CHAPTER 1 1.

INTRODUCTION: In autumns past, you may have heard our train crews mention slip-slide to explain minor service delays. This condition is created by a Teflon-like substance left by crushed leaves on our rails that gets even more slippery when it rains. When a train attempts to speed up or slow down, this slippery substance - called pectin - can cause the wheels to slip or slide along the rails. In severe cases the train will automatically make an emergency stop to ensure the train stops in a safe distance. All this slip-sliding and emergency braking can create flat spots on the trains wheels forcing us to take much needed equipment out of service for repairs. However, thanks to our proactive approach, youve been experiencing the negative effects of slippery rail less frequently. This is due to a number of changes we have implemented. Weve reprogrammed the software of our M7 fleet to allow the braking system to better adjust to slip-slide conditions. We instructed our engineers to report slippery conditions immediately to our Operations Center. We have also trained them how to operate through these slippery areas. In addition, we have enhanced our computerized train-tracking system to allow for automatic, real-time reporting of low adhesion conditions from our M7 fleet, enabling us to take corrective action more quickly. One thing you will notice is that under extreme conditions, we reduce speeds through problem areas out of concern for your safety. While this may result in a slight delay to your service, it ensures a safer operation while also preventing a greater delay

because of wheel damage. No flat spots on train wheels also means we can operate at regular speeds in non-problem areas. Along with training and technology, we are also combating the affects of seasonal slippery rail - we use power washers to remove the pectin and apply an anti-slip substance to the rail. On-board sanders on our diesel trains drop sand on our tracks to help improve traction when wheel slippage begins to occur. We are also doing our part to manage vegetation along our tracks as a preventive measure.

1.1.LITERATURE REVIEW: The present invention relates generally to wheel slip/slide control systems for alternating current induction motor powered traction vehicles such as locomotives or transit vehicles and, more particularly, the invention relates to a method for calibrating wheel diameter during operation of a vehicle for enabling detection of wheel slip or slide. Locomotives and transit vehicles as well as other large traction vehicles are commonly powered by electric traction motors coupled in driving relationship to one or more axles of the vehicle. Locomotives and transit vehicles generally have at least four axle-wheel sets per vehicle with each axle-wheel set being connected via suitable gearing to the shaft of a separate electric motor commonly referred to as a traction motor. In the motoring mode of operation, the traction motors are supplied with electric current from a controllable source of electric power (e.g., an engine-driven traction alternator) and apply torque to the vehicle wheels which exert tangential force or tractive effort on the surface on which the vehicle is traveling (e.g., the parallel steel rails of a railroad track), thereby propelling the vehicle in a desired direction along the right of way. In either case, good adhesion between each wheel and the surface is required for efficient operation of the vehicle. The first practical AC electric locomotive was designed by Charles Brown, then working for Oerlikon, Zrich. In 1891, Brown had demonstrated long-distance power transmission, using three-phase AC, between a hydro-electric plant at Lauffen am Neckar and Frankfurt am Main West railway station, a distance of 280 km. Brown, using the experience he had gained while working for Jean Heilmann on steamelectric locomotive designs, had observed that three-phase motors had a higher power-to-weight ratio than DC motors and, because of the absence of a commutator, were simpler to manufacture and maintain. In 1896, Oerlikon installed the first commercial example of the system on the Lugano Tramway. Three-phase motors, which run at constant speed and provide regenerative braking, are well suited to steeply graded routes and the first mainline three-phase locomotives were installed by 3

Brown (by then in partnership with Walter Boveri) in 1899 on the BurgdorfThun line, Switzerland. Each thirty-tonne locomotive had two 150 h.p. motors. A development by Klmn Kand of the Ganz works, Budapest, working with Westinghouse of Italy, introduced an electro-mechanical converter, allowing the use of three-phase motors powered from single-phase alternating current, thus eliminating the need for two overhead conductor wires.[2] The first implementation of industrial frequency single-phase AC supply for locomotives came from Oerlikon in 1901, using the designs of Hans Behn-Eschenburg and Emil Huber-Stockar; installation on the Seebach-Wettingen line of the Swiss Federal Railways was completed in 1904. The 15 kV, 50 Hz 345 kilowatts (460 hp), 48 tonne locomotives used transformers and rotary converters to power DC traction motors.[10]

