Filtration in Fahrzeugen Engl

VERLAG MODERNE INDUSTRIE
Automotive Filtration
Basics and examples of air, oil and fuel filtration
MANN+HUMMEL
verlag moderne industrie
Automotive Filtration
Basics and examples of air, oil and fuel filtration
Michael Durst, Gunnar-Marcel Klein, Nikolaus Moser
This book was produced with the technical collaboration of FILTERWERK MANN+HUMMEL GMBH.
The authors would like to thank Gnter Grg, Dr. Michael Harenbrock, Markus Kolczyk, Jochen Reyinger, Dr. Pius Trautmann and Uwe Weipprecht for their assistance in compiling the diagrams and manuscripts.
Contents
Introduction Basics of filtration 4 9
Mechanisms of particle separation .......................................................... 10
Translation: Sprachendienst Dr. Herrlinger, Kirchentellinsfurt
Performance characteristics of filters ...................................................... 12
Engine intake air filters
20
Parameters for evaluating air filter media .............................................. 21 Methods of examining air filter media .................................................... 26 Requirements of modern air filter systems ............................................ 29 Design criteria for engine air filter elements .......................................... 33 Filter housings ......................................................................................... 37 Oil filters for crankcase breathers ........................................................... 39
Lube oil filtration 2002 All rights reserved with verlag moderne industrie, D-86895 Landsberg/Lech http://www.mi-verlag.de First published in Germany in the series Die Bibliothek der Technik Original title: Filtration in Fahrzeugen 2002 by verlag moderne industrie Illustrations: No. 5b Institute for Mechanical Process Engineering, University of Karlsruhe; No. 13 Freudenberg Vliesstoffe KG, Weinheim; No. 33 Kolbenschmidt Pierburg AG, Neckarsulm; No. 59 Robert Bosch GmbH, Stuttgart; Nos. 67, 68 Institute for Mechanical Process Engineering, University of Stuttgart; all others FILTERWERK MANN+HUMMEL GMBH, Ludwigsburg Typesetting: abc.Mediaservice GmbH, Buchloe Printing: Himmer, Augsburg Binding: Thomas, Augsburg Printed in Germany 930576
46
Wear and filtration................................................................................... 46 Full-flow oil filtration.............................................................................. 50 Bypass oil filtration ................................................................................ 61
Fuel filters
68
Functions of a modern fuel filter............................................................. 68 Gasoline filters ........................................................................................ 69 Diesel fuel filters ..................................................................................... 75 Methods of testing fuel filters ................................................................. 85 Performance data of fuel filters ............................................................... 87
Summary Literature The company behind this book
91 93 95
Introduction
Fuel filter Metal-free fuel filter module element
Plastic rocker cover
Complex filtration demands
Consideration of the entire system
Fig. 1 (facing page): Filtration and separation in vehicles
Filtration functions in motor vehicles have become extremely diverse and complex as a result of the exacting requirements of modern engines, increasingly stringent environmental legislation and, not least, rising demands for greater comfort and convenience on the part of customers. Whereas the first cars were initially fitted with the most rudimentary oil filters, followed by intake air and fuel filters, a number of other filtration functions are performed today. Only these can ensure the troublefree operation of the engine and individual components throughout the entire life of the vehicle. Figure 1 shows the various locations of a car where filtration, separation and cleaning are carried out. At first glance, it is clear that the respective requirements vary widely in nature and that all the filters must be specifically designed for their intended purpose, not least because of the wide range of mounting locations. Today, many filtration functions can no longer be considered separately; to some extent, they are inter-related, forming an integral part of a system and performing complex processes and functions within it, which go well beyond the actual task of separation. This can be seen, for example, with air filtration (Fig. 2). In addition to the important, familiar task of filtering dust from the engine intake air, the air in the passenger compartments of over 95% of new vehicles produced in Europe is now filtered to exclude particles and gaseous pollutants. Fuel tanks are increasingly being fitted with filter elements which retain particles and, by a process of absorption, extract fuel fumes from air which escape from the tank during refueling.
Air cleaner (incl. service indicator) Air filter element Water separator
E-box filter
Oil filter module
Bypass centrifugal oil cleaner
Crankcase ventilation system with multicyclone oil separator
Metal-free oil filter element
Spin-on filter
Filter for Filter for Air dryer Suspension braking power system box hydraulic filter steering
Cooling In-line Washer water filter fuel filter system filter
Gearbox oil filter
Diesel particulate filter Urea filter for Cabin air filter SCR-catalysts element
Introduction
Oil mist separator Tank ventilation filter In-tank fuel filter
6 Introduction
Introduction
Air filtration
Fluid: Application:
Filtration of liquids Water

Gasoline engine
Fuel
Diesel engine Gearbox oil, hydraulic oil
Oil
Engine oil (full-flow and bypass flow)
Cabin air
Application:
Crankcase ventilation
Tank venting
Engine intake air
Engine exhaust gas
Braking system air
Coolant
Objective:
Oil droplet separation
Particle separation
Exhaust gas cleaning
Gas cleaning
Air drying
Objective:
Particle separation, gas cleaning
Particle separation
Particle separation
Particle and water droplet separation
Particle separation
Particle separation
Mechanism:
Centrifugal forces, coalescence, static electricity
Filtration, adsorption
Filtration
Diesel soot filtration, regeneration, SCR
Mechanism:
Filtration, adsorption
Adsorption
Filtration
Filtration
Filtration, coalescence
Filtration
Filtration, centrifugal separation
Fig. 2: Objectives and mechanisms of air filtration in vehicles
Examples of filtration of air
Ultrafine droplets of oil in the blow-by gas (a continuous, heavily pulsating flow which leaks past the clearance gaps between pistons, piston rings and cylinder liners into the crankcase and which must be returned from the engine into the induction system) are separated by suitable coalescing elements (fiber or diffusion separators), cyclones or centrifuges, in order to meet the new exhaust emission limits. At the same time, these filters prevent deposits from forming on the blades of diesel engine turbochargers, or possible failure of entire injection systems through precipitation of carbon from cracked oils onto the injectors. In the case of commercial vehicles with compressed-air braking systems, the air must be dried by adsorbent dehumidifiers (so-called air dryer boxes) to ensure that the brakes function reliably even at very low temperatures. Despite all the technical and design measures and advances achieved in recent times in the development of engines, the filtration of diesel exhaust gases will continue to be a major subject of research and development in the immediate future. Apart from the filtration of soot par-
ticles, continuous and/or regular regeneration of the (ceramic) filter presents the greatest challenge. Figure 3 gives an overview of the various types of liquid filtration in vehicles, with engine oil filtration occupying a leading role. In addition, long-lived filter media, extremely resistant to chemicals, are used to filter gearbox oil and to protect hydraulic systems which must meet ever-increasing standards of efficiency as a consequence of continuous technological progress. The same applies to fuel filters, another focus of this book, and for the media used in them. In recent years, fuel filters for diesel and gasoline engines with direct injection have undergone considerable development in order to keep pace with the requirements of advanced injection systems. In addition to the filtration of coolant, which has proved particularly effective with commercial vehicles, it may well become necessary in the future to filter aqueous solutions of urea. When the new, even more stringent exhaust regulations on nitrogen oxide emissions come into force (e.g. EURO-4 standards in 2004 or
Fig. 3: Objectives and mechanisms of liquid filtration in vehicles
and liquids
8 Introduction EURO-5 standards in 2008), some form of SCR (selective catalytic reduction) technology will be needed to ensure reliable observance of the exceptionally low NOx limits. Of course, not all the filtration functions in cars mentioned above or shown in Figure 1 can be described within the framework of this book. In addition to certain important principles, essential to an understanding of filtration processes, the first part contains information about the construction and characteristics of filter materials or media. It then turns to applications. The filtration of engine intake air (including crankcase ventilation), lube oil and fuels is considered in detail and the considerable advances achieved in the last ten years are described [1]. The book focuses particularly on filtration and separation, filter media and the filter elements produced from these materials. At the same time, it is intended to illustrate how the process as a whole and interaction with other components must be taken into account when designing filter elements. Filter elements incorporated in the engine, the cylinder head cover, oil and fuel filter modules and air intake systems are only capable of functioning economically and efficiently if the requirements of all the individual components involved are regarded as a complete system and are matched to the overall process in the optimum way.
Basics of filtration
To facilitate a better understanding of the processes of filtration, a number of important basics which underlie the subject are outlined in the following sections. A comprehensive description can be found in the bibliography, e.g. under [2, 3]. Most vehicles are fitted with depth filters. Depth filtration is always the most economical method when there is a low concentration of particles to be separated. The purpose of the filter elements used is to separate particles (the solid phase) from fluids (the continuous phase), i.e. gases and liquids, to the utmost extent. For example, solid particles are physically removed from the engine intake air, the fuel and the lube oil. Impurities come from numerous sources and consist of, e.g. organic and mineral dusts, particles of abraded metal, and soot from incomplete combustion. They do not, however, appear only as solid particles, but may also be of liquid form, thus necessitating, for example, the filtration of droplets of oil from the blow-by gas in crankcase ventilation or droplets of water out of diesel fuel. Particles may be round or angular, flat or cuboid in shape, and rough or smooth. As a rule, they can be described in accordance with a scale of sizes. Depending on origin, these may extend over a wide range. Mineral particles, principally grains of quartz (SiO2), occur as dust in the intake air. Their average diameter is between 0.1 and 2000 m (Fig. 4, illustrating the distribution density of dust particles by quantity q0 and corresponding distribution density by mass q3). The diameters of primary soot particles range from a few nanometers to those of agglomerates (between 0.1 and 2 m),
Depth filtration
Sources of impurities
Characteristics of contaminant particles
10 Basics of filtration
Particle distribution density by mass q3 [1/m]
Mechanisms of particle separation ticles (with diameters less than about 0.5 m) also move irregularly through the fluid (Brownian movement). If these strike the fibers by chance, they are likewise trapped (diffusion effect). The process of separation can be greatly affected by other interactions, such as electrostatic forces generated by electric charges on the surface of so-called electret fibers or forces imposed from outside, e.g. the centrifugal forces generated in cyclones and centrifuges. On striking the fibers, the particles are retained
a) Interception Diffusion effect Fiber b)
11
1 Particle distribution density by number q0 [1/m] 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.1 0.7 1.6 3.6 8.1 19 43 98 Particle diameter [m] Particle distribution density by number q0 Particle distribution density by mass q3
0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 224 514 1178 2046
interception and diffusion effects
Fig. 4: Particle distribution densities of original dust taken from an air filter element. Particles with a diameter of between 5 and 100 m represent the greatest proportion (> 75% by mass). (For a detailed explanation of the diagram, see Figs. 8 and 9, pp. 15 and 16.)
a size range which is considered critical with regard to wear.
Mechanisms of particle separation

Widely differing methods are employed to separate particles, depending on the size of the particles and the properties of the fluid. Figure 5 shows the interactions between particles and the filter medium underlying the filtration process. The filter medium is depicted as a single fiber whose axis runs perpendicular to the plane of the image. The continuous phase (e.g. the oil or fuel) exhibits a laminar flow over the fibers, which is indicated by the stream lines, i.e. the curved paths of the fluid (in which the flow velocity v is not constant). When large particles of considerable mass approach an obstacle, e.g. the fibers, their inertia causes them to leave the stream line and to collide with the fibers (inertia effect). Somewhat smaller particles are able to follow the stream lines. If they are just large enough in diameter to touch the fibers, they cling to them (interception). Still smaller parInertia effect Flow direction
Inertia
on the surface through adhesion forces, predominantly van der Waals forces. Interception is the essential separating mechanism in the filtration of viscous fluids, i.e. under the general conditions prevailing in oil and fuel filters, the fluids predominantly flow through the filter media in laminar flow. Since air is considerably less viscous, inertia effects and the unobstructed diffusion of the smallest particles in the turbulent air flow constitute essential separating mechanisms in addition to interception. As a result, it is highly probable that the fine particles will strike the fibers of a depth filter medium, thus achieving a high degree of separation efficiency. Sieving effects
Fig. 5: a) Schematic description of separating mechanisms at a single fiber b) SEM (scanning electron microscope) picture of a single fiber laden with particles (gas filter)
Mechanisms for liquid
12 Basics of filtration and air filtration of the type achieved by surface filters play only a subordinate role in particle filtration in cars up to now.
Performance characteristics of filters gradual initial rise in differential pressure is typical of the behavior of depth filters. It is only after a certain period of time, when a high proportion of the pores are clogged with particles, that the differential pressure rises steeply. To prevent the engine from losing power, the filter element should be changed at the latest when the predefined maximum differential pressure, e.g. as laid down in the car manufacturers specification, is reached. Filtration efficiency A variety of methods are used to evaluate the efficiency of filters. The filtration efficiency (often also referred to as the degree of separation or filter fineness) represents the proportion of particles trapped by the filtration process. Within this context, a distinction is made between grade efficiency and overall filtration efficiency. Whereas the grade efficiency relates to individual particle diameters or categories of particle sizes (fractions), the overall efficiency describes the filter effect for all particles by the filter. For example, the statement (35 m) = 87% means that 87% of the particles with a diameter between 3 and 5 m are separated by the filter under consideration while the statement = 95% means that 95% of all particles in the fluid will be trapped by the filter. The initial filtration efficiency is another important characteristic. This gives the efficiency of a new filter medium or element. In the case of depth filters without electrostatic charges, it is generally lower than that of a laden filter medium in that, when fibers are already covered with particles, the probability of its trapping oncoming particles is higher than that of new unladen fibers with a real smaller diameter (cf. Fig. 5b). Figure 7 shows the graph of the grade efficiency as a function of particle size xj based
13
Performance characteristics of filters

