FOUR WEEKS TRAINING REPORT

Submitted to:
H.O.D Mr. Rajneesh Talwar (ECE Deptt.)

Submitted by:
Akanksha Univ. Roll no. 100640418007 Class roll no. 10110

R.I.M.T-I.E.T, MANDI GOBINDGARH

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the training report on electronic components is the bonafide work carried out by AKANKSHA, Uni.Roll No. 100640418007 student of B. Tech (ECE-B) during the June-July 2011, in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the Training for Ist year of B.Tech (ECE -B) and that the report or its copy has never been submitted.

Place:RIMT-IET Date: July.08.2011 Signature of the Supervisor

(Assistant Professor)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind support and help of many individuals and organizations. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them. I am highly indebted to RIMT-IET for their guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the project & also for their support in completing the project. I would like to express my gratitude towards my professors & member of RIMT-IET for their kind co-operation and encouragement w hich help me in completion of this project. I would like to express my special gratitude and thanks to institute persons for giving me such attention and time. My thanks and appreciations also go to my mates in developing the project and people who have willingly helped me out with their abilities.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Electronic Components 2. Resistors 3. Capacitors 4. Inductors 5. Diodes 6. p-n Junctions 7. Transistors 8. Integrated Circuits 9. Logic gates 10. Function generator 11. Oscilloscope 12. Multimeter 13. Soldering 14. Project Report 15. Seminar Report

INTRODUCTION OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS Electronic component

An electronic component is a basic electronic element usually packaged in a discrete form with two or more connecting leads or metallic pads. Components are intended to be connected together, usually by soldering to a printed circuit board, to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be packaged singly (resistor, capacitor, transistor, diode etc.) or in more or less complex groups as integrated circuits (operational amplifier, resistor array, logic gate etc.)

Types of Electronic Components

1.Active components: Active components are those that have gain or directionality, in
contrast to passive components, which have neither.

Types of Active components

1.Tube devices 2.semiconductor devices

2. Passive components: Passive components are those that do not have gain or
directionality. In the Electrical industry they are called Electrical elements or electrical components

Types of Passive components

1.Resistor 2.Capacitor 3.Inductor

1.RESISTOR
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with Ohm's law: V = IR Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome). The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.

1.1 Units
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance

1.2 Classification of Resistors:

From operating conditions point of view, resistors can be classified into two. 1.2.1) Fixed resistors 1.2.2) Adjustable/ variable resistors 1.2.1) Fixed resistors are further classified into:

a) Carbon composition type resistors b) Wire wound type resistance c) Metalized type resistor

1.3 Colour Coded Resistor

Resistors are colour coded. To read the colour code of a common 4 band 1K ohm resistor with a 5% tolerance, start at the opposite side of the GOLD tolerance band and read from left to right. Write down the corresponding number from the colour chart below for the 1st colour band (BROWN). To the right of that number, write the corresponding number for the 2nd band (BLACK) . Now multiply that number (you should have 10) by the corresponding multiplier number of the 3rd band (RED)(100). Your answer will be 1000 or 1K. It's that easy. * If a resistor has 5 colour bands, write the corresponding number of the 3rd band to the right of the 2nd before you multiply by the corresponding number of the multiplier band. If you only have 4 colour bands that include a tolerance band, ignore this column and go straight to the multiplier. The tolerance band is usually gold or silver, but some may have none. Because resistors are not the exact value as indicated by the colour bands, manufactures have included a tolerance colour band to indicate the accuracy of the resistor. Gold band indicates the resistor is within 5% of what is indicated. Silver = 10% and None = 20%. Others are shown in the chart below. The 1K ohm resistor in the example (left), may have an actual measurement anywhere from 950 ohms to 1050 ohms. If a resistor does not have a tolerance band, start from the band closest to a lead. This will be the 1st band. If you are unable to read the colour bands, then you'll have to use your multimeter. Be sure to zero it out first! Resistor Colour Codes Band Colour Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White Gold Silver None 1st Band # 2nd Band # *3rd Band # Multiplier x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000 100,000,000 1,000,000,000 0.1 0.01 5% 10 % 20 % 0.5 % 0.25 % 0.10 % 0.05 % 1% 2% Tolerances %

2.CAPACIT

capacit

, by a cm rul

Type Invented El i

Passi e Ewald Georg von Kleist (October 1745) l

A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a potential difference (voltage) exists across the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates. An ideal capacitor is characteri ed by a single constant value, capacitance, which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount ofleakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.

2.1Capaci

construction

Structure of a surface mount (SMT) film capacitor. Capacitors have thin conducting plates (usually made of metal), separated by a layer of dielectric, then stacked or rolled to form a compact device. Many types of capacitors are available commercially, with capacitance ranging from the picofarad, microfarad range to more than a farad, and voltage ratings up to hundreds of kilovolts. In general, the higher the capacitance and voltage rating, the larger the physical si e of the capacitor and the higher the cost. Tolerances in capacitance value for discrete capacitors are usually specified as a percentage of the nominal value. Tolerances ranging from 50% (electrolytic types) to less than 1% are commonly available. Another figure of merit for capacitors is stability with respect to time and temperature, sometimes called drift. Variable capacitors are generally less stable than fixed types. Groups of identically constructed capacitor elements are often connected in series for operation at higher voltage. High voltage capacitors need large, smooth, and round terminals to prevent corona discharge.

 

2.2 Fixed Capacitor

A fixed capacitor is constructed in such manner that it possesses a fixed value of capacitance which cannot be adjusted. A fixed capacitor is classified according to the type of material used as its dielectric, such as paper, oil, mica, or electrolyte. 2.2.1 PAPER CAPACITOR is made of flat thin strips of metal foil conductors that are separated by waxed paper (the dielectric material). Paper capacitors usually range in value from about 300 picofarads to about 4 microfarads. The working voltage of a paper capacitor rarely exceeds 600 volts. Paper capacitors are sealed with wax to prevent the harmful effects of moisture and to prevent corrosion and leakage. Many different kinds of outer covering are used on paper capacitors, the simplest being a tubular cardboard covering. Some types of paper capacitors are encased in very hard plastic. These types are very rugged and can be used over a much wider temperature range than can the tubular cardboard type. Figure shows the construction of a tubular paper capacitor; part shows a completed cardboard-encased capacitor. 2.2.2 MICA CAPACITOR is made of metal foil plates that are separated by sheets of mica (the dielectric). The whole assembly is encased in molded plastic. Figure shows a cutaway view of a mica capacitor. Because the capacitor parts are molded into a plastic case, corrosion and damage to the plates and dielectric are prevented. In addition, the molded plastic case makes the capacitor mechanically stronger. Various types of terminals are used on mica capacitors to connect them into circuits. These terminals are also molded into the plastic case. Mica is an excellent dielectric and can withstand a higher voltage than can a paper dielectric of the same thickness. Common values of mica capacitors range from approximately 50 picofarads to 0.02 microfarad. 2.2.3 CERAMIC CAPACITOR is so named because it contains a ceramic dielectric. One type of ceramic capacitor uses a hollow ceramic cylinder as both the form on which to construct the capacitor and as the dielectric material. The plates consist of thin films of metal deposited on the ceramic cylinder. A second type of ceramic capacitor is manufactured in the shape of a disk. After leads are attached to each side of the capacitor, the capacitor is completely covered with an insulating moisture-proof coating. Ceramic capacitors usually range in value from 1 picofarad to 0.01 microfarad and may be used with voltages as high as 30,000 volts. 2.2.4 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR is used where a large amount of capacitance is required. As the name implies, an electrolytic capacitor contains an electrolyte. This electrolyte can be in the form of a liquid (wet electrolytic capacitor). The wet electrolytic capacitor is no longer in popular use due to the care needed to prevent spilling of the electrolyte. A dry electrolytic capacitor consists essentially of two metal plates separated by the electrolyte. In most cases the capacitor is housed in a cylindrical aluminum container which acts as the negative terminal of the capacitor (see fig.). The positive terminal (or terminals if the capacitor is of the multisection type) is a lug (or lugs) on the bottom end of the container.

