e nt su i t e la Rvoluti on d e 1 7 8 9 n a pas perm i s a u x p a y s E uropen s d e d velopper d es p r o g r a m m e s d expan s i on terri tori ale en A f ri q ue. V e r s l e d b u t d u le XI X e s i cle, les s eules z on es d an s l e sq u e l l e s les E uropen s on t s ri eus emen t d v e l o p p un con tact d urable et con ti n u s e t r o u v a i e nt pars emes le lon g d es ctes . P rc i s m e nt , l a Fran ce a tabli q uelq ues bas es colon i a l e s l e l o ng d u f leuve S n gal, et, s ous C harles X e t L o u i sP hi li ppe, a en trepri s la con q ute d e l A l g r i e , acheve d uran t le rgn e d e ce d ern i e r . L e r e st e d u con ti n en t res te i n explor, mai s r e p r se nt e un e occas i on i n tres s an te pour un e e x p d i t i o n colon i ale.

LAsie

a prs en ce f ran ai s e en A s i e es t t r s l i m i t e , n otammen t caus e d e la f lotte f r a n a i se , moi n s pui s s an te q ue celles d a u t r e s p a y s europen s . Les Bri tan n i q ues on t f ai t b i e n p l u s d ef f ort d an s ce d omai n e, q ue ce s oi t p a r l e b i a i s d e la couron n e ou d e la C ompagni e a ng l a i se d es I n d es O ri en tales . P ourtan t, N a p o l o n I I I d emeure con vai n cu q ue ce con ti n en t u n t e r r a i n i d al pour ten d re l i n f luen ce d e l a F r a nc e , malgr le man q ue d i n f ras tructure co l o ni a l e .

Conseil dEtat 35

Les Amriques

e p u i s la d couv er t e du nouv eau m on d e, la Fra n ce s e s t t o ujo ur s int r esse au N ouveau Mo nde ca u s e de l a po ssibil it de r el ier l A s i e e t l Eu rop e p ar l int er m diair e de l ocan P a c i f i q u e . A u fi l des sic l es, l a F r ance a amas s d e n o mb re u se s ter r es v er s l e no r d du con ti n en t, b a p t i s e s Nou vel l e-F r anc e. Cependant , s ui te a u t r ai t d e P ari s en 1763, une par t im portan te f u t c d e au x Angl ais. Lat t ent io n fr an ai s e s e t o u r na don c p lu t t v er s l es c ar abes, m ai s un e d o m i n a ti on total e et st abl e et c ont inue n a ja m a is vrai me n t eu l ieu cause de c om pl i cati on s d i p l omati q u e s e t po l it iques ent r e l es di f f ren ts t a t s e u rop e n s . La c ol onie fr anaise la plus i m po r ta n te au x A m r iques fut sans cont este S ai n tD o m i n g u e , su r l il e dH ispaniol a, no t ammen t au XVI I I e si cle . C e t er r it o ir e t ait l e centre d es i n d u stri e s d e ca f et de sucr e, pr oduisant plus d e c e s r es s ou rce s q ue t out es l es indes oc cid en tales b ri t a n n i q u e s e n sem bl es. Suit e l a c outeus e R v o lu ti on Ha ti enne de 1791, qui dur a j us q u en 1 8 0 4 , Nap ol on I abando nna ses am bit ion s aux A m r i q u e s . Actuel l em ent , l es t er r it oir es q u y p o s s de la Fra n c e so nt l im it s l a Guy an e, la Ma rt i n i q u e e t la Guadel oupe. Les po s s i bi li ts d e x pan s i on n y so nt pas no mbr euses, mai s cette r gi o n e st con s tamm ent en t at de c hangemen t e t d i n sta b i li t p o l it ique. Il ser ait do nc avi s d e s u i vre la s i tu ati on afin de r epr er des v n emen ts q u i pe rme ttrai e nt l a r m er gence de l in f luen ce f r a nai se .

T hi s wi ll be es peci ally us ef ul d uri n g p a r t i c u l a r l y i n ten s e cri s es .