The filter media used in vehicles are confined almost exclusively to depth filters. In other words, the separation of particles takes place on the surface of the individual fibers deep inside the texture of the medium. At the beginning of the filtration process, individual particles initially settle on the surface of the fibers. Over time, the density of the accumulation increases, allowing dendrite-like formations to develop (cf. Fig. 5b, p. 11). These, in turn, cause the volume of pores available to accommodate the filtered particles in the medium (which, depending on application, may be as high as to 95% porosity), to diminish. By contrast, the differential pressure at the same flow rate increases. After a certain period of service, the capacity of the filter is exhausted, necessitating its replacement. The increase in the differential pressure in a filter as a function of operating time is shown schematically in the diagram in Figure 6. The
Differential pressure p t1
Fractions of separated particles
Differential pressure increase
Fig. 6: Schematic description of the increase of differential pressure of a depth filter as a function of dust load or time, respectively. The filter element should be changed at t1 at the latest.
pmax po Dust load or time
14 Basics of filtration on the example of an air filter element consisting of synthetic fibers. The trough in the curve at approx. xj = 0.5 m indicates that the filtration mechanisms which predominate in air filtration (i.e. diffusion and inertia effects) have either not fully developed in this area
Fig. 7: Grade efficiency curve as a function of particle size
100 Grade efficiency (xj) [%] 98%
Performance characteristics of filters to which the filtration efficiency relates. Although conventional reference values are based on the number of particles (characterized by the index i = 0), in most cases the data relate to an equivalent volume of particles (e.g. a sphere of the same volume, i = 3) or to the mass of the particles (by multiplying the volume values with the mean density of the particles). Results of the measurements of particle size distribution can be presented in the form of a cumulative distribution curve Qi(xj) (Fig. 8a). This derives from the sum total of the proportions of particles by quantity, from the smallest in size xj,min to the largest xj,max. The value Qi(xj) represents the non-dimensional proportion by quantity relative to the overall quantity
a) Cumulative distribution curve Qi(xj) 1 Initial dust distribution Qi(xj)
15
Reference value for filtration efficiency
Cumulative curve
50
0 0.5 1.0 4 5 Particle size xj [m] 10 20
(left end of the curve, where diffusion predominates), or are no longer fully developed (right end of the curve, where inertia effects predominate). Virtually 100% of larger particles (> 6 m) are separated as a result of interception and inertia effects. Particle size distribution Usually, the distribution of particles in the various fluids under operating conditions is an unknown quantity. To compare the efficiency of individual filters, they are tested with standardized test dusts. Official standards also apply to methods of testing (e.g. single-pass or multi-pass arrangements) as well as sampling and evaluation (on-line or off-line tests, optical evaluation with particle counters or gravimetric evaluation by weight analysis). For comparisons of filter element performance, it is also necessary to know the reference value
0.5
xj,min
xj Particle size xj
xj,max
b)
Particle distribution density qi(xj)
qi(xj) qi(xj,m) Qi(xj)
xj,min xj-1
xj xj,m
xj
xj,max
Particle size xj
Fig. 8: a) Cumulative distribution curve b) Particle distribution density
16 Basics of filtration up to the respective particle size xj (frequently also designated as fraction). It can assume values of between 0 and 1 (corresponding to proportions of 0 and 100%). The cumulative distribution Qi(xj) is frequently standardized by dividing it by the respective interval width xj (Fig. 8b). If these values are superimposed on the average particle size of interval xj,m, the result is the socalled particle distribution density curve qi(xj,m). The area below the distribution density curve corresponds to the sum total of individual products qi(xj,m) multiplied by xj and again equals 1. The histogram, obtained as the result of including discrete measured values, e.g. with the aid of a particle counter, is likewise recorded (cf. Fig. 4). Normally the intera) Particle distribution density qi(xj) Coarse dust (G) g qG(xj) Fine dust (F) f qF(xj) Initial particle distribution density qA(xj) Proportions by quantity g+f=1 xj,100 xj,max
Performance characteristics of filters vals xj are not equidistant; the dimension of qi(xj) is that of a length [1/m]. The effectiveness of a filter can be clearly presented in graphic form in this way. Figure 9a shows the initial particle distribution density of the dust qA(xj), the distribution density g qG(xj), which represents the distribution of all separated particles (often referred to as coarse material or coarse dust), and the distribution density f qF(xj), which corresponds to the distribution of particles having passed through the filter (often referred to as fine fraction or fine material). The values f and g represent the integral fine or coarse proportion of the dust (f + g = 1); qF(xj) and qG(xj) are not normed. So, the sum total of the individual areas of coarse and fine material distribution densities represents the initial particle distribution density curve qA(xj). Grade efficiency curve From these results, it is possible to derive the grade efficiency curve TG(xj) which represents the result of the filtration process in graphic form (Fig. 9b). The curve begins at a particle size of xj,0, up to which 100% of particles still permeate the filter. It extends to particle size xj,100, from which point 100% of the particles are separated by the filter. A characteristic value is often singled out as a means of describing the overall effectiveness of filters. For example, the particle size xj,50 is frequently given, at which the filtration efficiency (xj) or T(xj) equates to 50%. Thus, 50% of particles size xj are separated by the filter while 50% pass through it. In many cases, these reference values are also defined as filtration efficiency. In keeping with the above system, the designation q3(xj) therefore represents a particle distribution density by mass or volume, whilst the
17
Coarse and fine proportion
Particle distribution density curve
Grade efficiency
xj,min
xj,0 xj,50
Fig. 9: a) Graphs showing the initial distribution density of particles and distribution densities of coarse dust (particles retained by the filter) and fine dust (particles passing the filter) b) Grade efficiency curve TG(xj) of filtered particles
b) Grade efficiency curve TG(xj) [%]

100
Particle size xj
50
TG(xj) = g Qcoarse/Qinitial
or filtration efficiency
xj,0 xj,50
xj,100
Particle size xj
18 Basics of filtration designation q0(xj) represents a particle distribution density by number. Usually, both curves and the values derived from them vary considerably for one and the same dust (cf. Fig. 4). In some cases, the particle distribution density by mass q3 is used as a standard, so it is convenient to omit the index i = 3.
Performance characteristics of filters In general, the pleated filter medium, i.e. the filter element, should form the basis for a comparison of performance. In this way, it is possible to detect damage to the medium during the production process or even locations where glued fastenings have parted company. Filter service interval A further characteristic indicating the performance of filter media or elements is the filter service interval or service life. This is defined by the specific dust holding capacity (defined in [g/m2]) or the dust holding capacity G (defined in [g]) of the element. In this way, it is possible to designate the amount of dust or the mass of trapped particles which the medium or element is capable to hold or to store before a predetermined maximum differential pressure is reached. This material-related value provides the basis for the design of the filter. At this point it should be noted that particles of different sizes and sources have entirely different effects on filter media. In general, a high number of small particles (e.g. soot) will clog an air filter element appreciably more quickly (given less mass striking the element) than coarse particles of sand and dust.
19
-value Since the differences between filters offering high filtration efficiencies are often not obvious at first glance, the -value is increasingly being used to describe the performance of a fluid filter element. This is defined as the number N1 of particles up to a certain size xj upstream of the filter, divided by the measured number N2 of particles of the same size interval or the same particle size downstream of the filter, i.e.
Table 1: Filtration efficiency and corresponding -values
(xj) [%] 0 50 80 90 95 98 99 99.5 99.8 99.9 99.98 -value 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 5000
Dust holding capacity
(xj) = (N1 xj)upstream /(N2 xj)downstream

This value, which clearly explains the differences in performance between individual filter elements, particularly in the case of high efficiencies, can be derived from the filtration efficiency (xj), too, i.e.
(xj) = 100/(100 (xj))

A filter with a -value of 200 for particle size xj = 10 m (corresponding to a filtration efficiency of 99.5%) is four times more effective than a filter with a -value of 50 for particles of the same diameter (here, the filtration efficiency is 98%). In other words, a filter with (10 m) = 1000 or (10 m) = 99.9% allows only half as much dust and particles to pass through it as a filter with (10 m) = 500, i.e. (10 m) = 99.8% (Table 1). Although the percentage difference in efficiency is only 0.1%, filtration performance is twice as efficient.
20
Parameters for evaluating air filter media
21
Engine intake air filters

When running, modern car engines of medium size (with a power output of around 60 kW) induct about 6 m3 of air per minute. Depending on the type and place of use, the particle content in the air may range from less than 0.2 to 50 mg per m3 [4]. The total volume of contamination or particles directed into the vehicle in the course of its life can be estimated as follows. For the complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel, the engine requires 14 kg or 10.8 m3 of air. Assuming an annual mileage of 12,500 miles and fuel consumption of approximately 30 mpg, the engine inducts 12,400 m3 of air a year. This means that between 24 g and 6.2 kg of dust are directed into the vehicle engine over a period of ten years. The dust particles contained in the air inducted by the engine are of between 0.01 and 2000 m in diameter. Some 75% of the mass-related particles
Amount of particles
Fig. 10: Concentrations of dust under different conditions of use, measured 1 m from the ground
200 100 60 40 20 10 6 4 2 1 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.1 Crawler trucks
Dust concentration [mg/m3]
lie within the 5 to 100 m size range. In this regard, the overall distribution and concentration factors depend on the surrounding environment. Figure 10 represents the average mass concentration of dust under different conditions of use. If the air is poorly or only inadequately filtered, these particles of dust will penetrate into the engine and, to some extent, into the oil. In this way, they then penetrate into critical areas such as the clearance gaps between the cylinder liners and pistons, piston rings and conrods, where they cause wear on the components [5]. Particles suspended in the air not only contribute to wear in the engine but may also form deposits on the sensitive air mass sensor (HFM), which is located on the clean air side downstream of the intake filter. This sensor is responsible for metering the delivered volume of fuel. If the signal deviates from the desired value, losses of power will result, and thus increased fuel consumption and pollutant emissions. Modern air filters achieve filtration efficiency of up to 99.8% (cars) and 99.95% (commercial vehicles). As a result, inducted volumes of dust and the consequent risk of wear are substantially reduced.
Consequences of inadequate filtration
Convoy of vehicles Agricultural land Construction site Scandinavian and Southern European roads Other European roads

Modern air filter media are expected to comply with the filtration values laid down in the relevant specifications for, e.g. dust holding capacity and the overall degree of filtration efficiency under all operating conditions. The filter media must exhibit high stability under pulsating forces and not allow any dust to perRequirements of air filter media
22 Engine intake air filters

a)

b)
23
Fig. 11: A filter element made of high-efficiency non-woven material (left) takes up 35% less space than a paper filter element (right) of the same dust holding capacity and fineness.
meate even under dynamic conditions, i.e. engine pulsation. In addition, the typical structure of pleats (high area density occupying the minimum of space see also Fig. 11) of the filter element must not change if water penetrates into the filter, as may occur when the vehicle is driven through drizzle or rain. Furthermore, a good quality air filter medium must be resistant to engine oils, fuel fumes and crankcase gases which reach the medium from the intake air or as a result of diffusion (when the engine is stopped). Finally, materials must exhibit high thermal stability, since the temperatures at the filter element can rise to 90C when driving the vehicle. Material-related parameters Air filter media in motor vehicles consist of randomisations of natural (cellulose) or synthetic (e.g. polyester) fibers (Fig. 12). The characteristics of media are defined by data relating to grammage, thickness, air permeability
(DIN 53 887) or size of pore [6,7]. Other characteristics are resistance to tearing and bursting (DIN 53 113), bending (DIN 53 864), flame-retarding category (DIN 53 438), and fiber diameter and length. The diameters of cellulose and staple synthetic fibers lie between 10 and 50 m. Melt-blown (synthetic) fibers are finer. In the case of paper thicknesses
Filter medium Paper Multi-layer medium (composite) Non-woven1)
1)
Fig. 12: a) Standard filter paper b) Multi-layer filter paper (top: plan view; below: cross-section)
Specific dust holding capacity [g/m2] 190 220 230 250 900 1100
Grammage [g/m2] 100 120 100 120 230 250
High-efficiency non-woven, structure as Fig. 13
Configuration of air filter media
of 0.45 mm, cellulose-based air filter media have a grammage of around 100 g per m2. The parameters for various media are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2: Characteristic data for different filter media
24 Engine intake air filters Dust holding capacity In the development of new filter materials, the requirement for prolonged service intervals, i.e. high dust holding capacities, has priority. For example, efforts are being made to extend the service intervals for car filters to 75,000 miles without any increase in size. In the case of commercial vehicles, these values have already been reached or significantly improved upon, as a result of generously proportioned filter elements. The texture of modern filter media which meet these exacting demands is distinguished by a pronounced graded structure. Figure 13 shows
Direction of incoming air Filter medium

vcrit [cm/s] 10 17 33 > 99.5 > 99.5 > 99.8 Filtration efficiency [%] Car (gasoline) Paper Multi-layer medium (composite) Non-woven1)
1)
25
Car (diesel) > 99.8 > 99.8 > 99.8
Lorry > 99.9 > 99.9 > 99.9
Objective: longer service intervals
High-efficiency non-woven, structure as Fig. 13
Fig. 13: Section through a high-efficiency nonwoven material with noticeably graded structure, for air filtration
graded structure and the same filtration efficiency achieve a specific dust holding capacity of 900 to 1100 g per m2 (Tables 2 and 3). The area of the filter medium which can be contained in a filter element of a fixed size is less in the case of a synthetic non-woven than that of a cellulose medium. According to ISO 5011, the dust holding capacity of a filter element based on a synthetic non-woven is up to 50% greater than cellulose. Initial practical trials, however, indicate that increases of up to 150% can eventually be expected. Pleat patterns and impregnation Pleat patterns are particularly important for the functional efficiency of the filter element. Only if the arrangement of pleats remains unchanged is it possible for the specific dust holding capacity measured in the laboratory to be achieved throughout the lifetime of the filter. In the case of filter papers, this stability is partially achieved by impregnation, which significantly improves the bending resistance of the cellulose medium and protects the fibers from environmental influences. In addition, air filter media are embossed, with the result that the pleats support each other and thus stabilize the filter element. In the case of wholly synthetic media which are not impregnated, the embossing plays a particularly important role. Corru-
Table 3: Characteristic data for different filter media
Comparison of different media
a non-woven material which is considerably more dense on the clean air side than on the incoming air side. As a result of this controlled density progression, a graded and, in turn, selective degree of efficiency is achieved within the filter medium. This leads to excellent dust holding capacities which are significantly higher than the values for standard media. Standard materials based on cellulose achieve specific dust holding capacities up to 220 g per m2. By comparison, non-wovens with a
Stability and protection from environmental influences
Methods of examining air filter media
27
30 Pressure drop [mbar] 25 20 15