2.3 Variable Capacitor

A variable capacitor is constructed in such manner that its value of capacitance can be varied. A typical variable capacitor (adjustable capacitor) is the rotor-stator type. It consists of two sets of metal plates arranged so that the rotor plates move between the stator plates.

3. Inductor

Type Working principle First production El ctronic symbol

Passive Electromagnetic induction Michael Faraday (1831)

An inductor or a reactor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor's ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in units of henries. Typically an inductor is a conducting wire shaped as a coil, the loops helping to create a strong magnetic field inside the coil due to Faraday's Law of Induction.

3.1 Inductor construction

Inductors. Major scale in centimetre. An inductor is usually constructed as a coil of conducting material, typically copper wire, wrapped around a core either of air or of ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material. Core materials with a higher permeability than air increase the magnetic field and confine it closely to the inductor, thereby increasing the inductance. Low frequency inductors are constructed like transformers, with cores of electrical steel laminated to prevent eddy currents. Inductors come in many shapes. Most are constructed as enamel coated wire wrapped around aferrite bobbin with wire exposed on the outside, while some enclose the wire completely in ferrite and are called "shielded". Some inductors have an adjustable core, which enables changing of the inductance. Inductors used to block very high frequencies are sometimes ma e by d stringing a ferrite cylinder or bead on a wire.

3.2 Typ s of indu to s

3.2.1.Fixed inductor 3.2.2.Variable inductor

3.2.1.Fi d Inductor
Filter chokes are the inductor used in smoothing the pulsating current produced by rectifying ac into dc. A typical filter chokes has many turns of wire wound on an iron core . To avoid power losses, the core is made up of laminated sheets of E -and I-shapes. Many power supplies used filter chokes of 5 to 20 H, capable of carrying current up to 0.3 amp. Audio frequency chokes (AFCs) are used to provide high impedance to audio frequencies(say, 0Hz to 5kHz).Compared to filter chokes ,they are smaller in size, and have lower inductance .Chokes having still smaller inductances are used to the block the radio frequencies. Such chokes are called radio frequency chokes(RFCS).

3.2.2Variabl Indu tor

A variable inductor can be constructed by making one of the terminals of the device a sliding spring contact that can move along the surface of the coil, increasing or decreasing the number of turns of the coil included in the circuit. An alternate constru ction method is to use a moveable magnetic core, which can be slid in or out of the coil. Moving the core farther into the coil increases the permeability, increasing the inductance.

4.DIODE
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline block of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminal. A vacuum tube diode (now little used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes; a plate and a cathode. Various semiconductor diodes. Bottom: A bridge rectifier. In most diodes, a white or black painted band identifies the cathode terminal, that is, the terminal which conventional current flows out of when the diode is conducting.

4.1 Semi ondu tor diodes

A modern semiconductor diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor like silicon that has impurities added to it to create a region on one side that contains negativecharge carriers (electrons), called n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called p-type semiconductor. The diode's terminals are attached to each of these regions. The boundary within the crystal between these two regions, called a PN junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. The crystal conducts conventional current in a direction from the p-type side (called the anode) to the n-type side (called the cathode), but not in the opposite direction. Another type of semiconductor diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p junction. -n

4.2 Current voltage characteristic

A semiconductor diodes behaviour in a circuit is given by its current voltage characteristic, or IV graph (see graph at right). The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p-n junction between differing semiconductors. When a p junction is first created, conduction -n band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons recombine However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For each electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a built-in potential across the depletion zone. If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built -in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron/hole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light. see photodiode). This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric current through the p junction (i.e. substantial -n numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction). For silicon diod the built-in es, potential is approximately 0.7 V. Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.7 V will be developed across the diode such that the P -doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be turned on as it has a forward bias.
V characteristics of a P-N junction diode (not to scale).

A diodes 'IV characteristic' can be approximated by four regions of operation. At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called reverse breakdown occurs which causes a large increase in current (i.e. a large number of electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the pn junction) that usually damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in the avalanche region. In the zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A zener diode contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p -type material to the conduction band of the n -type material, such that the reverse voltage is clamped to a known value (called the zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power in the clamped revers e voltage region. Also, following the end of forward conduction in any diode, there is reverse current for a short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current ceases. The second region, at reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has only a very small reverse saturation current. In the reverse bias region for a normal P rectifier diode, the current -N through the device is very low (in the A range). However, this is temperature dependent, and at suffiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current can be observed (mA or more). The third region is forward but small bias, where only a small forward current is conducted. As the potential difference is increased above an arbitrarily defined cut in voltage or onvoltage or diode forward voltage drop (V ), the diode current becomes appreciable (the d level of current considered appreciable and the value of cutin voltage depends on the application), and the diode presents a very low resistance. Th currentvoltage curve is e exponential. In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the arbitrary cut in voltage is defined as 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode types Schottky diodes can be rated as low as 0.2 V and red or blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can have values of 1.4 V and 4.0 V respectively. At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for power diodes.

4.3 Types of semiconductor diode

Diode

Zener diode

Schottky diode

Tunnel diode

Light-emitting diode

Photodiode

Varicap

Silicon controlled rectifier

4.3.1 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colours) from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the wavelength of the emitted photons: 1.2 V corresponds to red, 2.4 V to violet. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; white LEDs are actually combinations of three LEDs of a different colour, or a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator .

4.3.2 Laser diodes

When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical communication.

4.3.3 Photodiodes
All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an undesired effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light blocking material. Photodiodes are intended to sense light(photo detector), so they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light) . A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in optical communications. Multiple photodiodes may be packaged in a single device, either as a linear array or as a twodimensional array. These arrays should not be confused with charge-coupled devices.

4.3.4 Schottky diodes

Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop than p-n junction diodes. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers although their reverse leakage current is generally higher than that of other diodes. Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down many other diodes so they have a faster reverse recovery than p-n junction diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than p-n diodes which provides for high switching speeds and their use in high-speed circuitry and RF devices such as switched-mode power supply, mixers and detectors .

4.3.5 Zener diodes

Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near zero. Some devices labelled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see above). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber

5. P-N JUNCTION
A p-n junction is formed by combining P-type and N-type semiconductors together in very close contact. Normally they are manufactured from a single crystal with differ nt dopant e concentrations diffused across it. Creating a semiconductor from two separate pieces of material introduces a grain boundary between them which would severely inhibit its utility by scattering the electrons and holes. The term junction refers to the region where the two regions of the semiconductor meet. It can be thought of as the border region between the p type and n-type blocks as shown in the following diagram:

A silicon p-n junction with no applied voltage.