CHAPTER 2 2. BLOCK DIAGRAM:

RESET
MICRO CONTROLLER AT89C51

SLIP

OSCILLATOR

SLIDE

POWER SUPPLY

Fig 2.1
INDUC TION MOTO R

2.1BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION: This Project mainly consists of Power Supply section, Microcontroller section, Slip & slide with induction motor section Power Supply Section: 5

MOTO R DRIVE R CIRCU IT

This section is meant for supplying Power to all the sections mentioned above. It basically consists of a Transformer to step down the 230V ac to 9V ac followed by diodes. Here diodes are used to rectify the ac to dc. After rectification the obtained rippled dc is filtered using a capacitor Filter. A positive voltage regulator is used to regulate the obtained dc voltage. Microcontroller Section: This section forms the control unit of the whole project. This section basically consists of a Microcontroller with its associated circuitry like Crystal with capacitors, Reset circuitry, Pull up resistors (if needed) and so on. The Microcontroller forms the heart of the project because it controls the devices being interfaced and communicates with the devices according to the program being written. Slip\Slide Sections: "Slip-slide" is very similar to when car wheels skidding on an icy road and is the result of low adhesion between the train wheel and the rail during braking caused by a slippery substance - called pectin-created by wheels crushing fallen or scattered leaves.Taking a pro-active approach to deal with the issue of train wheel "slip-slide," the LIRR is launching a three-pronged program - reducing low adhesion, modifying brake application procedures, and developing contingent train operation. Addressing the number-one culprit of low adhesion, the fallen leaves mentioned above, the

LIRR is using licensed and insured tree professionals to trim or remove overgrown trees, shrubs and bushes on its track right-of-way this summer. PC Section: This section basically contains a PC with Serial communication associated hardware. The serial communication associated hardware circuitry includes the bus (DB 9) connector from PC to Microcontroller. Induction Motor drive Section: 6

Induction motor structures in DC electrified railways with their dynamic performance are studied. Characteristics of the current, voltage, electrical and mechanical torque and active and reactive power in accelerating, normal and regenerative braking are investigated. The characteristics of the induction motors used for Tabriz urban railway are simulated with PSCAD/EMTDC software proving the investigated characteristics.

2.2 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

S L I P &R E SC LI IE DV EE R T R A N S M I T T E R V C C _ A R V C C _ A R R O W D L E 1 9 D D L E 1 8 D

R R

7 E

I S

R R

6 E

I S

3 3 p f 2 Y 4

5 1 3 2

v 3 1 1 Y S T 9 U 1 E 9 X 8 X A R 2 3I N 4I N 5T 0 T 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 P P P P P P P P 8 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 2 L E T T 4 S 0 1 / S E 2 A / V r s 3 9 P P 03 .8 0 e n P 03 .7 1 P 03 .6 2 P 03 .5 3 d 4 P 03 .4 4 d 5 P 03 .3 5 d 6 PM 03 .2 6 d 7 P 0 . 7 T 2 1 P 22 .2 0 P 2 2 . 3R 1 E C I E V P 22 .4 2 S L I P 2 2 . 5T 3 R S M I T P 22 .6 4 P 22 .7 5 P 22 .8 6 TP 2 2 . 7 U 3 T 2 1X 7 R 1D 6 3 W 2 R 9 2 + I NO P S 3 E0 N 5 - I N O A L 1E 1 / P 6 + I N T X1 D0 - I N R X D 8 4 + V - V C A U L V M 4 I N GND 7 V 8 0 O 5 U V C C / T O+ T + 5 V D l c d

3 3 p f

1 C R

1 1 1 1 C 1 D 1 I P

E R P & T E R K 1 1U 7 1 U 2 2 C C 8 0 C 3

S L I D E

S S

W W

u - 2

. . . . . . . .