Paper filter element Non-woven filter element
Conveyor belt dust dispenser
Dust RI
10 5 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 Water input [l]
FIC
Compressed air Test specimen PI Absolute filter Fan Expansion tank
Fig. 14: The addition of water increases the resistance to volume flow (measured at the nominal flow rate) of non-woven filter media to a lesser extent than that of paper filter media.
Proportion by volume [%]
gated structures, for example, have proved successful here. In order to investigate how the distortion of pleats is affected by water, and how the consequent change in the pressure drop affects the filter element, an experiment was carried out in which water was applied to the media to simulate rain (Fig. 14). The diagram represents a comparison between the progressive losses of pressure in an impregnated paper air filter and a synthetic air filter. Although a high pressure drop rapidly builds up in the paper filter, the synthetic medium remains uncritical. Since cellulose media age or become brittle despite their protective impregnation, care must be taken to restrict their use to not more than five years, even in low-mileage vehicles. Damage cannot be ruled out, due to high thermal and mechanical stresses.
in ISO 5011, i.e. at a temperature of 235C and relative atmospheric humidity of 5515% (Fig. 15). The filtration efficiency can be determined by two complementary methods. First, the filtration efficiency is calculated from the relationship between the increase in weight of the filter medium and the weight of the dust directed into it. This method uses standardized dust (PTI coarse/fine) in order to obtain consistent comparable information on the retaining capacity of different filter
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.5 5 50 PTI fine PTI coarse
Fig. 15: Layout of a test rig for the investigation of filter media
Methods of examining air filter media

Standardized conditions The effectiveness of air filter media is determined under standardized conditions laid down
Particle diameter [m]
Fig. 16: Distribution of coarse and fine PTI dust by particle size. The proportion of particles with a diameter of 5 m is only 1% of coarse dust, 3% of fine dust. Particles with a diameter of 50 m account for 5% of coarse dust and around 2% of fine dust.
28 Engine intake air filters media (Fig. 16). Detailed information on the filtration efficiency of filter media is obtained from measuring the filtration efficiency as a function of particle size, i.e. the grade efficiency (x) (Fig. 17). The proportion of contamination directly relevant to the engine can be deduced from the complementary factor to the filtration efficiency , namely the degree of permeability D. If two filter media are considered, with a filtration efficiency of 99.5 and 99.9% respect100 98 96 94 92 90 0.1
Filtration efficiency after p = 1 mbar Filtration efficiency after p > 5 mbar
Requirements of modern air filter systems
29
50 Flow resistance [mbar] 40 30 20 10 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 Running time [h] = +140% Filter 1 Filter 2
Measurement of grade efficiency
Fig. 17: Grade efficiency of a standard filter medium. 97.5% of particles of 0.4 m in diameter are filtered out after a pressure drop increase of 1 mbar; when the differential pressure rises to 5 mbar, the grade efficiency is 100%.
1 Particle size [m]
10
and dust holding capacity
ively, the resulting degrees of permeability are 0.5 and 0.1%. This result immediately reveals that the volume of particles affecting the engine is four-fifths lower in the case of the second filter. Although its overall degree of filtration is only 0.4% higher, the second filter is five times more effective than the first. To determine dust holding capacity G, dust is directed onto the filter element until its resistance to permeability increases by a predefined value p (e.g. by 20 mbar in cars and 40 mbar in commercial vehicles at the nominal flow rates in each case). This ensures that the air
filter positioned in the intake duct does not affect engine output to any significant extent. The dust holding capacity G measured in the laboratory is correlated with the results of onroad trials to calculate the permitted period of use of the filter in the vehicle. The laboratory investigations are reinforced by regular practical tests using fleets of vehicles and stationary ambient air test rigs to determine this important information. These tests eventually show the progression of differential pressure at a constant air flow rate as a function of time (Fig. 18).
Fig. 18: The investigation into air filter media (filters 1 and 2) on the ambient air test rig realistically reflects the performance of the filter elements. The pressure drop at the filter element as a function of time is depicted.
Grade efficiency [%]
Requirements of modern air filter systems

A modern air filter system consists of an incoming air duct with air intake and a filter housing with filter element. Under certain circumstances, these are supplemented with dampers (resonators) to reduce noise at the mouth. The clean air duct, positioned downstream of the filter, contains the air mass sensor and terminates at the engine with the engine inlet manifold. The exhaust gas return system and crankAir filter system components

Fig. 19: A complete air intake system (modular design) including filter housing, air mass sensor, bypass resonator and engine inlet manifold
Requirements of modern air filter systems straints in terms of the space available for filters. A typical outcome of the desire for increasing passenger comfort is that an air conditioning system has become standard equipment, even in Europe. This, together with the power steering pump, the intercooler, the heat exchanger for recycled exhaust gas and the secondary turbocharger for reducing exhaust emissions reduce the space available for filters (Fig. 20). This has, amongst other things, led to the development of new filter media which achieve the same performance as traditional filter papers yet occupy up to 35% less space. In this way, the high degree of integration density required can be achieved for air filter systems (Fig. 21).
31
Reduced space for filters
Fig. 20: Available space in the engine compartment of vehicles of different years of manufacture
case gas feeder pipe are located between these (Fig. 19). The individual components are adapted in function and design to fit into the limited space under the hood. Modern high-performance engines, particularly car engines, repeatedly impose new con-
1.6-l engine Year of manufacture 1988
1.6-l engine Year of manufacture 1999
The position of the air intakes should be chosen to minimize exposure to dust and water. They should preferably be located in areas of the vehicle which are unaffected by the airstream, e.g. in the wheel arch enclosures or similarly unaffected locations in the engine compartment. In the case of trucks, the intake is usually positioned above the drivers cab roof or at the side of the cab to minimize the volumes of inducted dust [8] and to achieve longer service intervals (Fig. 22). With filter housings optimized for the incoming airflow, it is possible to utilize the potential of the filter media as regards dust holding
Fig. 21: By the use of new filter media, optimized flow control in the filter housing and an appropriately adapted acoustic layout, high integration densities can be achieved for filter systems (left: starting condition; right: optimized filter).

0 Permeating dust [%] 1 4 Intake point 1 3 2 2 3 4 Dust in filter [mg per 60 miles] 13 78 60 22 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0
Design criteria for engine air filter elements

100 99.8 99.6 99.4 99.2 99 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 Specific load [cm2/(m3/min)] Filtration efficiency [%]
33
Fig. 22: The position of the air intake is decisive for the volume of inducted dust and water (measured as per [8]). Fig. 23: Simulations of the airflow through a filter housing a) Non-uniform flow b) Uniform flow through the filter element
capacity and filtration efficiency to the utmost extent. The uniform airflow (Fig. 23) affords a consistently high degree of filtration from the very start (see also Fig. 24). The filter housing is frequently larger than would be necessary for filtration as its acoustic characteristics can be significantly improved by this (passive systems). This type is referred to as a silencing air filter because acoustic insulation and the filtration process are combined in a single component. Alternatively, the enlarged filter housing can be replaced by separate elements to insulate noises at the mouth of the intake. The advantage of separating the two functions
b)
a)
is that each element can be optimized for its particular purpose. In such cases, the filter housing, which must be accessible from above for inspections, can be made to the optimum degree of compactness. Another very recent method of noise insulation is offered by the Active Noise Control System. This absorbs the characteristic noises (frequency spectrum) of the engine and inverts them electronically, i.e. the phase angle is displaced from the original signal by half a wavelength. At an appropriate engine speed, the inverted signal is re-emitted through a loudspeaker and the initial noise actively silenced. Significantly improved silencing can be achieved with these systems, compared with passive systems.
Fig. 24: Diagram depicting penetrating dust or filtration efficiency as a function of specific load. At values below 1500 cm2/ (m3/min) or speeds higher than 11 cm/s, the degree of filtration declines drastically. If the flow onto the surface of the filter element is nonuniform, localized overloading may occur, leading to a reduction in filtration efficiency.
Design criteria for engine air filter elements

In the design of engine air filter elements, a distinction is made in respect of filtration efficiency between filters for cars with gasoline or diesel engines and filters for commercial vehicles (cf. Table 3). The area of the filter medium is calculated from the volume of air
Distinction between filters for cars
34 Engine intake air filters and commercial vehicles required by the engine. The mean volumetric flow rate for a four-stroke gasoline engine is 0.07 m3 per minute per kW and for a fourstroke diesel engine 0.08 m3 per minute per kW, based on the power output of the engine. For obvious reasons, the airflow rate is correspondingly higher in the case of turbocharged engines. To remove particles from the incoming air, a filter of sufficient area is installed so that the airflow speed does not exceed a certain critical value vcrit (cf. Fig. 24). The filtration efficiency of the filter is dependent on the airflow speed. Excessive speeds dramatically reduce filtration performance and, in turn, the filtration efficiency of the medium. If the airflow speed is too high, particles no longer cling to the fibers but bounce off. Moreover, trapped particles are re-released (re-entrainment effect). The filtration efficiency diminishes accordingly and the engine is subject to more wear and stress. These effects can be avoided if the correct filtration velocity is selected, because the particles are then able to form deposits on the fibers (Fig. 25). Each filter medium has a different characteristic airflow speed
Design criteria for engine air filter elements vcrit. Table 3 shows the critical speeds for different filter media with provision for the filtration efficiencies required by gasoline and diesel engines. To give an example of filter design: Given a specific volumetric airflow (V = 5 m3 per min) and type of vehicle (car with diesel engine), the filter area required to maintain the filtration efficiency is calculated. In this example equals 99.8%, with the result that a filter area of A = 1.25 m2 is required. The choice of filter medium is determined by the required dust holding capacity (e.g. 200 g) or the target service interval (37,500 miles). According to Table 2, the designated requirements are met by a square meter of standard filter paper. The use of a paper filter of this size, however, would exceed the critical filtration rate of vcrit = 10 cm per s. To achieve the required filtration efficiency, the larger area of 1.25 m2 would be needed. Single and two-stage air filters are installed in commercial vehicles. The choice of system depends on whether the vehicles are used on long-distance highways in Central Europe, over dust-laden terrain (e.g. construction sites, agricultural land), or on unmade tracks in South America. Single-stage air filters usually contain round star-pleated filter elements (Fig. 26). In exceptional cases, square filters are also used. The filtration efficiency of 99.9% laid down in the specification for the filter media is higher than that for cars, reducing dust permeability by 50% (from 0.2 to 0.1%). The underlying reason for this is the essentially longer operating hours of truck engines, equivalent to over 60,000 miles a year. Fail-safe filter elements are frequently integrated into air filters. When the main filter is changed, these prevent the clean air side from
35
and filtration efficiency
Relationship between filter area
Typical layout
airflow speed
Fig. 25: Photograph (taken with a scanning electron microscope) of particles of between 1 and 25 m in size, trapped by the filter medium