The p-n junction possesses some interesting properties which have useful applications in modern electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction between them is a non-conductor. This no conducting layer, called the depletion zone, occurs because the electrical charge carriers in doped n-type and p-type silicon (electrons and holes, respectively) attract and eliminate each other in a process called recombination. By manipulating this nonconductive layer, p-n junctions are commonly used as diodes: electrical switches that allow a flow of electricity in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction. This property is explained in terms of the forward-bias and reverse-bias effects, where the term bias refers to an application of electric voltage to the p-n junction. A common type of transistor, the bipolar junction transistor, consists of two p-n junctions in series, for example in the form n-p-n; no current can flow through it unless a separate small voltage is applied to the middle layer. The most common type of solar cell is basically a large p-n junction; the free carrier pairs created by light energy are separated by the junction and contribute to current.

5.1 Equilibrium (zero bias)

In a p-n junction, without an external applied voltage, an equilibrium condition is reached in which a potential difference is formed across the junction. This potential difference is called built-in potential Vbi. In an equilibrium PN junction, electrons near the PN interface tend to diffuse into the p region. As electrons diffuse, they leave positively charged ions ( onors) on the n region. d Similarly holes near the PN interface begin to diffuse in the n -type region leaving fixed ions (acceptors) with negative charge. The regions nearby the PN interfaces lose their neutrality and become charged, forming the space charge region or depletion layer.

A p-n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero bias voltage applied. Electrons and holes concentration are reported respectively with blue and red lines. Gray regions are charge neutral. Light red zone is positively charged. Light blue zone is negatively charged. The electric field is shown on the bottom, the electrostatic force on electrons and ho and the les direction in which the diffusion tends to move electrons and holes. The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both electrons and holes. There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process thattends to generate more space charge, and the electric field generated by the space charge that tends to counteract the diffusion. The carrier concentration profile at equilibrium is shown infigure A with blue and red lines. A PN junction in thermal equilibrium with zero bias voltage applied. Under the junction, plots for the charge density, the electric field and the voltage are reported. The space charge region is a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions ( onors or d acceptors) that have been left uncovered by majority carrier diffusion. When equilibrium is reached, the charge density is approximated by the displayed step function. In fact, the region is completely depleted of majority carriers (leaving a charge density equal to the net doping level), and the edge between the space charge region and the neu region is quite sharp tral .The space charge region has the same charge on both sides of the PN interfaces, thus it extends farther on the less doped side.

5.2 Forward-bias
Forward-bias occurs when the P-type semiconductor material is connected to the positive terminal of a battery and the N-type semiconductor material is connected to the negative terminal, as shown below.

A silicon p-n junction in Forward-bias.

With a battery connected this way, the holes in the P-type region and the electrons in the Ntype region are pushed towards the junction. This reduces the width of the depletion zone. The positive charge applied to the P-type material repels the holes, while the negative charge applied to the N-type material repels the electrons. As electrons and holes are pushed towards the junction, the distance between them decreases. This lowers the barrier in potential. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field can't counteract charge carrier motion across the p junction, -n consequently reducing electrical resistance. The electrons which cross the p junction into -n the P-type material (or holes which cross into the N-type material) will diffuse in the nearneutral region. Therefore, the amount of minority diffusion in the near -neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow through the diode. Only majority carriers (electrons in N-type material or holes in P-type) can flow through a semiconductor for a macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the flow of electrons across the junction. The forward bias causes a force on the electrons pushing them from the N side toward the P side. With forward bias, the depletion region is narrow enough that electrons can cross the junction and inject into the P-type material. However, they do not continue to flow through the P-type material indefinitely, because it is energetically favourable for them to recombine with holes. The average length an electron travels through the P-type material before recombining is called the diffusion length, and it is typically on the order of microns. Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance in the P-type material, the electric to current continues uninterrupted, because holes (the majority carriers) begin to flow in the opposite direction. The total current (the sum of the electron and hole currents) is constant in space, because any variation would cause charge build up over time (this is Kirchhoff's current law). The flow of holes from the P-type region into the N-type region is exactly analogous to the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons and holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and voltages are reversed). Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow through the diode involves electrons flowing through the N-type region toward the junction, holes flowing through the P -type region in the opposite direction toward the junction, and the two species of carriers constantly recombining in the vicinity of the junction. The electrons and holes travel in opposite directions, but they also have opposite charges, so the overall current is in the same direction on both sides of the diode, as required. The Shockley diode equation models the forward-bias operational characteristics of a p -n junction outside the avalanche (reverse-biased conducting) region.

5.3 Reverse-bias
Connecting the P-type region to the negative terminal of the battery and the N-type region to the positive terminal, produces the reverse-bias effect. The connections are illustrated in the following.

A silicon p-n junction in Reverse-bias.

Because the P-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of the power supply, the 'holes' in the P-type material are pulled away from the junction, causing the width of the

depletion zone to increase. Similarly, because the N-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction. Therefore the depletion region widens, and does so increasingly with increasing reverse-bias voltage. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p-n junction. The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p-n junction depletion zone breaks-down and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, so long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage.

6.TRANSISTER
Assorted discrete transistors

In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals. The transistor is the fundamental building block of computers, and all other modern electronic devices. Some transistors are packaged individually but most are found in integrated circuits.

6.1 Introduction
An electrical signal can be amplified by using a device that allows a small current or voltage to control the flow of a much larger current. Transistors are the basic devices providing control of this kind. Modern transistors are divided into two main categories: bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and field effect transistors (FETs). Applying current in BJTs and voltage in FETs between the input and common terminals increases the conductivity between the common and output terminals, thereby controlling current flow between them. The characteristics of a transistor depend on its type. The term "transistor" originally referred to the point contact type, which saw very limited commercial application, being replaced by the much more practical bipolar junction types in the early 1950s. Today's most widely used schematic symbol, like the term "transistor", originally referred to these long-obsolete devices.

6.2 Ad antages
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications are: Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic devices. Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost.

Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small, battery -powered applications. No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application. Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency. Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness. Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices produced more than 30 years ago are still in service.

6.3 Disadvantages
Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about 1 kV, SiC go to 3 kV. The electron mobility is higher in a vacuum, so that high power, high frequency operation is easier in tubes.

6.4 Types
PNP P-channel

NPN

N-channel

B T

BJT and JFET symbols Transistors are categorized by: Semiconductor material : germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide, silicon carbide, etc. Structure: BJT, JFET, IGFET (MOSFET), IGBT, "other types" Polarity: NPN, PNP (BJTs); N-channel, P-channel (FETs) Maximum power rating: low, medium, high Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, radio frequency (RF), microwave (The maximum effective frequency of a transistor is denoted by the term fT, an abbreviation for "frequency of transition". The frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields unity gain). Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair Physical packaging: through hole metal, through hole plastic, surface mount, ball grid array, power modules Amplification factor he (transistor beta) Thus, a particular transistor may be described as: silicon, surface mount, BJT, NPN, low power, high frequency switch.