POSITION PAPERS

RULES OF PROCEDURE

h i le th e comm it t ee wil l seek t o r epl icate the p roce d u ral pr o cesses of t he er a as clos ely a s p o ssi b le , i n or der t o m ak e debat e mo re f lui d , i t w i l l op e rate in a sim pl ified m anner. W hi le t h e e xa ct cri te ri a c an be c hanged in c ommi ttee t o a c commod a te t he pr efer enc es of t he cabi n et, t h e g e n e ral format used t hr oughout wi ll be m o d e ra te d cau cus. As t he c om mit t ee will n ot be p r o d u ci n g a fi n a lized do cum ent , but r at her wi ll b e r es p on di n g to a ser ies o f sho r t -t er m and lon gt e r m i s s u e s , de legat es can issue dir ec ti ves f or t h e c ab i n e t to tak e c er t ain ac t io ns. H ow ever, as t h e gove rn me n t is st il l fundament al l y b ehold en t o t h e w i ll of th e E m per o r , he has a fina l s ay i n a l l ma tte rs, a n d c an bl o ck any pr o po sal he i s i n d i s a g re e me n t w i t h. In t his sense, t he c abin et acts m o re a s a b od y of adv iser s t han as an executi ve o ne . F i n a lly, i t i s gr eat l y enc our aged for d elegates t o w r i te n ote s to t he c hair or t o cr isis in ord er to a s k f o r i n formati on o r t o m ak e per sonal req ues ts .
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ecaus e y ou are each taki n g on t h e r o l e o f d i f f eren t members of a s i n gle c a b i ne t t h a t i s expected to run wi th a certai n d e g r e e o f cohes i ven es s , the parti culari ty of ea c h o f y o u r characters are n ot what i s mos t i mpo r t a nt t o t h e pos i ti on papers . H owever, y ou wi ll be e x p e c t e d t o wri te a paper that outli n es how y our c h a r a c t e r s vi ew of the E mpi re i s ref lected i n th e c a b i ne t s d omes ti c, E uropean , an d global i nt e r a c t i o ns. I n es s en ce, y ou wi ll be req ui red to d e t a i l w h i c h d i recti on y ou beli eve the cabi n et sh o u l d t a k e wi th regard s to mod ern i z i n g the Em p i r e o n a s oci al an d i n f ras tructural level, p l a y i ng a more i n f luen ti al role on E uropean st a g e , a nd expan d i n g i ts colon i al reach, or wh e t h e r t o d o s o. S peci f i cally , y ou s hould ref er to p a st e v e nt s i n Fren ch hi s tory an d poli ti cs to bui l d y o u r c a se . W hi le N apoleon I I I d oes ha v e h i s o w n parti cular vi s i on f or the E mpi re s f u t u r e , h e reli es very heavi ly on hi s ad vi s ors a nd v a l u e s thei r j ud gmen t greatly . I f y ou can s tr u c t u r e y o u r argumen t i n y our pos i ti on paper ef f e c t i v e l y w i t h con crete ref eren ces to even ts d ati n g f r o m a nd pred ati n g 1 8 5 8 , y ou wi ll have a better s e nse o f h o w commi ttee could play out, an d thus w i l l l i k e l y b e more able to i n f luen ce i t. A n i d eal po si t i o n p a p e r would thus exami n e each topi c area in d e t a i l a nd propos e a gen eral plan of acti on or a p p r o a c h t o each i s s ue ad d res s ed i n the gui d e. Th e r e f o r e , I would recommen d organ i z i n g y our p a p e r i nt o three parts , wi th each ad d res s i n g a d i f f e r e nt area. T hi s bei n g s ai d , thi s s ugges ti o n i s j u st t o help y ou s tructure y our thoughts i n a c l e a r a nd ef f i ci en t man n er; i f y ou are more c o m f o r t a b l e organ i z i n g y our pos i ti on paper d i f f e r e nt l y , y o u s hould d o s o by all mean s .

CLOSING REMARKS

am truly looki n g f orward to what I a m c o nf i d e nt wi ll be a very s ucces s f ul, i nt e l l e c t u a l l y s ti mulati n g, an d abs olutely exci ti n g co nf e r e nc e . I am eq ually con f i d en t of the q uali ty of d e b a t e a nd of the ori gi n ali ty of the i d eas y ou w i l l b r i ng t o the table, an d I kn ow that y ou wi ll ch a l l e ng e t h e cri s i s s taf f an d me to come up wi th i n v e nt i v e a nd un i q ue res pon s es to the propos als y o u p u t f o r t h . Res earch i s an i n tegral part of thi s p r o c e ss, a nd y ou wi ll on ly be truly prepared f or thi s c o m m i t t e e i f y ou have taken s ome ti me to d o s om e st u d y i ng on y our own . I would li ke to rei t e r a t e h o w
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p r o u d I a m to b e a par t of t his hist o r ic momen t f o r W orldMUN. I k now how har d t he staf f has w o rke d to make t his an incr edibl e exper i en ce i n a n d ou t of comm it t ee, and I assur e yo u t hat thi s w i l l b e a n u n forget t abl e few days. If you h av e any l inger ing quest ion s , are l o o k i ng to de e p en yo ur under st anding of the t o pi c , or w ou ld just l ik e t o c hat , I urge y ou t o c on tact me at adur and@ c ol l ege.h arvard . e d u. I ca n n ot w ait t o see yo u al l at c onf eren ce; u n t i l th e n , e n joy your pr epar at ions, an d brace y o u r se lve s for a unique educ at ional and s oci al e x pe r i e n ce . Be s t re g a rd s , A l e x an d re D u rand C ha i r, C ons e i l d Et at du S e cond E mpire W o rl d Mode l Unit ed Nat ions 2011