a) b)
Filter housings
37
Filter housings
In the design of the filter housing, two factors are of major importance, namely the available space and the ease of servicing, i.e. it should be possible to replace the filter element without difficulty. This aspect is directly linked to the requirements for the filter housing to be effectively sealed. Most air filter elements have a polyurethane (PUR) seal. The maximum permissible air leakage rates at a pressure drop of 20 mbar are 50 cm3 per min for trucks and 200 cm3 per min for cars. These levels are to be maintained under all operating conditions, i.e. at temperatures between 40 and +100C and under typical vehicle-related vibrations beFig. 27: Optimizing an air filter housing with the aid of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) computations and models of the corresponding distribution of the airflow on the unfiltered air side (right). The filter medium performs at its best when the airflow is uniformly distributed.
Fig. 26: a) Single-stage air filter with cylindrical filter element for commercial vehicles. Incoming air enters the inlet socket on the right, passes through the filter element and exits by way of the central pipe and air outlet socket at the top. b) Two-stage air filter for commercial vehicles. Incoming air is set in rotation by the tangential inlet. Dust is driven onto the outer walls, from where it falls into a collecting receptacle (bottom). The prefiltered air passes through the filter element.
becoming contaminated. Consisting usually of cylindrical non-woven elements, they are only replaced after around three main filter replacements, depending on dust levels. In the case of two-stage air filters, the air is prefiltered by the tangential inlet before it reaches the filter element. Coarse particles, in particular, are separated by centrifugal force. Depending on design, a prefiltration efficiency of up to 85% can be achieved. Significantly less dust reaches the downstream filter element, resulting in a marked increase in durability. At the same time, however, detailed optimization and adaptation are required, since fine dust clogs on the filter element much more rapidly than dust consisting of particles of all size categories. In the case of commercial vehicles, the filter element should be changed as soon as the pressure drop has risen by 40 mbar. The prefilter is similarly affected by a reduction in pressure, which must be taken into account to determine the nett length of service life.
38 Engine intake air filters Requirements for filter housings tween 20 and 250 Hz at which acceleration rates up to 15 g take effect (g = 9.81 m per s2). In addition, the design of the filter housing is essentially determined by the requirement for a constant airflow onto the element. Using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations, the housing can be systematically optimized in terms of shape and technically configured to accommodate the expected flow rate (Fig. 27). Due to differences in application, air filter housings are subdivided into designs for flat and cylindrical elements (Fig. 28). In the case of rectangular filters, of the type predominantly used in cars, the PUR profiled seal is placed in a groove in the housing and clamped in the axial direction by the filter cover. Cylindrical filter elements dominate the commercial vehicle field by virtue of their simple, radial sealing properties and greater strength. When the vehicle is running in bad weather, e.g. heavy rain or snow, and even when being driven through drizzle, water may penetrate the filter housing by way of the inducted air. To minimize its volume, water separators are installed in the intake duct in front of the filter housing. These consist of collar separators,
Oil filters for crankcase breathers baffle plates or, if the associated reduction in pressure is permitted, cyclones or anti-snow systems. At this stage, it should again be noted that the filter element does not retain water; if water gets that far, it will continue on through to the clean air side and into the engine.
39
Devices for water separation
Oil filters for crankcase breathers

In addition to filtration of the engine intake air, all internal combustion engines necessitate filtration of the air vented from the crankcase. When an engine is running, so-called blowby gases flow through the unavoidable clearance gaps between the pistons and cylinder liners, and in the valve guides and turbocharger bearings, into the crankcase. In addition to remnants of fuel and the intermediate and endproducts of the combustion process and soot, these gases sometimes contain significant amounts of engine oil. Droplets of oil, suspended in the blow-by gases, break away from the film of lubricant adhering to the pistons and cylinder liners, drip from rotating components and the piston crown cooling system, and form ultrafine condensation aerosols consisting of vaporized engine oil and water vapor. In the past, it was customary to extract the oil from this gas in a straightforward way and to release it into the atmosphere through an open breather. Today, this process is unacceptable to customers and legislators alike. The problem has been solved by the closed breather, whereby the blow-by gas including its impurities, is returned to the engine induction area. At the same time, however, the oil content and its associated soot can contaminate the turbocharger, air mass sensor, intercooler, valves and catalytic converters. Conta-
Fig. 28: Types of air filter elements for use in filter housings optimized for space (left: trapezoidal, tapered oval cylinder, orthodox cylinder and rectangular filter elements; right: rectangular filter element with step)
Removal of oil from blow-by gases
by closed breathers
40 Engine intake air filters mination of this nature can affect both the combustion process and exhaust emissions, as well as impair the operation and durability of the specified components. To ensure the reliable operation of engines over increasingly prolonged periods of service, it is essential for these elements in blow-by gases to be extracted [9, 10]. The average diameter of the oil droplets (representing all the other aerosols and the ultrafine particles and soot they contain) in the gas is only around 0.9 m (Fig. 29). As a reFig. 29: Typical distribution of the droplet size of oil mist aerosols in the crankcase breather [9]
41
Methods of oil mist separation
Diffusion separators (coalescent)
Inertia or impact separators
Electric separators
Wire mesh and fiber filters
Centrifugal separators (cyclones)
Electric filters
100
Volumetric content [%]
Labyrinth and impact separators
80 60 40 20 0 0.01
Centrifuges and separators
0.1
10
100
Droplet size [m]
sult, only a few methods can be considered for effective filtration (Fig. 30) [9]. These are subdivided into diffusion or coalescent separators, inertia or impact separators, and electrostatic separators, depending on their basic physical characteristics. In addition to the principal requirements for use in motor vehicles, other parameters include the least possible reduction in pressure (due to the partial vacuums required in the crankcase) and compactness. In order to keep down service costs for vehicle
users, separators should also be designed as long-life components. Suitable filtration methods are selected for the intended task on the basis of physical characteristics and customer requirements. The selection is made with the aid of an evaluation matrix (Table 4). This, however, reveals that the ideal filter does not exist. In order to harmonize customers requirements with technical and economic specifications, it therefore becomes necessary to work out a specific solution in each individual case. The simplest and most cost-effective separators are cyclones, i.e. centrifugal separators in which the blow-by gas rotates inside a tapered cylinder. Due to their mass inertia, the droplets of oil are drawn from the gas flow and precipitated onto the wall of the housing. The clean gas leaves the cyclone through a central pipe. Provided the cyclone separator is properly de-
Fig. 30: Methods of filtering oil mist in the crankcase breather [9]
Cyclone separators

Cyclone Filtration efficiency Pressure drop Space required Flow rate dependency Lifetime component Costs Auxiliary energy required Mounting restrictions Modular integration feasible + to ++ 0 ++ to 0 yes ++ no + ++ Fiber demister 0 to ++ + to + 0 no + to no + ++ Centrifuges ++ ++ + + yes yes + ++ Electrostatic separator ++ ++ 0 + yes yes + +
43
Table 4: Criteria for evaluating different separating processes
Fiber or diffusion filters
signed and an adequate drop in pressure is available, excellent degrees of separation can be achieved. By utilizing the opportunity to direct the gas through a number of cyclones arranged in parallel, exceptionally compact dimensions can be achieved, allowing them to be integrated into small spaces. Moreover, the fact that cyclone separators are designed as lifetime components is an important decision-making criterion. Figure 31 shows two parallel cyclones integrated into an oil filter module. With fiber or diffusion filters (coalescent elements), the most minute droplets can also be extracted with a high degree of filtration efficiency. At the same time, however, there is a risk that the soot particles in the blow-by gas will clog the fiber layer, causing the reduction in pressure to increase with advancing operating hours. In most cases, therefore, these
components are designed as service parts and are configured to provide adequate degrees of reliability. Centrifuges are inertia separators. The forces available for the separation process can be significantly increased in the centrifugal zone, enabling even the most minute droplets to be separated. The separation capacity can be adjusted by regulating the speed of the centrifuge independently of the operating conditions of the engine. The pressure drop from a separator of this type depends on its design; in extreme cases, it is even possible to increase the pres-
Fig. 31: Oil filter module with integral duplex cyclone for the separation of oil droplets from blow-by gas
Centrifuges

Fig. 32: Cross-section of a disk stack centrifuge for the separation of oil mist aerosols in the crankcase breather
Oil filters for crankcase breathers the engine. Electrostatic separators incur additional costs, as a high-voltage supply and electrical insulation and shielding are required. If the blow-by gases contain a high proportion of soot, deposits can form on the electrodes. These must be regularly removed, otherwise a complete failure of the system may result. The essential challenge lies in designing oil separators which meet technical requirements, i.e. which are functionally reliable and optimized to fit their allocated space, e.g. in the housing of an oil filter module or on a valve cover (cf. Fig. 31).
45
Drive system
Cleaned blow-by gas
Objective: integrated solutions
Rotating plate stack Blow-by gas inlet Oil drain
Electrostatic separators
sure. The use of centrifuges, however, incurs additional costs because it is a rotating component which must be driven and appropriately mounted and sealed. Centrifuges are also lifetime components. Figure 32 shows a platetype separator of a design suitable for oil separation. The highest degree of separation with minimal pressure drop is achieved with electrostatic separators [11]. After being electrically charged, the droplets of oil migrate towards separating electrodes under the effect of an electrical field. Here again, the exceptional efficiency is achieved by an additional external force, in this case electrical. This ensures reliable separation, independent of the operating state of
46
Wear and filtration
47
Lube oil filtration

Wear and filtration
Demands for lube oil The lubricating oil in internal combustion engines fulfils a number of important tasks. First, it reduces friction in bearings and clearance gaps, and between moving parts, thus reducing wear of metal components. At the same time, it serves to dissipate heat and to provide protection against corrosion. Thin films of oil seal off the combustion chamber and transmit forces. Finally, the lubricating oil plays a contributory role in keeping the engine clean by loosening and dispersing impurities, i.e. holding them in suspension so that they are unable to form deposits. Nevertheless, impurities of all kinds do collect in the engine oil and penetrate into the engine from a wide variety of sources. They include organic and inorganic particles of dust from the surrounding air which are even capable of permeating high-efficiency air filters. The oil also contains residual contaminants from the production and assembly of the engine and its components, as well as abraded metal fines (particles from wear) and soot from the incomplete combustion of the fuel. To this water (condensates), acids from the combustion process and unburnt fuel (which dilutes the oil) must be added. These combine with the decomposition products of the oil, e.g. the oxidation and reaction products of the additives, to form a complex, multi-phase fluid mixture. If the engine oil is insufficiently filtered or not changed at the appropriate time, wear-relevant particles penetrate into the narrow gaps in bearings etc. and may cause damage. Since the oil is in a continuous state of circulation, the wearing processes occur repeatedly. In time, this
Fig. 33: Traces of wear on a piston caused by particle abrasion
Sources and composition of impurities
Consequences of
can lead to increased oil and fuel consumption, reduced engine power and a marked increase in environmental pollution from exhaust emissions. Finally, if the wear limits are exceeded, a risk of severe damage may arise to the engine. Figure 33 shows a piston exhibiting severe wear patterns on the running surfaces as a consequence of the friction caused by particles. The relevance of individual particles or accumulations of particles to wear also depends on the engine itself, e.g. the tolerances and size of the clearance gaps in bearings etc. In recent years, significant improvements have been achieved in this field. Production methods have been further refined while, at the same time, machining tolerances have been reduced and, with them, the size of lubricating clearances. As a result, even particles with diameters of around 1 m and more have now become critical, particularly when they occur in high
inadequate filtration
Wear relevance
48 Lube oil filtration

Fig. 34: Graph showing the effect of wear relevance as a function of particle size
0.4 Abrasion [mg] 0.3 0.2 0.1
Wear and filtration [12]. With high concentrations in the oil, small particles can cause wear and abrasion to the same extent as their larger counterparts. The above comments have made clear the importance of ensuring a high standard of filtration for engine oil. The oil filter which, like the air filter, is of the depth-filter type, represents an effective trap for solid particles. Figure 36 illustrates a selection of full-flow engine oil filter elements in current use. It must be said, however, that even a high-efficiency
49
10
20
30
40
50
60
Particle diameter [m]
Fig. 35: Graphs showing the effect of wear (as per ISO 4402) for three different particle sizes as a function of particle concentrations
20 16 12 8 4 0 102
concentrations. Individual particles of between 8 and 60 m, in particular, cause severe wear (Fig. 34). Abraded metal fines in the engine have been measured with the aid of tracermarked metals to reveal variations in the relevance of individual particles to wear. Large particles (over 60 m) also pose a serious threat when they disintegrate, they fall precisely into the critical categories of grain size. The relationship between friction or wear and concentrations of particles is demonstrated in Figure 35 in respect of particles of three sizes
Fig. 36: Selection of oil filters (metal-free elements and spin-ons with paper, composite or synthetic filter media)
Wear parameter
> 3 m > 5 m > 15 m
103 104 105 Operating period until damage incident [h]
106
oil filter element cannot prolong the intervals between oil changes or delay chemical reactions. Particle separation reduces wear and deposits to a significant extent. A problem may arise if an excessive amount of soot gets into the oil, as can happen in the case of modern diesel engines (cf. Bypass oil filtration p. 61).
Full-flow oil filtration

Full-flow filter
51
50 Service interval [103 km] 40

Bypass valve
30 20 10 0 <1940 1950 1960 1972 1982 1992 1995 2000 2005 Year Averages Forecast
Oil pump
Oil cooler
Gasoline/diesel engine
Pressure regulating valve Oil pan
Fig. 37: Changes of oil filter service intervals for European cars (with gasoline engines) with time
By meeting the increasing requirements imposed by advances in engine development, the industry is able to offer the motorist the advantage of extended filter replacement intervals. Figure 37 illustrates this trend, taking as an example the oil filters for gasoline-engined cars in Europe.