6.5 Bipolar junction transistor

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the first type of transistor to be mass-produced. Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using bo majority and minority th carriers. The three terminals of the BJT are named emitter, base and collector. Two p-n junctions exist inside a BJT: the base/emitter junction and base/collector junction. "The [BJT] is useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable

JFET

by the relatively small base current." In an NPN transistor operating in the active region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased, and electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-biased basecollector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base current. By controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled. Unlike the FET, the BJT is a low input-impedance device. Also, as the base emitter voltage (Vbe) is increased the base emitter current and hence the collector emitter current (Ice ) increase exponentially according to the Shockley diode model and the Ebers-Moll model. Because of this exponential relationship, the BJT has a higher transconductance than the FET. Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct by exposure to light, since absorption of photons in the base region generates a photocurrent that acts as a base current; the collector current is approximately beta times the photocurrent. Devices designed for this purpose have a transparent window in the package and are called phototransistors.

6.6 Field-effect transistor

The field-effect transistor (FET), sometimes called a uni l t nsist , uses either electrons (in N-channel FET) or holes (in P-channel FET) for conduction. The four terminals of the FET are named source, gate, drain, and body (substrate). On most FETs, the body is connected to the source inside the package, and this will be assumed for the following description. In FETs, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting channel that connects the source region to the drain region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals; hence the current flowing between the drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source. As the gate source voltage (Vgs ) is increased, the drain source current (Ids ) increases exponentially for Vgs below threshold, and then at a roughly quadratic rate ( ) (where VT is the threshold voltage at which drain current begins) in the "space-charge-limited" region above threshold. A quadratic behaviour is not observed in modern devices, for example, at the 65nm technology node. To turn on a transistor it has to be charged like a capacitor. One polarity of charge is responsible for conduction, the other serves for charge neutrality. In the BJT, both types of charge carriers come close together and so the capacitance is high, therefore only low voltages are needed to produce a given amount of charge. In a FET both types of charges are separated by the dielectric and additionally the Debye length, thus reducing the capacity and increasing the voltage needed for switching. Above zero Kelvin, the exponential curve is convoluted with the hard turn on of the BJT and the parabolic turn on of the FET.For low noise at narrow bandwidth the higher input resistance of the FET is advantageous. FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known as metal oxide semiconductor FET (MOSFET), from their original construction as a layer of metal (the gate), a layer of oxide (the insulation), and a layer of semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a PN diode with the channel which lies between the source and drain. Functionally, this makes the N-channel JFET the solid state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly, forms a diode between its grid and cathode. Also, both devices operate in the depletion mode, they both have a high input impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage. Metal semiconductor FETs (MESFETs) are JFETs in which the reverse biased PN junction is replaced by a metal semiconductor Schottky-junction.
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6.7 USES
(a Switches
Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both high power applications including switched-mode power supplies and low power applications such as logic gates.
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(b)Amplifiers
From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Transistors are commonly used in modern musical instrument amplifiers, in which circuits up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively cheap. Transistors have largely replaced valves (electron tube) in instrument amplifiers. Some musical instrument amplifier manufacturers mix transistors and vacuum tubes in the same circuit, to utilize the inherent benefits of both devices.

(c)Computers
The "first generation" of electronic computers used vacuum tubes, which generated large amounts of heat, were bulky, and were unreliable. The development of the transistor was key to computer miniaturization and reliability. The "second generation" of computers, through the late 1950s and 1960s featured boards filled with individual transistors and magnetic memory cores. Subsequently, transistors, other components, and their necessary wiring were integrated into a single, mass-manufactured component: the integrated circuit.

7. INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
Integrated circuit of Atmel Diopsis 740 System on Chip showing memory blocks, logic and input/output pads around the periphery

Microchips (EPROM memory) with a transparent window, showing the integrated circuit inside. Note the fine silver-colored wires that connect the integrated circuit to the pins of the package. The window allows the memory contents of the chip to be erased, by exposure to strong ultraviolet light in an eraser device. In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material.

7.1 Introduction
Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes, and by mid-20thcentury technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using discrete electronic components. The integrated circuits mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors. There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography and not constructed one transistor at a time. Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power, because the components are small and close together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square mm to around 350 mm , with up to 1 million transistors per mm . Invention.

7.2 VLSI
Upper interconnect layers on an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor die. The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing through the present, was "Very Large-Scale Integration" (VLSI). This could be said to start with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and continues beyond several billion transistors as of 2007. There was no single breakthrough that allowed this increase in complexity, though many factors helped. Manufacturing moved to smaller rules and cleaner fabs, allowing them to produce chips with more transistors with adequate yield, as summarized by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). Design tools improved enough to make it practical to finish these designs in a reasonable time. The more energy efficient CMOS replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase in power consumption. Better texts such as the landmark textbook by Mead and Conway helped schools educate more designers.

8.LOGIC GATE
A logic gate performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. The logic normally performed is Boolean logic and is most commonly found in digital circuits. Logic gates are primarily implemented electronically using diodes or transistors, but can also be constructed using electromagnetic relays (relay logic), fluidic logic, pneumatic logic, optic, molecules, or even mechanical elements. In electronic logic, a logic level is represented by a voltage or current, (which depends on the type of electronic logic in use). Each logic gate requires power so that it can source and sink currents to achieve the correct output voltage. In logic circuit diagrams the power is not shown, but in a full electronic schematic, power connections are required.

8.1Truth table
A truth table is a table that describes the behaviour of a logic gate or any combination of logic gates. It lists the value of the output for every possible combination of the inputs and can be used to simplify the number of logic gates and level of nesting in an electronic circuit. In general the truth table does not lead to an efficient implementation; a minimization procedure, using Karnaugh maps, the Quine McCluskey algorithm or an heuristic algorithm is required for reducing the circuit complexity.

8.2 Symbols

A synchronous 4-bit up/down decade counter symbol (74LS192) in accordance with ANSI/IEEE Std. 91-1984 and IEC Publication 60617-12. There are two sets of symbols in common use, both now defined by ANSI/IEEE Std 91-1984 and its supplement ANSI/IEEE Std 91a-1991. The "distinctive shape" set, based on traditional schematics, is used for simple drawings, and derives from MI -STD-806 of the L 1950s and 1960s. It is sometimes unofficially described as "military", reflecting its origin. The "rectangular shape" set, based on IEC 60617-12, has rectangular outlines for all types of gate, and allows representation of a much wider range of devices than is possible with the traditional symbols. The IEC's system has been adopted by other standards, such asEN 60617-12:1999 in Europe and BS EN 60617-12:1999 in the United Kingdom. Boolean algebra Type Distinctive shape Rectangular shape Truth table between A & B INPUT A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 OUTPUT A AND B 0 0 0 1

AND

OR

A+B

INPUT OUTPUT A B A OR B 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 INPUT OUTPUT A NOT A 0 1 1 0

NOT

In electronics a NOT gate is more commonly called an inverter. The circle on the symbol is called a bubble, and is generally used in circuit diagrams to indicate an inverted (active -low) input or output. NAND INPUT OUTPUT A B A NAND B

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

1 1 1 0 OUTPUT A NOR B 1 0 0 0 OUTPUT A XOR B 0 1 1 0

NOR

INPUT A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 INPUT A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 INPUT A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

XOR

XNOR

or

OUTPUT A XNOR B 1 0 0 1

In practice, the cheapest gate to manufacture is usually the NAND gate. Additionally,Charles Sanders Peirce (1880) showed that NAND gates alone (as well as NOR gates alone) can be used to reproduce the functions of all the other logic gates, but his work on it was unpublished until 1935. The first published proof was by Henry M. Sheffer in 1913. The 7400 chip, containing four NANDs. The two additional pins supply power (+5 V) and connect the ground. Two more gates are the exclusive-OR or XOR function and its inverse, exclusive -NOR or XNOR. The two input Exclusive-OR is true only when the two input values are different, false if they are equal, regardless of the value. If there are more than two inputs, the gate generates a true at its output if the number of trues at its input is odd . In practice, these gates are built from combinations of simpler logic gates.