(Endnotes)

1 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 3 . P r i n t. 2 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 9 . P r i n t. 3 Har r is, Jo hn. The F r ench H i s tory Bri e f ly T old. Londo n: Jo hn H ar r is, Sain t P aul C hu rch - Yard. 11. Pr int 4 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 2 6 . P r i n t. 5 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 2 7 . P r i n t. 6 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 3 9 . P r i n t. 7 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 5 8 . P r i n t. 8 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 5 3 . P r i n t. 9 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 6 0 . P r i n t. 10 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 6 8 . P r i n t. 11 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory .
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C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 7 8 . P ri n t. 12 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 7 8 . P ri n t. 13 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 8 5 . P ri n t. 14 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 9 0 . P ri n t. 15 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 9 1 . P ri n t. 16 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 9 3 . P ri n t. 17 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 9 5 . P ri n t. 18 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 9 7 . P ri n t. 19 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 1 0 2 . P ri n t. 20 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 1 0 8 . P ri n t. 21 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 1 1 0 . P ri n t. 22 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 1 1 1 . P ri n t. 23 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 1 1 1 . P ri n t. 24 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 1 1 2 . P ri n t. 25 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 1 1 7 . P ri n t. 26 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 1 1 9 . P ri n t. 27 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 1 2 2 . P ri n t. 28 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 . 1 2 4 . P ri n t. 29 S i card , E rn es t. E as y Frenc h Hi st o r y . C hi cago: S cott, Fores man an d C om p a ny , 1 9 0 1 .
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1 2 6 . Pri n t. 30 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 2 6 . Pri n t. 31 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 2 7 . Pri n t. 32 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 2 9 . Pri n t. 33 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 2 7 . Pri n t. 34 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 3 2 . Pri n t. 35 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 3 3 . Pri n t. 36 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 3 6 . Pri n t. 37 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 3 6 . Pri n t. 38 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 3 7 . Pri n t. 39 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 3 7 . Pri n t. 40 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 3 8 . Pri n t. 41 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 3 9 . Pri n t. 42 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 3 9 . Pri n t. 43 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 4 1 . Pri n t. 44 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 4 2 . Pri n t. 45 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 4 2 . Pri n t. 46 S i car d, E r nest . E asy F r ench H i s tory . C hi c ag o: S cott, For esm an and Com pan y , 1 9 0 1 . 1 4 2 . Pri n t. 47 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 7 6. Pr int .
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48 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 7 6 . P ri n t. 49 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 7 6 . P ri n t. 50 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 7 7 . P ri n t. 51 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 7 8 . P ri n t. 52 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 7 8 . P ri n t. 53 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 7 8 . P ri n t. 54 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 7 9 . P ri n t. 55 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 7 9 . P ri n t. 56 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 8 1 . P ri n t. 57 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 8 1 . P ri n t. 58 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 8 2 . P ri n t. 59 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 8 4 . P ri n t. 60 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 8 4 . P ri n t. 61 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 9 4 . P ri n t. 62 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 9 4 . P ri n t. 63 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 9 4 . P ri n t. 64 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 9 4 . P ri n t. 65 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 9 4 . P ri n t. 66 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a
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Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 9 4. Pr int . 67 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 9 4. Pr int . 68 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 9 4. Pr int . 69 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 9 5. Pr int . 70 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 9 5. Pr int . 71 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 9 5. Pr int . 72 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 9 5. Pr int . 73 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 81. Pr int . 74 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 82. Pr int . 75 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 82. Pr int . 76 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 82. Pr int . 77 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 82. Pr int . 78 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 82. Pr int . 79 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 84. Pr int . 80 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 84. Pr int . 81 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 91. Pr int . 82 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 1. Pr int . 83 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 1. Pr int . 84 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls :
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H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 1 2 . P ri n t. 85 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 1 2 . P ri n t. 86 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 1 2 . P ri n t. 87 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 1 3 . P ri n t. 88 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 1 3 . P ri n t. 89 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 6 1 . P ri n t. 90 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 6 0 . P ri n t. 91 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 6 6 . P ri n t. 92 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 6 6 . P ri n t. 93 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 6 6 . P ri n t. 94 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 6 6 . P ri n t. 95 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 6 6 . P ri n t. 96 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 6 6 . P ri n t. 97 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 1 3 1 . P ri n t. 98 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 1 3 1 . P ri n t. 99 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 1 3 5 . P ri n t. 100 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 1 5 3 . P ri n t. 101 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 1 5 4 . P ri n t. 102 D an s ette, A d ri en . N ai s sa nc e d e l a Fran ce mod ern e. S ai n t- Germai n - l s-Co r b e i l s: H achette, 1 9 7 6 . 1 6 4 . P ri n t.
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103 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 64. Pr int . 104 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 64. Pr int . 105 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 64. Pr int . 106 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 65. Pr int . 107 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 66. Pr int . 108 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 66. Pr int . 109 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 66. Pr int . 110 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 67. Pr int . 111 D anset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 1 68. Pr int . 112 D a nset t e, Adr ien. Naissan ce d e la Fra n c e mode rn e. Saint -Ger m ain-l s-C orbei ls : Ha c h e tte , 1976. 169. Pr int . 113 Echar d, Wil l iam . Napol eo n I I I an d t h e Con ce rt of E ur ope. B at on R o uge: Lo ui s i an a S t a t e Un i ve rsi ty Pr ess, 1983. 9. Pr int . 114 Echar d, Wil l iam . Napol eo n I I I an d t h e Con ce rt of E ur ope. B at on R o uge: Lo ui s i an a S t a t e Un i ve rsi ty Pr ess, 1983. 9. Pr int . 115 Echar d, Wil l iam . Napol eo n I I I an d t h e Con ce rt of E ur ope. B at on R o uge: Lo ui s i an a S t a t e Un i ve rsi ty Pr ess, 1983. 9. Pr int . 116 Echar d, Wil l iam . Napol eo n I I I an d t h e Con ce rt of E ur ope. B at on R o uge: Lo ui s i an a S t a t e Un i ve rsi ty Pr ess, 1983. 9. Pr int . 117 Echar d, Wil l iam . Napol eo n I I I an d t h e Con ce rt of E ur ope. B at on R o uge: Lo ui s i an a S t a t e Un i ve rsi ty Pr ess, 1983. 9. Pr int . 118 Echar d, Wil l iam . Napol eo n I I I an d t h e Con ce rt of E ur ope. B at on R o uge: Lo ui s i an a S t a t e Un i ve rsi ty Pr ess, 1983. 9. Pr int . 119 Echar d, Wil l iam . Napol eo n I I I an d t h e Con ce rt of E ur ope. B at on R o uge: Lo ui s i an a S t a t e Un i ve rsi ty Pr ess, 1983. 9. Pr int . 120 Echar d, Wil l iam . Napol eo n I I I an d t h e Con ce rt of E ur ope. B at on R o uge: Lo ui s i an a S t a t e Un i ve rsi ty Pr ess, 1983. 10. Pr int . 121 Echar d, Wil l iam . Napol eo n I I I an d
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the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 2 9 . P ri nt . 122 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 2 9 . P ri nt . 123 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 2 9 . P ri nt . 124 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 2 9 . P ri nt . 125 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 2 6 . P ri nt . 126 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 2 6 . P ri nt . 127 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 2 6 . P ri nt . 128 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 2 8 . P ri nt . 129 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 2 9 . P ri nt . 130 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 3 0 . P ri nt . 131 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 3 0 . P ri nt . 132 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 3 0 . P ri nt . 133 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 3 1 . P ri nt . 134 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 3 6 . P ri nt . 135 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 3 7 . P ri nt . 136 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 3 7 . P ri nt . 137 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 3 8 . P ri nt . 138 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na S tate U n i vers i ty P res s , 1 9 8 3 . 4 8 . P ri nt . 139 E chard , W i lli am. N apol e o n I I I a nd the C on cert of E urope. Baton Rouge : L o u i si a na
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S t a t e Un i ve rsi ty Pr ess, 1983. 49. Pr int . 140 Echar d, Wil l iam . Napol eo n I I I an d t h e Con ce rt of E ur ope. B at on R o uge: Lo ui s i an a S t a t e Un i ve rsi ty Pr ess, 1983. 50. Pr int . 141 Echar d, Wil l iam . Napol eo n I I I an d t h e Con ce rt of E ur ope. B at on R o uge: Lo ui s i an a S t a t e Un i ve rsi ty Pr ess, 1983. 53. Pr int . 142 Echar d, Wil l iam . Napol eo n I I I an d t h e Con ce rt of E ur ope. B at on R o uge: Lo ui s i an a S t a t e Un i ve rsi ty Pr ess, 1983. 54. Pr int .

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BIBLIORAPHIC ESSAY
D a ns e tte, Adr i e n . Naissan ce de la Fran ce m o der ne. S aint- G er m ain-l s - Co r beil s : Hac he t te, 1 9 7 6 . Pr i nt. Ec h a rd, Wi lli am. Nap o leo n I I I an d t h e Concer t o f Eu ro pe. B ato n R o u g e: Lo u is iana State U n i ve r s i t y Pre s s, 1983. Pr int. Si ca rd, E r ne s t. E asy Fren ch H isto r y. Ch ic ag o : S co tt, Fo res m an and Co m pany, 1 90 1. Pr i nt.

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Conseil dEtat 42