Motor vehicles are fitted with full-flow oil filters which reliably separate fine and coarse particles. Their efficiency is satisfactory if the oil does not become contaminated with a high proportion of ultrafine particles in the intervals between services. Figure 38 shows the function of a full-flow filter in the oil circuit. The oil pump draws oil from the sump which, if necessary, is cooled in an oil cooler, then directed to the full-flow filter. A pressure regulating valve returns any surplus oil to the sump. Since all the oil must pass through the fullflow filter, a compromise is generally reached between filtration efficiency (which, in the case of comparably configured filter media, is
Full-flow oil circuit layout
generally proportional to the differential pressure) and the size of the filter. The full-flow filter may be circumvented by a bypass valve mounted in a bypass line. The valve opens depending on the differential pressure of the filter element, thereby assuring the supply of oil to the engine which takes precedence over the filtration of the oil. Bypassing the full-flow filter may be necessary, e.g. in conditions where very low temperatures prevail and oil viscosity is high. For this reason, it is particularly important to ensure that the filter element is in sound condition, otherwise the bypass valve will open too early, e.g. under normal operating conditions, allowing a continuous flow of unfiltered oil to bypass the filter. The appropriate design and layout of the bypass valve is an essential quality feature of a spin-on filter, though generally, this is beyond the control of the motorist. The oil filter must be changed at the very latest as soon as the maximum differential pressure is reached, which, dependent on the car manufacturers specifications, ranges between 1.5
Fig. 38: Diagram depicting the position of the full-flow filter in the oil circuit
Oil supply has priority
Conditions for oil filter replacement
52 Lube oil filtration and 2.5 bar. Even under normal operating conditions, high forces act on the filter medium. To prevent the pleats from clinging together, the filter medium undergoes an appropriate preliminary pleating and embossing process. Figure 39 shows a cutaway drawing of a typical spin-on filter. This reveals the filter medium and its star-pleated pattern which offer large filtration areas while occupying the minimum of space. Additional zigzag
One-piece silicone reverse flow valve Long-life elastomer gasket
53
Fig. 40: Oil filter module designed for a fourcylinder diesel engine with metal-free filter element and additional integrated functions (oil cooler, pressure and temperature sensors, oil heater, valves, mounting fixture for the alternator, flow channels for oil and water)
Long-life filter medium
Teflon-coated bypass valve
Fig. 39: Cutaway illustration of a modern spin-on oil filter; the innovative medium shown here is fully resistant to synthetic oils
Oil filter module
pleats do not achieve any greater area with the same volume. Instead, they have sharp-edged creases, increasing the risk of the paper being damaged. In the illustration, the bypass valve (below) can also be seen, together with the one-piece reverse-flow valve which prevents the filter from being drained when the engine is not running, thereby ensuring that the oil can achieve its full lubricating effect as soon as the engine is started. An oil filter module (Fig. 40) represents a more expensive option. In addition to the non-metallic filter element, which can be disposed of without polluting the environment, the oil cooler is also incorporated in the module. In addition, it contains sensors which
monitor the oil pressure and temperature and (in the future) the quality of the oil, enabling its condition to be determined at any given time. Another advantage is that it ensures reliable control of the liquid flows (oil, water) within the module, thus eliminating the timeconsuming connection of hoses during assembly. What is more, the integration of the ducts into the module means that less space is required than in the case of a configuration consisting of individual components. With the incorporation of other elements, e.g. a heating system, a bypass oil filter, multi-cyclones for crankcase ventilation (see Design criteria for engine air filter elements, p. 33), or a mounting fixture for other attachments to the engine, these multifunctional oil filter modules are increasingly superseding existing spin-on filters.
Integration of additional functions
54 Lube oil filtration Grade efficiency and filtration efficiency In contrast to the filtration of engine intake air and fuel, no generally binding minimum filtration efficiency is specified for engine oil. Manufacturers stipulate widely varying oil filtration efficiencies for their engines in their specifications; the grade efficiency curves for the individual media also vary to a similar extent (Fig. 41). The standard value x3,50 serves as the yardstick for average filFig. 41: Graphs showing the filtration efficiencies of different filter media
100 Filtration efficiency [%] 80 60 40 20 0 0 5
Composite I 100% synthetic medium Composite II Long-life medium Standard cellulose Lifetime medium
Full-flow oil filtration filter media and the design of full-flow oil filters, particular attention must be paid to ensuring that initial pressures are kept to a minimum. At the same time, there is a clear counter-trend towards so-called lifetime oil filter designs. Sacrificing filtration efficiency, the filters used in these cases only guarantee the reliable retention of relatively large particles (> 20 m). They exhibit excellent chemical resistance to all the substances of which oil is composed. Compared with standard oil filter elements of the same dimension, some offer over 200% more particle holding capacity and permit service intervals to be extended accordingly. Compared with a standard oil filter medium, the outstanding feature of the new filter media based on composites or wholly synthetic fibers is their excellent filtration performance, as demonstrated in Figure 42 which shows their efficiency in filtering particles of 10 m in diameter. The filter media undergo a multipass test to ISO 1548-12 under constant conditions. In the test, the oil is circulated and the filtration efficiency of the test filter determined with the continuous introduction of contaminants using particle counters. Compared with the 9-m standard filter medium, the 4-m composite medium is not just twice as
Number of particles [1/ml]
55
Improved solutions
Development of innovative filter media
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Particle diameter [m]
Increasing requirements
tration efficiency (see Basics of filtration, p. 9). In many cases, an average filtration efficiency x3,50 of 9 or 12 m is specified for full-flow oil filters. These figures, however, should always be considered in conjunction with the standards and regulations underlying the measurements. As in the case of fuel filtration, new measuring methods very often produce different results. In order to permit the data obtained by different methods to be compared, they must be reciprocally converted using standardizing graphs. The requirements for the purity of oil are becoming increasingly severe. For this reason, filter media of extreme fineness, e.g. x3,50 = 4 m are being developed. In the development of
1200 800 400 0 x3,50 = 4-m composite medium 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Time [min]
x3,50 = 9-m standard medium
Fig. 42: Filtration efficiency of two filter media in comparison (multipass test as per ISO 4548-12; particle reference diameter: 10 m)
57
100 Filtration efficiency [%] 80 60 40 20 0
Particle fractions: 3 m 15 m 4 m 20 m 5 m 25 m 6 m 30 m 7 m 35 m 8 m 40 m 10 m 45 m 12 m 50 m
10
20
30 40 Time [min]
50
60
70
Fig. 43: Original efficiency curves of a multipass test (as per ISO 4548-12)
Measurement of filtration efficiency
and verification of leaks
efficient, but rather thanks to its multi-layer texture, it separates particles of 10 m in diameter (in this case the selected reference diameter) from the lube oil more effectively by a factor of 20. The potential of the filtered oil to induce wear is correspondingly reduced. Figure 43 shows the results with a complete range of particles typical of a test run on the multi-pass test rig. The values for a total of 16 particle categories (from 3 to 50 m) were measured and recorded, from which the progression over time of the filtration efficiency of the respective filter was derived. The differential pressure initially rises slowly but develops rapidly at the end. The diagram represents a good quality 12-m standard filter (x3,50 value). The most minute leaks can be identified from the multi-pass test. These reveal themselves by, for example, a sudden drop in the filtration efficiency of a certain category of particle size. At the component itself, these leaks, which are very difficult to verify gravimetrically, only become noticeable at high differential pressures. As a criterion for discontinuing the test, a near-practical final pressure loss of
2 bar is used. The test rig can be seen in Figure 44. Packing density The size is an important aspect in the development of oil filters. Due to the restricted space available in the engine compartment, filters are optimized to comply with far more stringent dimensions than was the case in the past. This is leading to higher specific filtration velocities in both design and practice. Provision must be made for these at the design stage (e.g. flow distribution or support for the pleats) to the same extent as in the development of new filter media. To accommodate these filtration velocities which differ from the earlier standard, synthetic fibers are increasingly being used. Instead of pure cellulose fibers (homogenous texture) or filter media made of paper reinforced with synthetic fibers, composites consisting of multiple cellulose and non-woven or melt-blown
Fig. 44: Multi-pass test rig for the on-line measurement of particle filtration as per ISO 4548-12
Optimization of filter size
using synthetic filter media
59
Specific particle holding capacity [g/m2]
200 160 120 80 40 0

Standard Long-life Comcellulose medium posite I Com100% Lifetime posite II synthetic medium medium
Composite medium
Fig. 46: Specific particle or dust holding capacities of different filter media
Synthetic high-tech fiber layer (melt-blown)

Layer 1 (melt-blown) Layer 2 (paper)
Mixed fiber medium (paper)
Fig. 45: Design and texture of a typical composite filter medium
Properties of filter media
layers, and wholly synthetic media (nonwovens) are used. Figure 45 shows a composite filter medium consisting of two layers, one of which is a layer of melt-blown fibers with a high particle holding capacity while the other is a paper layer of high filtration efficiency (a homogenous mixture of cellulose and synthetic fibers) which also adds to the mechanical strength of the composite. The know-how to combine individual layers essentially influences the performance data of the filter media. Fiberglass media (with very small fiber diameters), which could potentially be used as a result of their outstanding filtration characteristics, too, have so far been rejected by most vehicle manufacturers, due to their potential for inducing wear and problems of fiber migration, for which solutions have so far not been found. Figure 46 depicts the particle holding capacity of the filter media shown in Figure 41. A comparison reveals that increased filtration efficiency does not necessarily equate to a reduced particle holding capacity. On the contrary, thanks to the special design of composite and wholly synthetic filter media, service life
and, in turn service intervals can be prolonged, even in the case of considerably improved filtration efficiency. Chemical resistance of filter media Wholly synthetic low-viscosity oils, with newly developed additives which are intended to prolong their service life or intervals between changes, act much more aggressively on filter media than the mineral and semi-synthetic oils previously used. This is demonstrated in Figure 47 with examples of two oil filter media.
6 Bursting strength [bar] 5 4 3 2 1 0 0
Standard filter medium Full synthetic oil Semi-synthetic oil Long-life filter medium
Aggressive synthetic oils
200
400 600 Time immersed [h]
800
1000
Fig. 47: The aging of filter media in lube oils; diagram shows strength vs. time (laboratory data; T = 140C)
60 Lube oil filtration These were subjected to prolonged immersion in different engine oils at 140C to determine their resistance to ageing. The graphs relate to bursting strength, a yardstick for the mechanical strength of a filter medium over time. They show that synthetic oil has a much more damaging effect on filter media than its semisynthetic counterpart. The use of a long-life medium is recommended for these applications, given that it performs significantly better than a pure cellulose medium, despite a deterioration in strength, too. The increased stress on oil filter media imposed by modern high-performance engines can also be verified by the results of field trials. At this stage, it should be noted that the data have been influenced by many parameters the quality of the (different) oils, their reaction products and temperature during service and the intervals between changes being worthy of mention. Figure 48 shows the ageing of filter media in cars with gasoline engines; the results are from field trials carried out between 1980 and 2000. The considerable spread of the data results
Bypass oil filtration from the multiplicity of engines covered by the trials and the conditions under which the vehicles were used. As a case in point, police vehicles are in constant use, but only over short distances, so that the engine is often started from cold and is usually run at higher speeds. The oils and oil filters used in highmileage vehicles were also investigated and the results are shown in the diagram, too. One particular, non-quantifiable influence is the motorists personal driving style. The diagram illustrates the bursting strength of the filter media (to DIN 53113 or ISO 2758) obtained from the used filter elements, as a function of the completed mileage. The results can be summed up in two general statements. First, media strength declines with increasingly prolonged use, as confirmed by the results of the laboratory tests (cf. Fig. 47). Secondly, the measured values reveal that the filter media in the engines of the latest generations of vehicles are more heavily stressed than was previously the case. Although no functional failures occurred in any of the oil filter elements investigated, and residual strengths continued to be adequate even in extreme cases (> 0.8 bar), the use of filter media capable of withstanding high mechanical stresses is recommended. Field trials on filter media ageing
61
affect mechanical strength
Conclusions
Fig. 48: Results of field tests showing filter media aging in vehicles with gasoline engines
5 Bursting strength [bar] 4 3 2 1 0 6,000 12,000 18,000 24,000 30,000 36,000 1980 1995 1997 2000
116 Vehicles 59 Vehicles Upper limit Averages Lower limit
Bypass oil filtration