9. FUNCTION GENE ATOR

Sine, square, triangle, and sawtooth waveforms.

A function generator is a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate electrical waveforms. These waveforms can be either repetitive, or single-shot in which case some kind of triggering source is required (internal or external). Another type of function generator is a sub-system that provides an output proportional to some mathematical function of its input; for example, the output may be proportional to the square root of the input. Such devices are used in feedback control systems and in analog computers.

9.1 Explanation
Analog function generators usually generate a triangle waveform as the basis for all of its other outputs. The triangle is generated by repeatedly charging and discharging a capacitor from a constant current source. This produces a linearly ascending or descending voltage ramp. As the output voltage reaches upper and lower limits, the charging and discharging is reversed using a comparator, producing the linear triangle wave. By varying the current and the size of the capacitor, different frequencies may be obtained. Sawtooth waves can be produced by charging the capacitor slowly, using a current, but using a diode over the current source to discharge quickly - the polarity of the diode changes the polarity of the resulting sawtooth, i.e. slow rise and fast fall, or fast rise and slow fall. A 50% duty cycle square wave is easily obtained by noting whether the capacitor is being charged or discharged, which is reflected in the current switching comparator's output. Other duty cycles (theoretically from 0% to 100%) can be obtained by using a comparator and the sawtooth or triangle signal. Most function generators also contain a non-linear diode shaping circuit that can convert the triangle wave into a reasonably accurate sine wave. It does so by rounding off the hard corners of the triangle wave in a process similar to clipping in audio systems. The type of output connector from the device depends on the frequency range of the generator. A typical function generator can provide frequencies up to 20 MHz and uses a BNC connector, usually requiring a 50 or 75 ohm termination. Specialised RF generators are capable of gigahertz frequencies and typically use N-type output connectors. Function generators, like most signal generators, may also contain an attenuator, various means of modulating the output waveform, and often the ability to automatically and repetitively "sweep" the frequency of the output waveform (by means of a voltage-controlled oscillator) between two operator-determined limits. This capability makes it very easy to evaluate the frequency response of a given electronic circuit. Some function generators can also generate white or pink noise. More advanced function generators use Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS) to generate waveforms. Arbitrary waveform generators use DDS to generate any waveform that can be described by a table of amplitude values.

10. OSILLOSCOPE
Illustration showing the interior of a cathode-ray tube for use in an oscilloscope. Numbers in the picture indicate: 1. Deflection voltage electrode; 2. Electron gun; 3. Electron beam; 4. Focusing coil; 5. Phosphor-coated inner side of the screen.

The Agilent InfiniiVision 7000 Series is a digital storage oscilloscope which can capture and analyze analog and digital signals. The 7000 Series oscilloscope has 2 or 4 analog, plus 16 digital channels. It has a bandwidth of 350 MHz, 500 MHz, or 1 GHz.

A Tektronix model 475A portable analogue oscilloscope, a very typical instrument of the late 1970s. This dual-trace, dual-sweep instrument had a horizontal bandwidth of 250 MHz, a maximum vertical sensitivity of 5 mV per division, and maximum (unmagnified) horizontal sweep speed of 10 ns per division. The vertical controls are on the left with Channel 1 above and Channel 2 below. The horizontal sweep controls are on the right with the Main Trigger above and the Delayed Trigger below. The CRT controls are below the screen. The metal loop to the lower right of the screen provided a calibration signal for voltage and current probes

10.1 Features and uses (a)Exterior

A typical oscilloscope is a box with a display screen, numerous input connectors, and control knobs and buttons on the front panel. To aid measurement, a grid called the graticule is drawn on the face of the screen. Each square in the graticule is known as a di ision.
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(b)Inputs
The signal to be measured is fed to one of the input connectors, which is usually a coaxial connector such as a BNC or N type. If the signal source has its own coaxial connector, then a simple coaxial cable is used; otherwise, a specialised cable called a 'scope probe', supplied with the oscilloscope, is used. General-purpose oscilloscopes have a standardised input resistance of 1 mega ohm in parallel with a capacitance of around 20 picofarads. This allows the use of standard oscilloscope probes. Scopes for use with very high frequencies may have 50-ohm inputs, which must be either connected directly to a 50-ohm signal source or used with Z0 or active probes. It is used for measuring voltage.

(c)Trigger
An old Tektronix oscilloscope. To provide a more stable trace, modern oscilloscopes have a function called the trigger. When using triggering, the scope will pause each time the sweep reaches the extreme right side of the screen. The scope then waits for a specified event before drawing the next trace.

The trigger event is usually the input waveform reaching some user-specified threshold voltage in the specified direction (going positive or going negative). The effect is to resynchronize the time base to the input signal, preventing horizontal drift of the trace. In this way, triggering allows the display of periodic signals such as sine waves and square waves. Trigger circuits also allow the display of non periodic signals such as single pulses or pulses that don't recur at a fixed rate.

10.2 X-Y mode

Most modern oscilloscopes have several inputs for voltages, and thus can be used to plot one varying voltage versus another. This is especially useful for graphing I-V curves (current versus voltage characteristics) for components such as diodes, as well as Lissajous patterns. Lissajous figures are an example of how an oscilloscope can be used to track phase differences between multiple input signals. This is very frequently used in broadcast engineering to plot the left and right stereophonic channels, to ensure that the stereo generator is calibrated properly.

10.3 Examples of use

On an oscilloscope, with 90 degrees phase difference between x and y inputs. One of the most frequent uses of scopes is troubleshooting malfunctioning electronic equipment. One of the advantages of a scope is that it can graphically show signals: where a voltmeter may show a totally unexpected voltage, a scope may reveal that the circuit is oscillating. In other cases the precise shape of a pulse is important. In a piece of electronic equipment, for example, the connections between stages (e.g. electronic mixers, electronic oscillators, amplifiers) may be 'probed' for the expected signal, using the scope as a simple signal tracer. If the expected signal is absent or incorrect, some preceding stage of the electronics is not operating correctly. Since most failures occur because of a single faulty component, each measurement can prove that half of the stages of a complex piece of equipment either work, or probably did not cause the fault. Once the faulty stage is found, further probing can usually tell a skilled technician exactly which component has failed. Once the component is replaced, the unit can be restored to service, or at least the next fault can be isolated. Another use is to check newly designed circuitry. Very often a newly designed circuit will misbehave because of design errors, bad voltage levels, electrical noise etc. Digital electronics usually operate from a clock, so a dual-trace scope which shows both the clock signal and a test signal dependent upon the clock is useful. "Storage scopes" are helpful for "capturing" rare electronic events that cause defective operation. Another use is for software engineers who must program electronics. Often a scope is the only way to see if the software is running the electronics properly.