As previously mentioned, a high concentration of minute particles can cause just as much wear as a high proportion of large particles (cf. Fig. 34). So-called bore polishing is particularly serious. When this occurs, areas of the cylinder liners become exceptionally highly polished in the course of time, with the result that films of oil no longer cling to the surface and the lubricating film breaks away. Relevance of ultrafine particles to wear
Mileage [miles]
62 Lube oil filtration The smallest particles act as polishing paste in the fine lubricating clearances and on the cylinder liners. Problems may also arise in the case of ageing oils with a high proportion of ultrafine particles and at low temperatures. These increase the viscosity of the oil and detract from its lubricating properties [13]. To overcome these risks, high-mileage dieselengine vehicles with prolonged intervals between changes (applicable to heavy-duty or HD vehicles, for example) and a high incidence of soot can be fitted with an additional separation step for ultrafine particles by installing, e.g. a bypass oil filter in the oil circuit (Fig. 49). A small proportion of the oil flow is diverted from the circuit upstream of the fullflow oil filter, at a location where the maximum oil pressure is available, and directed through a bypass oil filter. The diverted bypass flow corresponds to 5 to 10% of the total oil flux. To achieve the desired filtration of soot particles with a diameter of less than 1 m, the filter medium must be correspondingly finer and the filtration efficiency below that of the full-flow filter (the size of the primary parFull-flow filter
63
Increasing oil viscosity
Soot, fine particles
New filter element
End-of-life filter element
Bypass flow filtration
Fig. 49: Full-flow and bypass flow oil filters in the oil circuit of a diesel engine
Oil cooler
Bypass valve Flow throttle
Oil pump
Pressure regulating valve
Bypass filter
Oil pan
Diesel engine
ticles of soot is only in the nanometer range, but these form agglomerates and clusters which than can be physically efficiently separated). With the increasing contamination of the bypass filter element, the volume of oil flowing through this filter diminishes, while filtration efficiency continues to increase. Figure 50 depicts new and contaminated bypass filter elements for comparison. Depending on size, a filter element of this type in, e.g. a HD vehicle, should trap around 500 g of soot and ultrafine particles between oil changes. In this way, ultrafine particles are removed in a bypass filter which, because of their small size, otherwise consistently permeate the full-flow oil filter and cause increased wear at the lubricating points or increase the viscosity of the oil [14]. Figure 51 indicates the progressive increase in viscosity of a semi-synthetic oil as a function of soot concentration at a constant temperature. In general, a substantial rise in viscosity starts with a mass concentration of around 3%. This can lead to a delay in the full supply of lubricating oil to the engine, particularly when
Fig. 50: Bypass filter elements in new and end-of-life condition (laden mainly with soot particles)
Filtered particle amount between oil changes

Fig. 51: Lube oil viscosity as a function of soot particle concentration in the oil (results of measurements with different new and used oils)
65
Relative viscosity [%]
300 200 100 0
5 10 Soot content [% by mass]
15
Centrifuges as an alternative to bypass oil filters
Advantages of centrifuges
started from cold, and cause increased wear as a result of deficient lubrication [15]. As investigations, e.g. into urban buses, have shown, volumes of soot increase in practice by up to 15% between routine oil service intervals. Another very effective method of removing ultrafine soot particles from the bypass oil flow is offered by using centrifuges. Instead of a bypass oil filter element, an free jet centrifuge made of metal or plastic is used. The plastic type is distinguished by light weight and environmentally friendly disposal. Dispensing with an external source of energy, centrifuges are driven by the oil pressure alone. With the aid of small, open jet nozzles, they are accelerated up to speeds of 10,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). After the oil has passed through the separator, it returns unpressurized to the sump. Due to the high centrifugal forces generated, centrifuges achieve a high degree of separation efficiency for ultrafine particles. At the same time, the filter cake which forms on the inside of the rotor wall is very compact, so a lot of soot can be stored. After service, the rotor, packed with fine particles, is removed and simply replaced by a new one. Centrifuges thus constitute an effective alternative to bypass flow filter elements. The size
550 h
New rotor
500 g of soot and dust
of the centrifuge used depends on the service intervals between oil changes or replacements of the full-flow oil filter. Figure 52 shows cross-sections of a plastic rotor before and after use. The compact filter cakes in the individual compartments can be seen clearly. A compact arrangement for full-flow and bypass oil filtration is shown in Figure 53. The fullflow oil filter and the centrifuge (or a bypass oil filter element, depending on the customers demands) are mounted in a single housing. Besides HD applications the potential for these small centrifuges extends even to diesel engines for cars. A conflict has arisen with the increasingly severe directives on exhaust emissions (EURO 4 and EURO 5). The combustion process can only be optimized to bring about a reduction in the emissions of either nitrogen oxides or soot particles. At present, the tendency favors keeping down NOx concentrations. In this way, attempts are being made to circumvent the use of SCR technologies (known from power station emissions) or
Fig. 52: Plastic centrifuge rotors in new condition (left) and after separation of ultrafine particles (right) for bypass flow oil filtration
Potential application: diesel engines for cars
Conflict reduction in NOx emissions

Fig. 53: Combined full-flow filter element and bypass flow centrifuge; the design is optimized to minimize the necessary space
Bypass oil filtration they have no effect on the ageing of the oil. Nevertheless, the use of bypass oil filters relieves the burden on the full-flow oil filter to some extent, with the result that the differential pressure in that filter progresses more slowly. A bypass oil filter has a further positive effect. As a result of the additional volume of the second circuit, more oil is filled from the very outset. As a result, specific unit loadings are reduced, allowing intervals between oil services to be slightly prolonged. It remains to be said that lube oil should continue to be changed at the intervals recommended by the vehicle manufacturer. Omitting an oil change because a bypass oil filter element or centrifuge has been installed carries an inherent risk and may cause serious damage to the engine.
67
Oil changing not superfluous
or generation of soot
accumulator-type catalytic NOx converters. This, however, increases the production of soot with the consequence that the concentrations of particles also increase in the oil and, in turn, the blow-by gas. The question frequently arises in connection with bypass oil filtration as to whether oil change intervals can be extended in this way or whether oil changing can be dispensed with altogether. The response can be summarized by three clear statements: Even lube oil is subject to ageing. If, e.g. additives, acid buffers and other constituents which effect lubricating properties are used, the oil must be changed. Filters are mechanical separators which, by trapping particles, ensure that the oil is able to fulfill its intended functions. However,
Evaluation of bypass oil filtration
68
Gasoline filters
69
Fuel filters
Functions of a modern fuel filter
Sources of contamination Like every other operating fluid, fuel is subject to a certain contamination by particles which get into it in the course of the production process, during transportation and storage and, finally, whenever the tank is refilled. After the refueling process, further contamination occurs as a result of particles and water entering by way of the fuel tank vent pipe. This access route becomes a matter of particular importance if the surrounding air is dustladen or excessively humid or if severe temperature fluctuations occur during the day. Other sources of impurities are to be found in the residual contaminants from the manufacture of all the fuel supply components and the penetration of soot by way of the engine oil in the case of oil-lubricated fuel pumps (although today, only commercial vehicles are still fitted with in-line pumps). The contamination itself is composed of both extremely hard mineral particles and organic particles such as soot and tar. To comply with DIN EN 590, the particle content of diesel fuels must not exceed 24 mg per liter. The international automotive industry associations recommend values below 24 mg per kg [16]. In Germany, the particle content of diesel fuels is usually below 10 mg per liter. In the fuel sold worldwide, however, high concentrations of contaminants which considerably exceed the above limits are increasingly being found. The risk of wear, nevertheless, is not determined by the overall particle content alone, but essentially by the distribution of the particles
by size. Expressed in absolute values, a liter of diesel fuel contains more than 5 104 particles over 15 m in size (coarse fraction), and over 5 105 particles over 5 m in size (fine fraction). To protect even modern diesel injection systems, the coarse fraction must be almost entirely removed by the fuel filter, i.e. by a factor significantly higher than 100. In investigations into wear, the fine fraction has also revealed itself to be critical. In recent years, the filtration efficiency of the finest particle fraction, which can now be determined by standardized test methods (3 to 5 m) has accordingly been established as the characteristic parameter for filter fineness. Injection systems in modern gasoline and diesel engines react sensitively to even minute impurities in the fuel. Damage occurs principally as a result of particle erosion and, in the case of diesel engines, by corrosion attributable to excessive amounts of water in the fuel.
Relevance of size distribution
Gasoline filters
The arrangement and function of the fuel filter in the fuel supply system of a gasoline engine Modern gasoline engines are equipped with solenoid-actuated injectors which inject fuel either into the inlet manifold upstream of each inlet valve (inlet manifold injection) or directly into the cylinder (direct injection). The function of the fuel filter is to protect the injection components (particularly the electric injector) from wear and the penetration of particles into the engine combustion chamber which could cause wear. Engines with inlet manifold injection and electronically controlled unit injection systems currently operate at injection pressures of 3 to
Composition
Protection of sensitive injection systems
70
Fuel filters The high-pressure pump pumps fuel into a pressurized accumulator, which is directly connected to the injectors, at pressures up to 120 bar. Fuel pressure is controlled by means of a pressure sensor and pressure regulating valve. By comparison with inlet manifold injection systems, direct injection engines must be protected against wear by considerably finer fuel filters. Firstly, the pressures at the injector are higher by a factor of 30 while, secondly, other components such as the pressurized accumulator and pressure regulating valve of the injection system must be protected from penetrating particles. Required filtration efficiencies The required filtration efficiency (initial particle retention efficiency to ISO/TR 13353, part 1: 1994, see Methods of testing fuel filters, p. 85) is determined as the result of test rig and field trials conducted by the manufacturers of engines and injection systems in conjunction with filter manufacturers. Figure 55 depicts recommendations on the minimum initial particle retention efficiency for gasoline
Gasoline filters
71
Pressure regulator Fuel filter
Fuel distributor (fuel throughway)
Electric fuel pump (EFP) Return line
Finer filters required
Injectors
Sensors Control unit Fuel tank
Fig. 54: Fuel supply system to a gasoline engine with inlet manifold injection
Fuel supply circuit
4 bar. In these systems, fuel is directed by the electric fuel pump to the injectors by way of the fuel filter and the distributor manifold (Fig. 54). The injectors are protected by additional filters (small screening filters with a very large mesh of at least 200 m). Fuel pressure is maintained at a constant level by a pressure regulating valve. Surplus fuel is diverted and returned to the tank by way of a return line. The volume of fuel delivered by the fuel pump and, in turn, the nominal rate of flow through the fuel filter, is significantly higher than the actual fuel consumption. For direct injection, considerably higher injection pressures are required to achieve the requisite mixture in the cylinder. The fuel supply system is divided into a low-pressure circuit with the fuel pump and a high-pressure circuit. In direct injection engines, the fuel pump serves merely to maintain a constant admission pressure of around 3.5 bar in the high-pressure circuit. The fuel filter, on the other hand, is located downstream of the pump.
Fig. 55: Recommendations for the minimum initial particle retention efficiencies of gasoline filters
Initial particle retention efficiency (3-5 m) [%]
100 95 85 67 50
Extreme conditions Minimum requirements ISO/TR 13353: 1994
25 Carburetor
Indirect injection up to 4 bar
Direct injection up to 120 bar
72
Fuel filters injection systems. The data represent the current situation and will have a tendency to rise in future years. If an engine is operated with high concentrations of particles in the fuel or intake air, finer fuel filters will be needed to provide effective protection against wear. These critical conditions occur during journeys over corresponding terrain or when refueling elsewhere than in Europe, Japan or the North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA). Gasoline filter designs The preferred design for gasoline filters is the in-line filter (Fig. 56). In some cases, the pressure regulating valve is incorporated in the filter head. Depending on its position in the engine compartment (crash safety) and the speduction in overall emissions of hydrocarbons, moreover, necessitates all the external components of the low-pressure circuit such as the fuel pump, fine filter and pressure regulating valve being integrated to form an in-tank module. Other components such as the fuel gauge, surge pot and optional prefilter, which protects the pump, can likewise be integrated to form an in-tank unit. Figure 57 depicts a modern long-life filter for a unit of this type. Construction of the filter element and medium Current requirements for filtration efficiency and particle storage capacity call for innovative filter designs. The service life (particle storage capacity) of a simple screen-type filter (surface filter) is only about one-tenth of that of modern deep-bed filter media of the same degree of fineness. These media,
Gasoline filters
73
Recommendations for minimum filtration efficiency
Direction of flow
Fig. 57: Filter elements for lifetime use, of irregular shape to make the optimum use of the space in in-tank units
Fig. 56: Gasoline filter, for mounting in the fuel line; the filter element features outward radiating pleats
cifications of the vehicle manufacturer, the filter housing may be made of plastic, aluminum or even of sheet steel. Maintenance-free lifetime fuel filters are increasingly being specified for gasoline engines now going into production in Europe. The re-
Star pleating permits high packing density
74
Fuel filters moreover, are capable of very high packing densities by virtue of their outward radiating pleats (cf. Fig. 56). The star-pleated element, which offers a considerable area for filtration, is placed on a pressure-resistant central tube. The fuel flows through the filter radially from outside to inside. As an alternative, so-called spiral-wound filters are used which consist of concentrically arranged paper filter cells. Todays fuel-filter media consist predominantly of ultrafine cellular fibers or blends of cellulose and polyester fibers with a special fuel-resistant impregnating coating. The duroplastic resin is interlaced in a thermosetting oven after the production of the pleat packs. Modern filter media are constructed of multiple layers (composites), consisting in some cases of ultrafine melt-blown synthetic fibers (cf. Performance data of fuel filters, p. 87). An ultrafine filter layer is positioned downstream of a prefilter layer, enabling particle storage capacity to be increased by over 100% by comparison with standard filter media. Composite filter media are made with outward radiating pleats exclusively. Filter configuration First, the type of filter medium is selected, the decisive factor being the initial filtration efficiency required, i.e. that of a new filter before exposure to particles (cf. Fig. 55). In a second stage, the requisite filter area is determined by one of two methods. In the first, data from the field relating to pollution levels and rises in differential pressure are used as the basis for the filter configuration. In the second, the filter area is calculated by determining particle storage capacity from specially standardized filter tests (cf. Methods of testing fuel filters, p. 85).
Diesel fuel filters
75
Diesel fuel filters