Heterodyne

AC hum on sound.

AM Signal.

Bad filter on sine.

This MAY be Phase Mod. (PM) Two different time view

10.4 Selection
Oscilloscopes generally have a checklist of some set of the above features. The basic measure of virtue is the bandwidth of its vertical amplifiers. Typical scopes for general purpose use should have a bandwidth of at least 100 MHz, although much lower bandwidths are acceptable for audio-frequency applications. A useful sweep range is from one second to 100 nanoseconds, with triggering and delayed sweep. The chief benefit of a quality oscilloscope is the quality of the trigger circuit. If the trigger is unstable, the display will always be fuzzy. The quality improves roughly as the frequency response and voltage stability of the trigger increase. Analog oscilloscopes have been almost totally displaced by digital storage scopes except for the low bandwidth (< 60 MHz) segment of the market. Greatly increased sample rates have eliminated the display of incorrect signals, known as "aliasing", that was sometimes present in the first generation of digital scopes. The used test equipment market, particularly on-line auction venues, typically have a wide selection of older analog scopes available. However it is becoming more difficult to obtain replacement parts for these instruments and repair services are generally unavailable from the original manufacturer. .

10.5 Digital storage oscilloscope

A digital storage oscilloscope manufactured by Agilent Technologies The digital storage oscilloscope, or DSO for short, is now the preferred type for most industrial applications, although simple analogue CROs are still used by hobbyists. It replaces the unreliable storage method used in analogue storage scopes with digital memory, which can store data as long as required without degradation. It also allows complex processing of the signal by high-speed digital signal processing circuits. The vertical input, instead of driving the vertical amplifier, is digitised by an analog to digital converter to create a data set that is stored in the memory of a microprocessor. The data set is processed and then sent to the display, which in early DSOs was a cathode ray tube, but is now more likely to be an LCD flat panel. DSOs with colour LCD displays are common. The data set can be sent over a LAN or a WAN for processing or archiving. The screen image can be directly recorded on paper by means of an attached printer or plotter, without the need for an oscilloscope camera. The scope's own signal analysis software can extract many useful time-domain features (e.g. rise time, pulse width, amplitude), frequency spectra, histograms and statistics, persistence maps, and a large number of parameters meaningful to engineers in specialized fields such as telecommunications, disk drive analysis and power electronics.

11. MULTIMETER
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. A standard multimeter may

include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance. There are two categories of multimeters, analog multimeters (or analogue multimeters in British English) and digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM.) A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as batteries, motor controls, appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems. Multimeters are available in a wide ranges of features and prices

11.1Quantities measured
Contemporary multimeters can measure many quantities. The common ones are: Voltage in volts. Current in amperes. Resistance in ohms. Additionally, multimeters may also measure: Capacitance in farads. Frequency in hertz Duty cycle as a percentage. Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit. Conductance in Siemens. Inductance in henrys Audio signal levels in decibels. Digital multimeters may also include circuits for: Continuity that beeps when a circuit conducts. Diodes and Transistors Various sensors can be attached to multimeters to take measurements such as: light level Acidity/Alkalinity(pH) Wind speed Relative humidity

11.2 Resolution
11.2.1 Digital
The resolution of a multimeter is often specified in "digits" of resolution. For example, the term 5 digits refers to the number of digits displayed on the readout of a multimeter. By convention, a half digit can display either a zero or a one, while a three-quarters digit can display a numeral higher than a one but not nine. Commonly, a three-quarters digit refers to a maximum count of 3 or 5. The fractional digit is always the most significant digit in the displayed value. A 5 digit multimeter would have five full digits that display values from 0 to 9 and one half digit that could only display 0 or 1. Such a meter could show positive or negative values from 0 to 199,999. A 3 digit meter can display a quantity from 0 to 3,999 or 5,999, depending on the manufacturer.

11.2.2 Analogue
Resolution of analog multimeters is limited by the width of the scale pointer, vibration of the pointer, the accuracy of printing of scales, zero calibration, number of ranges, and errors due to non-horizontal use of the mechanical display. Accuracy of readings obtained are also often compromised by miscounting division markings, errors in mental arithmetic, parallax observation errors, and less than perfect eyesight. Resistance measurements, in particular, are of low precision due to the typical resistance measurement circuit which compresses the scale heavily at the higher resistance values. Mirrored scales and larger meter movements are used to improve resolution; two and a half to

three digits equivalent resolution is usual (and may be adequate for the limited precision actually necessary for most measurements).

11.2.3 Accuracy
Digital multimeters generally take measurements with accuracy superior to their analog counterparts. Analog multimeters typically measure with three to five percent accuracy. Standard portable digital multimeters claim to be capable of taking measurements with an accuracy of 0.5% on DC voltage and current scales. Mainstream bench-top multimeters make claims to have as great accuracy as 0.01%. Laboratory grade instruments can have accuracies in the parts per million figures. Manufacturers can provide calibration services so that new meters may be purchased with a certificate of calibration indicating the meter has been adjusted to standards traceable to the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Such manufacturers usually provide calibration services after sales, as well, so that older equipment may be recertified. Multimeters used for critical measurements may be part of a metrology program to assure calibration.

11.3 Digital Multimeters (DMM)

A bench-top multimeter from Hewlett-Packard.

Modern multimeters are often digital due to their accuracy, durability and extra features. In a DMM the signal under test is conver ted to a voltage and an amplifier with an electronically controlled gain preconditions the signal. A DMM displays the quantity measured as a number, which prevents parallax errors. The inclusion of solid state electronics, from a control circuit to small embedded computers, has provided a wealth of convenience features in modern digital meters. Commonly available measurement enhancements include: Auto-ranging, which selects the correct range for the quantity under test so that the most significant digits are shown. For example, a four-digit multimeter would automatically select an appropriate range to display 1.234 instead of 0.012, or overloading. Auto-ranging meters usually include a facility to 'freeze' the meter to a particular range, because a measurement that causes frequent range changes is distracting to the user. The first digital multimeter was manufactured in 1955 by Non Linear Systems.

11.4 Analog Multimeters

A multimeter may be implemented with an analog meter deflected by an electromagnet, as a classic galvanometer, or with a digital display such as an LCD or vacuum fluorescent display.

Analog multimeters are not hard to find (though less common and often more expensive than low-end digital units), but are not considered as accurate as digital because of errors introduced in zeroing and reading the analog meter face. Analog meters may be implemented with vacuum tubes to precondition and amplify the input signal. Such meters are known as vacuum tube volt meters (VTVM) or vacuum tube multimeters (VTMM). Analog meters are sometimes considered better for detecting the rate of change of a reading; the ARRL handbook suggests that analog multimeters are often less susceptible to radio frequency interference. The meter movement in a moving pointer analog multimeter is practically always a movingcoil galvanometer of the d'Arsonval type, using either jewelled pivots or taut bands to support the moving coil. In a basic analog multimeter the current to deflect the coil and pointer is drawn from the circuit being measured; it is usually an advantage to minimize the current drawn from the circuit. The sensitivity of an analog multimeter is given in units of ohms per volt. For example, an inexpensive multimeter would have a sensitivity of 1000 ohms per volt and would draw 1 milliampere from a circuit at the full scale measured voltage. More expensive, (and more delicate) multimeters would have sensitivities of 20,000 ohms per volt or higher, with a 50,000 ohms per volt meter (drawing 20 microamperes at full scale) being about the upper limit for a portable general purpose analog multimeter.

11.5 Safety
Some multimeters include a fuse, which will sometimes prevent damage to the multimeter if it is overloaded. However the fuse often only protects the highest current range on the multimeter. A common error when operating a multimeter is to set the meter to measure resistance or current and then connect it directly to a low-impedance voltage source; meters without protection are quickly damaged by such errors, and can sometimes explode causing injury to the operator. Digital meters are category rated based on their intended application, as set forth by the CEN EN61010 standard. There are four categories: Category I: used where current levels are low. Category II: used on residential branch circuits. Category III: used on permanently installed loads such as distribution panels, motors, and appliance outlets. Category IV: used on locations where current levels are high, such as service entrances, main panels, and house meters. Each category also specifies maximum transient voltages for selected measuring ranges in the meter. Category-rated meters also feature protections from over-current faults

12. SOLDERING

(De)soldering a contact from a wire.

Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soft soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler metal, which is below 400 C(800 F). The filler metal used in the process is called solder. Soldering is distinguished from brazing by use of a lower melting-temperature filler metal; it is distinguished from welding by the base metals not being melted during the joining process. In a soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing the solder to melt and be drawn into the joint by capillary action and to bond to the materials to be joined by wetting action. After the metal cools, the resulting joints are not as strong as the base metal, but have adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and water-tightness for many uses. Soldering is an ancient technique mentioned in the Bible and there is evidence that it was employed up to 5000 years ago in Mesopotamia.

12.1 Applications
One of the most frequent application of soldering is assembling electronic components to printed circuit boards (PCBs). Another common application is making permanent but reversible connections between copper pipes in plumbing systems. Joints in sheet metal objects such as food cans, roof flashing, rain gutters and automobile radiators have also historically been soldered, and occasionally still are. Jewellery components are assembled and repaired by soldering. Small mechanical parts are often soldered as well. Soldering is also used to join lead came and copper foil in stained glass work. Soldering can also be used to effect a semi-permanent patch for a leak in a container cooking vessel.

12.2 Solders
Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys for differing applications. In electronics assembly, the eutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or 60/40, which is almost identical in performance to the eutectic) has been the alloy of choice. Other alloys are used for plumbing, mechanical assembly, and other applications. A eutectic formulation has several advantages for soldering; chief among these is the coincidence of the liquidus and solidus temperatures, i.e. the absence of a plastic phase. This allows for quicker wetting out as the solder heats up, and quicker setup as the solder cools. A non-eutectic formulation must remain still as the temperature drops through the liquidus and solidus temperatures. Any differential movement during the plastic phase may result in cracks, giving an unreliable joint. Additionally, a eutectic formulation has the lowest possible melting point, which minimizes heat stress on electronic components during the soldering process. Lead-free solders are suggested anywhere children may come into contact (since children are likely to place things into their mouths), or for outdoor use where rain and other precipitation may wash the lead into the groundwater. Common solder alloys are mixtures of tin and lead, respectively:
63/37: melts between 180 185 C (356 365 F) 60/40: melts between 183 190C (361 374 F) 50/50: melts between 185 215C (365 419 F)
& & & & & &

Lead-free solder alloys melt around 250 C (482 F), depending on their composition. For environmental reasons, 'no-lead' solders are becoming more widely used. Unfortunately most 'no-lead' solders are not eutectic formulations, making it more difficult to create reliable joints with them. See complete discussion below; see also RoHS. Other common solders include low-temperature formulations (often containing bismuth), which are often used to join previously-soldered assemblies without un-soldering earlier connections, and high-temperature formulations (usually containing silver) which are used for high-temperature operation or for first assembly of items which must not become unsoldered

during subsequent operations. Specialty alloys are available with properties such as higher strength, better electrical conductivity and higher corrosion resistance.

12.3 Flux
In high-temperature metal joining processes (welding, brazing and soldering), the primary purpose of flux is to prevent oxidation of the base and filler materials. Tin-lead solder, for example, attaches very well to copper, but poorly to the various oxides of copper, which form quickly at soldering temperatures. Flux is a substance which is nearly inert at room temperature, but which becomes strongly reducing at elevated temperatures, preventing the formation of metal oxides. Secondarily, flux acts as a wetting agent in the soldering process, reducing the surface tension of the molten solder and causing it to better wet out the parts to be joined. Fluxes currently available include water-soluble fluxes (no VOC's required for removal) and 'no-clean' fluxes which are mild enough to not require removal at all. Performance of the flux needs to be carefully evaluated; a very mild 'no-clean' flux might be perfectly acceptable for production equipment, but not give adequate performance for a poorly-controlled handsoldering operation. Traditional rosin fluxes are available in non-activated (R), mildly activated (RMA) and activated (RA) formulations. RA and RMA fluxes contain rosin combined with an activating agent, typically an acid, which increases the wettability of metals to which it is applied by removing existing oxides. The residue resulting from the use of RA flux is corrosive and must be cleaned off the piece being soldered. RMA flux is formulated to result in a residue which is not significantly corrosive, with cleaning being preferred but optional.

12.4 Desoldering and resoldering

Used solder contains some of the dissolved base metals and is unsuitable for reuse in making new joints. Once the solder's capacity for the base metal has been achieved it will no longer properly bond with the base metal, usually resulting in a brittle cold solder joint with a crystalline appearance. It is good practice to remove solder from a joint prior to resolderingdesoldering braids or vacuum desoldering equipment (solder suckers) can be used. Desoldering wicks contain plenty of flux that will lift the contamination from the copper trace and any device leads that are present. This will leave a bright, shiny, clean junction to be resoldered. The lower melting point of solder means it can be melted away from the base metal, leaving it mostly intact though the outer layer will be "tinned" with solder. Flux will remain which can easily be removed by abrasive or chemical processes. This tinned layer will allow solder to flow into a new joint, resulting in a new joint, as well as making the new solder flow very quickly and easily.

12.5 Soldering defects

Various problems may arise in the soldering process which lead to joints which are non functional either immediately or after a period of use. The most common defect when handsoldering results from the parts being joined not exceeding the solder's liquidus temperature, resulting in a "cold solder" joint. This is usually the result of the soldering iron being used to heat the solder directly, rather than the parts themselves. Properly done, the parts to be connected are heated by the iron, which in turn melts the solder, guaranteeing adequate heat in the joined parts for thorough wetting. An improperly selected or applied flux can cause joint failure, or if not properly cleaned off the joint, may corrode the metals in the joint over time and cause eventual joint failure. Without flux the joint may not be clean, or may be oxidized, resulting in an unsound joint. Movement of metals being soldered before the solder has cooled will cause a highly unreliable cracked joint.

A Project Report on

MINI ALARM

INTRODUCTION
An alarm gives an audible or visual warning about a problem or condition. Alarms include: mini alarms, designed to warn of anti bag snatching unit; this is often a silent alarm:, which increases the chances of catching him or her. alarm clocks can produce an alarm at a given time distributed control manufacturing systems or DCSs, found in nuclear power plants, refineries and chemical facilities also generate alarms to direct the operator's attention to an important event that he or she needs to address. alarms in an operation and maintenance (O&M) monitoring system, which informs the bad working state of (a particular part of) the system under monitoring. Alarms have the capability of causing a fight-or-flight response in humans; a person under this mindset will panic and either flee the perceived danger or attempt to eliminate it, often ignoring rational thought in either case. We can characterize a person in such a state as "alarmed".