The arrangement and function of the fuel filter in the fuel supply system of a diesel engine The rapid development of diesel engine technology has now made it possible for diesel fuel to be efficiently used in both car and commercial vehicle engines. All modern diesel engines employ direct injection systems. The efficiency of the combustion process can be improved by the increasingly fine atomization of the fuel and the corresponding modulation of the injection process using electronically controlled valves. At the same time, the new technology necessitates higher and higher injection pressures. Socalled pump/injector systems now reach maximum pressures in excess of 2000 bar. Each cylinder features a separate unit injector (or UI) which is driven through rockers by an overhead camshaft and controlled (in the case of car and commercial vehicle engines) by a solenoid valve. In the case of offset camshafts, the pump and solenoid valve are connected to the injector by a short pipe. These systems, referred to as unit pumps (or UP) are used exclusively for commercial vehicle engines. In common rail (CR) systems, the functions of pressure generation (performed by a high-pressure axial or radial piston pump) and fuel injection are separated from each other. All the injectors are supplied from a common high-pressure accumulator the rail. While the maximum injection pressures do not yet reach those achieved by pump/injector systems, the separate control of the injection process by electronically controlled valves has its advantages. Direct injection systems with distributor injection pumps controlled by solenoid valves also
Materials used
Injection pressures of UI, UP
and common rail systems
Methods for determining filter area
76
Fuel filters
Diesel fuel filters side. Pressure-side layouts are accordingly used in commercial vehicle engines and increasingly also for car engines. The fuel flow rate in the low-pressure circuit is higher than in the high-pressure circuit. Surplus fuel is directed to the tank by a pressure regulating valve, which can even be integrated into the filter head. In the high-pressure circuit, it is diverted by a pressure limiting valve located on the rail. Some of this hot returning fuel, having a temperature in excess of 70C, is returned directly to the low-pressure circuit in order to prevent paraffin from separating from the cold fuel. In this case, the return flow is regulated by a thermostat which can also be integrated into the fuel filter housing. Required degrees of filtration efficiency With the introduction of modern diesel injection systems, controlled by solenoid valves, it has become necessary to increase filtration efficiency to a marked extent [17, 18]. Figure 59 depicts the valve seat of a solenoid valve (commercial vehicle pump/injector system) after a period of service with a filter having an initial particle retention efficiency of (35 m) = 45% complying with ISO/TR 13353 of 1994 (until 1997, this was the finest pressure or suction side
77
High-pressure line High-pressure pump Fuel filter M Electric fuel pump (EFP) Return line Injectors Pressure regulator Rail pressure sensor Common rail
Sensors Control unit Fuel tank
Fig. 58: Fuel supply to a diesel engine with common rail injection and fuel filter located on the pressure side
Arrangement of filter in fuel circuit:
reach high pressures (over 1600 bar). The importance of these systems, however, is declining, given the advantages of the UI and CR systems mentioned above, as are also in-line pumps and prechamber injectors, which are no longer used in new engines. Today, car engines are dominated by CR systems and commercial vehicle engines by UI/UP systems, with the CR proportion gaining ground, even in the commercial vehicle sector. Here again, the function of the fuel filter is to protect all the components forming a highpressure injection system. To this end, the filter may be arranged in the low-pressure circuit, either on the pressure side in the feedline to the high-pressure pump or on the suction side in the feedline to the fuel pump. Figure 58 depicts the layout of a CR fuel supply system in diagrammatic form. With an arrangement on the pressure side, a differential pressure of up to 6 bar is available for fuel filtration (depending on the layout of the system), which is thus considerably higher than that of an arrangement on the suction
Fig. 59: Solenoid valve seat (UI system for commercial vehicles) after use with a fuel filter of insufficient filtration efficiency [19]
78
Fuel filters standard for diesel engine filters in Europe). Longitudinal grooves, caused by particle erosion, can be seen clearly. These cause internal leaks and, as a result, reduce the volume of fuel injected. In practice, this pattern of damage makes itself evident by diminishing engine power, uneven running (caused by varying degrees of wear in the individual cylinders) and the increasing development of soot. Both in field trials and test rig experiments, the resulting wear indicators correlate to a marked extent with the initial particle retention efficiency of particles in the 3 to 5 m range as laid down in ISO/TR 13353, 1994.
Diesel fuel filters Water separation If water reaches the high-pressure side of the diesel injection system, damage may be caused by localized lubrication deficiencies and, in particular, corrosion [19]. In many cases, the fuel filter is given the additional task of separating water from the fuel. In this process, the droplets of water are precipitated onto the fibers of the filter medium where they form increasingly large drops. Being denser than diesel fuel, they eventually migrate outwards and, to some extent, also inwards inside the filter, into a water collecting chamber. From there, the water is led off through a drain. In the case of distributor injection pumps and common rail systems, some form of protection is generally required against the penetration of impermissibly high volumes of water. Due to shorter contact times, unit injector systems are relatively immune; if an exceptionally high incidence of water is expected, however, they also require a water separating device. At present, comprehensive data on the water contained in diesel fuels sold worldwide, and in vehicle tanks, are not available. The spread ranges from a customary maximum of 200 ppm (parts per million) [16] to values exceeding 2%, which occur in situations such as refueling from barrels, badly maintained filling stations or operational use in countries subject to high atmospheric humidity and temperatures which fluctuate severely in the course of a day. To determine the water separation capacity of a fuel filter, a 2%-emulsion is passed through the test specimen and the concentration remaining on the clean side of the filter is measured (ISO 4020). The emulsification process is carried out with a diaphragm pump, although this does not actually comply with the
79
Consequences of particle erosion
Water damage
Initial particle retention efficiency (3-5 m) [%]
100 80 60 40 20 0 In-line pump Distributor pump Time-con- Unit pump/ trolled dis- unit injector tributor pump system Common rail system Extreme conditions Minimum requirements ISO/TR 13353: 1994
Water content of diesel fuels
Fig. 60: Recommendations for the minimum initial particle retention efficiencies of diesel fuel filters
Investigations into unit pump engines (American commercial vehicles) confirm the corresponding degree of wear for the finest fraction at around 5 m [20]. Figure 60 depicts recommendations for the minimum initial particle retention efficiency of filters for diesel injection systems. A distinction is made between normal and extreme conditions, similar to that shown in Figure 55.
Determination of water separation efficiency
80
Fuel filters current standard. Motor vehicle manufacturers specifications, therefore, often relate to bench tests in which a standard electric fuel pump (e.g. a roller-cellular pump) is used for emulsification. In tests as laid down in ISO 4020, vehicle manufacturers require degrees of water separation of at least 90% for critical relationships. Diesel fuel filter designs There are two types of diesel fuel filter, namely those which can be opened and those which must be replaced, complete with the filter housing, during services. The latter category includes in-line filters made of steel, aluminum or plastic. The increased requirements for collision safety have actually led to
Diesel fuel filters Another type of filter in widespread use, which cannot be opened, is the spin-on fuel filter (Fig. 62). This is screw-mounted to a filter head with a male thread, which is sealed with an external elastomer gasket. The requirement for maximum filtration efficiency and efficient water separation, accompanied by simultaneous demands for increasingly prolonged intervals between changes (particularly in the case of commercial ve-
81
Fig. 62: Replaceable spinon diesel fuel filter with filter head and electrical fuel preheating
Water drain with pull-rod Water sensor Filter element (opened out)
Water drain
Fig. 61: Diesel fuel filter with star-pleated filter element and additional functions, designed to be mounted in the fuel line
a revival of steel filters. Additional features such as a water drain, a water sensor (in the form of an electrically conductive sensor), a thermostat (to return hot fuel), and heating systems can also be integrated into in-line filters (Fig. 61).
hicles) can only be met with multi-stage filters. In this case, a prefilter is installed on the pressure or suction side, which performs the functions of water separation and particle prefiltering. Next, the fuel flows through a fine filter, located on the pressure side, in which
82
Fuel filters
Diesel fuel filters
83
Filter head with 4-hole flange
Electric fuel preheating system Priming pump
Metal housing
Two metal-free recyclable filter elements arranged in parallel Electric heating system with integral preheating valve
Replaceable filter with special water separating filter medium
Water collecting chamber
Water drain screw Fuel heat exchanger
Fig. 63: Replaceable diesel fuel prefilter for commercial vehicles with integral water separator and electrical fuel preheating
Designs for ease of service
the ultrafine particles are trapped. Figure 63 depicts a spin-on fuel prefilter for commercial vehicles. Modular fuel filters fall into the category of filters which can be opened for servicing purposes. To this end, the lid of the housing is screw-mounted and only the filter element is replaced. To simplify servicing, the housing should preferably be placed in such a way that the lid is uppermost. In modern versions, the filter element is made entirely of non-metallic materials (metal-free filter elements) which can be thermally recycled without difficulty. Recent designs stand out by virtue of a number of additional integral functions. These include sensors and control valves for pressure and temperature, electrical heating systems, heat exchangers, water sensors and water extractors. Figure 64 depicts a modern, modular fuel filter for cars. The arrangement in parallel of two metal-free, star-pleated filter elements ensures the optimum use of the available space. The only parts which require servicing are the filter elements.
Construction of the filter element and medium Today, filter elements for diesel fuels are predominantly made with outward radiating pleats (see Fig. 56). Here again, the requirement for extreme filter fineness and prolonged intervals between services necessitates the use of new types of composite filter media. Thanks to the hydrophobic properties of the basic material and the small diameter of the fibers, the melt-blown fine fiber layer of these filter materials exhibits a high level of water coalescence. It is positioned on the incoming side, so that water separation also takes place on that side. Similarly satisfactory performance data can be obtained with so-called fiberglass composite papers. This filter medium contains 5 to 20% of microglass fibers of around 1 m in diameter. Not used in Europe, these filter media are controversial in that the ultrafine, brittle glass fibers can break away, migrate to the clean side of the filter and cause damage in the injection system. Older designs consisting of,
Fig. 64: Modular diesel fuel filter for cars
Good performance by composite media
84
Fuel filters e.g. uniform cylindrical felt rings (dry polyester non-wovens) are now no longer used. The importance of spiral-wound filters is also declining. Filter configuration The filtration efficiency required to protect different types of diesel injection systems can be taken from Figure 60. The filter area is determined from the anticipated amount of contamination, which is calculated from field trials, and standardized bench tests (cf. Methods of testing fuel filters, p. 85). In the case of filters with integral water separation properties, a maximum flow rate is specified for the area of the filter medium which must not be exceeded, otherwise the water will not be separated to a sufficient extent. The maximum area loading is the critical configuration parameter, particularly in the case of compact filters for cars. Through the use of composite filter media with an outer layer of ultrafine synthetic fibers, this limit has been considerably raised by comparison with conventional cellulose filter media. With rising energy costs and tax subsidies, the use of vegetable methyl esters, also known under the designation FAME (fatty acid methyl esters) is becoming increasingly widespread. These biodiesel fuels are now available in a variety of grades ranging from recycled used fat to pure RME (rape methyl esters). FAME fuels possess corrosive characteristics which must be taken into account in the selection of materials. Due to their high content of organic particles, their use is also associated with reduced intervals between changes. These are established from the results of field trials. As a rule of thumb, the use of high-grade vegetable methyl esters (to DIN 51 606: 1997) imposes an interval be-
Methods of testing fuel filters tween changes corresponding to half that recommended for diesel fuel complying with DIN EN 590: 2000.
85
Methods of testing fuel filters

The methods of testing fuel filters can be subdivided into filter function tests and component tests. Component tests (cleanliness of new filters, freedom from leaks, differential pressure, bursting pressure of filter elements and housings, pulsation and vibration resistance) and filter function tests (durability, filtration efficiency and separation of emulsified water from diesel fuel) are described in ISO 4020. Other tests are laid down in which the filtration efficiency is measured by automatic particle counters. Due to the rapid development of diesel injection technology, these test specifications are currently being completely revised and adapted to the new requirements by the ISO/TC22/SC7/WGI committee of experts. Particle storage capacity and filtration efficiency tests to ISO 4020 take place on the gravimetric principle and in a single pass with the addition of a mixture of mineral particles (ISO 12103-M2, a near-monodispersion with an average grain size of 6.9 m) and submicron particles of soot. Filter capacity (corresponding to the added volume of mineral particles in grams at which the differential pressure rises to 70 kPa) correlates well with the service lives measured in practice. In the medium term, modern multi-pass methods will be adopted for particle storage capacity and filtration efficiency testing, similar to the methods used for other fluid filters (hydraulic fluid filters, lubricating oil filters). The new multi-pass test ISO/DIS 19438: 2000, Different testing methods
Maximum area loading a critical factor
Single-pass
and multipass tests
86
Fuel filters in which particle counting takes place on a direct basis (i.e. on line), allows the filtration efficiency of the filter to be recorded for 16 particle categories (between 3 and 50 m) over its entire service life in a single test. Test dusts to ISO 12103-M2 (medium) are used for all filter tests with on-line particle counters. These mineral particles cover the spectrum of grain sizes (between 0.1 and 80 m) corresponding to practical conditions. Leading filter manufacturers have already converted to this testing and development tool. Figure 65 depicts the filtration efficiency of a modern diesel fuel filter containing a composite filter medium. Today, filtration efficiency is determined by measuring the initial particle retention efficiency in a single pass. While the initial filtration efficiencies currently specified (see Figs. 55 and 60) still relate to ISO/TR 13353: 1994, the new version, ISO/WD 13353: 2000 (equivalent to the multi-pass test ISO/DIS 19438: 2000) is based on the new reference particle counts of the test dust ISO 12103-A2. The differences between the test methods are prima-
Performance data of fuel filters
87
ACFTD ISO 4402: 1991 [m]
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 ISO 12103 A2 (Calibration NIST ISO 11171) [m]
Use of standardized test dusts
Fig. 66: Chart depicting the factor for converting from the old sensor calibration standard (ISO/TR 13353: 1994) to the new standards (ISO/WD 13353: 2000 and ISO/DIS 19438: 2000)
Fig. 65: Filtration efficiency of modern diesel fuel filters during particle contamination causing a rise in differential pressure up to 70 kPa (multi-pass, ISO/DIS 19438: 2000)
100
Filtration efficiency [%]
rily attributable to the new sensor calibration standard and are particularly apparent at the finest stage which embraces particles of between 3 and 5 m. As soon as the specifications for the manufacturers of cars and injection systems have all been adjusted to the new test method, it will be necessary for the initial particle retention efficiency at the finest level (see also Figs. 55 and 60, p. 71 and 78) to be converted in accordance with the new sensor calibration standard. Figure 66 depicts the method for converting particle sizes as described in ISO 11171.
80 60 40 20 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
3 m 4 m 5 m 6 m 7 m