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PARTS
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) R1 = 330K R2 = 100R C1 = 10nF-63V C2 = 100uF-25V Q1 = BC547 Q2 = BC327 B1 = 3V Battery or Two AA Cells in Series SW1 = Read Switch & Small Magnet SPKR = 8R Loudspeaker

WORKING & CONSTRUCTION

This mini alarm system is made up of two resistors (R1 & R2), two capacitors, two transistors, one speaker, one switch, a speaker and a battery. The two transistors (Q1 & Q2), resistor R1 are in series with capacitor each other and in parallel with capacitor C2. The resistor R2, switch and speaker are in series with each other and in parallel with capacitor C1. All the components are attached with a battery of 3V.

This circuit, enclosed in a small plastic box, can be placed into a bag or handbag. A small magnet is placed close to the reed switch and connected to the hand or the clothes of the person carrying the bag by means of a tiny cord. If the bag is snatched abruptly, the magnet loses its contact with the reed switch, SW1 opens, the circuit starts oscillating and the loudspeaker emits a loud alarm sound. A complementary transistor-pair is wired as a high efficiency oscillator, directly driving a small loudspeaker. Low part-count and 3V battery supply allow a very compact construction.

NOTES
y

y y

The loudspeaker can be any type; its dimensions are limited only by the box that will enclose it. An on-off switch is unnecessary because the stand-by current drawing is less than 20A. Current consumption when the alarm is sounding is about 100mA. If the circuit is used as anti-bag-snatching, SW1 can be replaced by a 3.5mm mono Jack socket and the magnet by a 3.5mm. Mono Jack plugs having its internal leads shorted. The Jack plug will be connected to the tiny cord etc. Do not supply this circuit at voltages exceeding 4.5V: it will not work and Q2 could be damaged. In any case a 3V supply is the best compromise.

APPLICATIONS
1) Suitable for doors.

2)

Suitable for windows.

3)

Portable anti-bag-snatching unit.

A TECHNICAL TOPIC ON

SUPER AMOLED DISPLAY

Super Active-Matrix Organic Light-Emitting Diode or Super AMOLED is a display technology (variant from AMOLED) mainly for use in mobile devices such as mobile phones One of the main differences from other display technologies is that the layer which detects touch is integrated into the screen rather than being overlaid on top. Compared with the first-generation AMOLED, some of the Super AMOLED advantages are brighter screens, less sunlight reflection and reduced power consumption. Super AMOLED Plus, first introduced with the Samsung smart phones, is a further development where the Pen Tile RGBG pixel matrix is replaced with a common RGB sub pixels arrangement, going from eight to twelve sub pixels in a group, resulting. Super AMOLED differs from other display technologies in that the layer which detects touch is integrated into the screen rather than being overlaid on top. Another benefit of the nextgeneration display technology is that an AMOLED display does not need backlights because they emit light itself when electricity is applied in finer details. The reduction in components and other advancements result in the absolute best display you will find on any smart phone this year. Samsung is alr eady boasting that their Super AMOLED technology outperforms the iPhone 4 Retina display in several areas including contrast ratio, colour reproduction, and response time.

HOW DOES SUPER AMOLED DISPLAY TECHNOLOGY WORKS

Some tablets and smart phones ship with an AMOLED display. Newer ones are shipping with a Super AMOLED display. What so super about it, and what does all this alphabet soup even mean?

The short version is that a Super AMOLED touch screen display integrates touch sensors with the glass surface panel, eliminating at least one layer of glass and with it, a layer of air. That s what makes Super AMOLED super.

Until very recently, TFT-LCD (Thin-Film Transistor Liquid Crystal Display) has been the state of the art in thin colour displays and is still the only cost-effective option in the vast majority of displays larger than a smart phone screen.

TFT-LCD has approximately four layers: a backlight, a TFT colour filter, a touch-sensor panel, and an outer glass screen. AMOLED (Active-Matrix Organic Light-Emitting Diode) eliminates the separate backlight. AMOLED, however, is known for having problems with glare and readability in direct sunlight, even relative to average LCD screens. By minimizing the number of reflective surfaces and power necessary to achieve vivid colour, Super AMOLED was designed in part to address this. There are other advanced colour technologies in the market, all of them super, and all of them extra-expensive: Super LCD recently joined Super IPS and Advanced Super View. But only Super AMOLED has really captured the popular imagination.

A 7-inch Android tablet with an AMOLED display would probably be a serious advance over its current LCD screen. But if it s just AMOLED, something about it would just seem less than super.

ADVANTAGES
1. Power consumption 20% more battery life Battery life remains one of the biggest areas of concerns for Android users. Sure your battery will normally get you through the day, but wouldn t it be nice if you could squeeze a couple extra hours out of your phone? Depending on how you use your phone, the display is normally at the top of the list when checking your battery use. Samsung claims their Super AMOLED display provides 20% more battery life vs. traditional AMOLED, so it s quite conceivable to give you that extra hour of use that you sometimes need. 2. Superior sunlight readability 80% less sunlight reflection The biggest gripe with traditional AMOLED displays (like the ones found on the Nexus One and Incredible) is that they are hard to read out in direct sunlight. Living in South Texas, I m outdoors a lot and I have experienced this first hand. There have been many times when I had to find some shade just so I could operate my phone. Since the touch layer is integrated into the Super AMOLED screen, there is less reflection when viewing the display. To be exact, Samsung s official measurement is 80% less sunlight reflection when using a Super AMOLED display. For a direct comparison, check out the hands-on video of the Galaxy S in direct sunlight. 3. Viewing angle 180 degrees Did you know Samsung s Super AMOLED mobile phone display offers a 180 degree angle? That means even if you held the Super AMOLED display at eye level, you could still see the images on the screen without any blurring or distortion. This makes it easier to share your videos and pictures with the people around you without having to tilt the display. 4. Contrast ratio 100,000 to 1

Super AMOLED display offers 100,000 to 1 contrast ratio, for unmatched vivid colors and clarity. The contrast ratio for Super AMOLED is the closest comparison in the U.S. mobile industry to the current HDTV standard. 5. Brightness 20% brighter If you have never seen an AMOLED display, then drive down to your local Verizon store and play with the Incredible. The colour reproduction of an AMOLED display is noticeably better than a TFT LCD when you hold them side by side. Games, pictures, and YouTube videos come to life with the vivid colours and brighter display. Super AMOLED offers an even better display because it is 20% brighter versus a traditional AMOLED screen.

Conclusion
The added battery life alone is enough to sell me on the display and the extra benefits are just icing on the cake. Samsung actually produces most of the displays found in competing smart phones, so I expect they will have an exclusive for awhile. SUPER AMOLED screen's quality life-time is still short compare to LCDs. Given about 2 months of usage, 8 hours a day with static image such as notification bars for example, burnin issue is inevitable! In real-life daily usage, give it about 2.6 hrs a day, your screen will be burnt after 6 months. NEVER USE SUPER AMOLED SCREEN WITH STATIC IMAGE!