To enable the requirements for intervals between changes, dimensional specifications and filter fineness to be met, it will be necessary for new types of filter media of improved performance to be available. Today, the development of filter media of this type from the ground up is undertaken with the aid of ultramodern test methods and the increasing use of the latest development tools such as computational fluid dynamics (CFD) [21].
Filter development using CFD
90
100
Time [min]
88
Fuel filters
89
Fig. 67: Flow lines (blue) and particle paths (red) through a fuel filter medium (depht filter) made of 15 fiber layers, computed with the aid of CFD
Contaminated fuel
Melt-blown prefilter layer with high contaminant storage capacity
Dense, cellulose-based ultrafine filter layer Filtered fuel
Fig. 68: Influence of the fiber diameter on the initial filtration efficiency (CFD computation)
Figure 67 depicts the paths of particles through a fuel filter medium with 15 layers of fiber, as calculated by means of CFD. The graphs in Figure 68 represent the influence of the diameter of the fiber on the initial particle retention efficiency as determined by computer. Both theoretical and experimental investigations lead to the conclusion that an improvement in performance can be primarily achieved by the use of fibers of a smaller diameter and by progres-
sively increasing their density in the direction of fluid flow (graded structure). This finding is already being applied to modern filter media. The diagram in Figure 69 represents the construction of a medium of this type. By contrast with conventional, mixed fiber media based on cellulose, performance has been markedly improved not only in terms of particle storage capacity but also filter fineness.
100
Filtration efficiency [%]
Fig. 69: Diagram showing the construction of a modern composite fuel filter medium
100 90 80 Filter medium: Thickness: 750 m Porosity: 86% Number of layers: 15 Particle sizes: 5 m 10 m 15 m 20 m
80 60 40 20 0 Cellulose/PES medium Composite I Composite II Composite III ISO 4020 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Impact probability [%]
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 15 20 25
30
35
40
45
50
Fiber diameter [m]
Time [min]
Fig. 70: Capacity and filtration efficiency of diesel fuel filters with a standard filter medium (cellulose/ PES) and composite filter media with maximized filtration performance
90
Fuel filters
91
Water separation efficiency [%]
100 80 60 40 20 0 0 250 500 Added water [ml] 750 1000 Composite medium Standard cellulose (external water separation) Cellulose/PES medium (internal water separation) ISO 4020, 2%-emulsion
Summary
At present, filtration technology in motor vehicles is characterized by dynamic developments. On one hand, almost all filters are subject to the requirement for greater compactness, given that engines will become increasingly powerful and that space must be found under the hood for more and more components associated with convenience and safety. On the other hand, cellulose-based filter media, which have so far proved satisfactory, are reaching their limits, because synthetic oils and new fuels are being used which necessitate new, more resistant media. Radically improved injection technology means that the fineness of fuel filters must be considerably increased; even this is only possible with media based on finer fibers. There is also a trend towards longer service intervals. Lifetime concepts, e.g. for in-tank gasoline filters or multicyclones for crankcase ventilation, are also being developed and installed in vehicles. Ultrafine filter elements are increasingly being used as gearbox oil filters e.g. in continuous variable transmission (CVT) systems. Cabin air filters, i.e. particle or pollen filters, and filters with additional adsorption capabilities for gas cleaning, are increasingly being fitted as standard. Neither these nor diesel particulate filters are dealt with in this discourse, due to space limitations. Nevertheless, the installation of a diesel particulate filter (DPF) in every diesel-engined vehicle could soon become compulsory if there are further reductions in exhaust emission limits. Due to their regular cleaning and reconditioning cycles as well as unanswered questions on performance after long distances, they would occupy an entire section of their own in a discourse on exhaust filtration technology. Requirements: more compactness
Fig. 71: Water separation efficiency of different filter media
The performance data of composite filter media of this type are shown in comparison with an earlier standard (mixed fiber paper, until 1997 the finest grade of diesel filter medium in Europe) in Figure 70. With these modern filter media, it is possible to achieve not only lifetime gasoline filtration in compact in-tank units, but also ultrafine diesel fuel filtration with extended service interval at the same time. Modern diesel injection systems require improved water separation (cf. [19]), necessitating the use of new types of filter media with greater water coalescence. This can be achieved with the use of finer, hydrophobic fibers. Figure 71 depicts the water separation efficiency of a composite filter medium with an outer layer of hydrophobic ultrafine fibers by comparison with filters consisting of standard cellulose filter media with inner and outer water separation layers.
finer filters
and longer service intervals
92 Summary In general, it can be said that filters in cars are now being made to perform increasing numbers of functions, for technical and environmental reasons. Many new applications are being added to their existing uses, which themselves are subject to continuous development and improvement. This will be instantly apparent to the reader by a glance at the first illustration in this brief review and a comparison with the first edition of this volume issued in 1989 [1].
93
Literature
[1] Blumenstock, K.-U.: Engine Filters. Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg/Lech, 1991. [2] Lffler, F.: Staubabscheiden. Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, New York, 1988. [3] Sommer, K.: 40 Jahre Darstellung von Partikelgrenverteilungen und immer noch falsch? Chemie Ingenieur Technik (72) No. 8, P. 809-812, 2000. [4] Erdmannsdrfer, H.: Trockenluftfilter fr Fahrzeugmotoren, Auslegungs- und Leistungsdaten. MTZ Motortechnische Zeitschrift 43, 1982. [5] Affenzeller, J.; Glser, H.: Lagerung und Schmierung von Verbrennungsmotoren. Springer Wien, New York, 1996. [6] Purchase, D.: Handbook of Filter Media. Elsevier Science Ltd., 1997. [7] Manegold, E.: Kapillarsysteme. Straenbau, Chemie und Technik Verlag, Heidelberg, 1955. [8] Sturm, H.; Richter, H.: Ein Beitrag zur Beurteilung von Luftfilteranlagen an Fahrzeug-Dieselmotoren und zur Klrung von Zusammenhngen zwischen Einflugren und Verschlei im Fahrbetrieb mit Hilfe eines fahrbaren Isotopenlabors. KFT, No. 8, No. 10, 1981. [9] Trautmann, P.; Sauter, H.: Messung und Abscheidung von lnebelaerosolen aus der Kurbelgehuseentlftung von Verbrennungsmotoren. Part 1, MTZ (61), 12/2000, Part 2, MTZ Motortechnische Zeitschrift (62), 1/2001. [10] Hill, S.; Systsma, S.: A Systems Approach to Oil Consumption. SAEPaper 910743. [11] Parker, K. (Ed.): Applied Electrostatic Precipitation. London, Blackie Academic & Professional, 1997. [12] Zoebl, H.: Filtrationstechnik. Expert Verlag, Renningen, 1996. [13] Mach, W.; Trabandt, T.: Auswirkungen fester Fremdstoffe in Gebrauchtlen auf das Verschleiverhalten von Dieselmotoren. Mineralltechnik 10, 1998.
Outlook
94 Literature
[14] Spanke, J.; Mller, P.: Neue lwechselkriterien durch Weiterentwicklung von Motoren und Motorenlen. MTZ Motortechnische Zeitschrift 58 (1997), 10. [15] Dahm, W.; Daniel, K.: Entwicklung der lwechselintervalle und deren Beeinflubarkeit durch Nebenstromfeinstlfilterung. MTZ Motortechnische Zeitschrift 57 (1996), 6. [16] World-Wide Fuel Charter. ACEA, Alliance, EMA, JAMA, April 2000. [17] Klein, G.-M.: Kraftstofffilter. Kraftfahrtechnisches Taschenbuch/ Bosch, H. Bauer (Ed.), 23rd Edition, Brunswick, Wiesbaden, Vieweg 1999, P. 436-437. [18] Klein, G.-M.: Changes in Diesel Fuel Filtration Concepts. Proceedings 2nd Int. Conf. Filtration in Transportation, Stuttgart, L. Bergmann (Ed.), 1999, P. 45-49. [19] Projahn, U.; Krieger, K.: Diesel-Kraftstoffqualitt Erkenntnisse aus Sicht des Einspritzlieferanten. Proceedings 9. Aachener Kolloquium Fahrzeug- und Motorentechnik, S. Pischinger (Ed.), Aachen 2000, P. 929-944. [20] Bessee, G. B. et al.: High-Pressure Injection Fuel System Wear Study. SAE 980869. [21] Klein, G.-M.; Banzhaf, H.; Durst, M.: Fuel Filter Solutions for Future Diesel Injection Systems. Proceedings World Filtration Congress 8, Brighton, UK 2000, P. 887-890.
The company behind this book FILTERWERK MANN+HUMMEL GMBH 71631 Ludwigsburg, Germany E-mail: info@mann-hummel.com Internet: www.mann-hummel.com The name MANN+HUMMEL stands for innovation, outstanding quality and reliability in the international automotive industry. Acting as partner and co-developer with motor vehicle manufacturers and as supplier of parts and complete systems, MANN+HUMMEL produces filter elements, modules and systems for the filtration of fuel, oil and air (including complete air intake systems). Its priority is to maximize customer benefits whether in terms of safety, technology and cost effectiveness, or service and convenience. This is also reflected in the company mission Success through Filtration. The entire spectrum is covered, from the filtration of the engine intake air to cabin air filters, as well as the filtration and management of almost all fluids used in a vehicle. Working closely with customers, our R&D teams develop efficient, class-leading products and advanced systems to meet the challenges of tomorrow and the day after tomorrow. In Europe alone, the company registers 150 patents a year. For MANN+HUMMEL, focus to customers demands and wishes is a matter of course, in the supply of OEM parts and systems as well as for OES and IAM parts alike. As a result, our aftermarket spare parts the famous MANN-FILTER brand are made to original equipment standards of quality. The MANN+HUMMEL group is made up of two divisions, Automotive Technology and Industrial Technology, and employs some 9100 people at thirty-eight sites worldwide. The company was founded in 1941 and since then has made a significant contribution to the development of filter technology. It has at its disposal decades of know-how and experience in a key area of automotive technology.

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VERLAG MODERNE INDUSTRIE

verlag moderne industrie

Michael Durst, Gunnar-Marcel Klein, Nikolaus Moser

Mechanisms of particle separation .......................................................... 10

Translation: Sprachendienst Dr. Herrlinger, Kirchentellinsfurt

Performance characteristics of filters ...................................................... 12

Engine intake air filters

Summary Literature The company behind this book

Fuel filter Metal-free fuel filter module element

Plastic rocker cover

Complex filtration demands

Consideration of the entire system

Fig. 1 (facing page): Filtration and separation in vehicles

Oil filter module

Bypass centrifugal oil cleaner

Crankcase ventilation system with multicyclone oil separator

Metal-free oil filter element

Cooling In-line Washer water filter fuel filter system filter

Gearbox oil filter

Filtration of liquids Water

Engine intake air

Engine exhaust gas

Braking system air

Oil droplet separation

Exhaust gas cleaning

Particle separation, gas cleaning

Particle and water droplet separation

Centrifugal forces, coalescence, static electricity

Diesel soot filtration, regeneration, SCR

Filtration, centrifugal separation

Fig. 2: Objectives and mechanisms of air filtration in vehicles

Examples of filtration of air

Fig. 3: Objectives and mechanisms of liquid filtration in vehicles

Characteristics of contaminant particles

0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 224 514 1178 2046

interception and diffusion effects

a size range which is considered critical with regard to wear.

Mechanisms of particle separation

Mechanisms for liquid

Performance characteristics of filters

Fractions of separated particles

Differential pressure increase

pmax po Dust load or time

Reference value for filtration efficiency

0 0.5 1.0 4 5 Particle size xj [m] 10 20

Particle distribution density qi(xj)

qi(xj) qi(xj,m) Qi(xj)

Fig. 8: a) Cumulative distribution curve b) Particle distribution density

Coarse and fine proportion

Particle distribution density curve

b) Grade efficiency curve TG(xj) [%]

Dust holding capacity

(xj) = (N1 xj)upstream /(N2 xj)downstream

(xj) = 100/(100 (xj))

Parameters for evaluating air filter media

Engine intake air filters

200 100 60 40 20 10 6 4 2 1 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.1 Crawler trucks

Dust concentration [mg/m3]

Consequences of inadequate filtration

Parameters for evaluating air filter media

22 Engine intake air filters

Parameters for evaluating air filter media