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2

/ /

M G 5 5 M O T O R M ( 2O ) T O T 1 D P D TR 2 E L A Y

3 M AO T O R 4 1

( 1 ) R T A H E C

1 2

4 3

R 1

/ S

1 D 4

1 I / P

1 A 4 -C

2 3 0 V 4 T R A 8 N S

+ 2 C 1 1

C 1 M E 0 u R E B

D C 0 T n U

o / p F i t l e < T

+ 5 V

I O

I D

E G

i t l e c o u c s

> m > d a e y n S, t N u m b R e er v < R e 2 9 , v 2 C 0 1 o 1 d e

S i zD e o d A < D D a

tT e u : e

h M e1 a e or t c f 1 h

Fig 2.2

2.3. SCHEMATIC EXPLANATION: Firstly, the required operating voltage for Microcontroller 89C51 is 5V. Hence the 5V D.C. power supply is needed by the same. This regulated 5V is generated by first stepping down the 230V to 9V by the step down transformer. The step downed a.c. voltage is being rectified by the Bridge Rectifier. The diodes used are 1N4007. The rectified a.c. voltage is now filtered using a C filter. Now the rectified, filtered D.C. voltage is fed to the Voltage Regulator. This voltage regulator allows us to have a Regulated Voltage which is +5V.The rectified; filtered and regulated voltage is again filtered for ripples using an electrolytic capacitor 100F. Now the output from this section is fed to 40th pin of 89c51 microcontroller to supply operating voltage. The microcontroller 89c51 with Pull up resistors at Port0 and crystal oscillator of 11.0592 MHz crystal in conjunction with couple of capacitors of is placed at 18th & 19th pins of 89c51 to make it work (execute) properly. The PC is interfaced to microcontroller through a voltage level converter i.e. MAX 232. The RF Transmitter section contains a transmitter module through which the data is going to be transmitted. The data pins of the Encoder (HT640) are connected to the port1 of the Microcontroller at the Transmitter section. The address pins of the encoder are made to ground. The Dout pin is connected to the DATA pin of the Microcontroller. The Transmission Enable (TE) pin is connected to Vcc. In the same manner, the data pins of the Decoder (HT648L) are connected to the port1 of the microcontroller at the Receiver section. The address pins are connected to the ground. So that the RF communication between to PCs made efficient. The DIN is pin connected to the DATA pin of the RF receiver module. So that the data will transfer serially to the decoder from the Receiver module. After receiving the data, the VT pin which is present on the decoder will goes high

CHAPTER 3 3.1 HARDWARE USED: Motor Keypad LCD display PCB for microcontroller unit LCD display Reset switches,Thyristors assembly and DC power supply LEDs 11.0592 MHz crystals Resistors, capacitors and Opto couplers IC bases and connectors

3.2.SOFTWARE USED:

TOOLS FOR PROGRAMING AND DEBUGGING: A.) Keli UV2 IDE B.) A51 assembler/C51 cross compiler C.) Top view simulator

TOOLS FOR SCHEMATIC DESIGNING : A.) CAPTURE CIS (ORCAD)

10

CHAPTER4 4. MICRO CONTROLLER (AT89C52) 4.1.INTRODUCTION: A Micro controller consists of a powerful CPU tightly coupled with memory, various I/O interfaces such as serial port, parallel port timer or counter, interrupt controller, data acquisition interfaces-Analog to Digital converter, Digital to Analog converter, integrated on to a single silicon chip. If a system is developed with a microprocessor, the designer has to go for external memory such as RAM, ROM, EPROM and peripherals. But controller is provided all these facilities on a single chip. Development of a Micro controller reduces PCB size and cost of design. One of the major differences between a Microprocessor and a Micro controller is that a controller often deals with bits not bytes as in the real world application. Intel has introduced a family of Micro controllers called the MCS-51.

Fig 4.1

11

4.2. FEATURES Compatible with MCS-51 Products 4K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz Three-level Program Memory Lock 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM 32 Programmable I/O Lines Two 16-bit Timer/Counters Six Interrupt Sources Full Duplex UART Serial Channel Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

4.3. DESCRIPTION The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 4K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industrystandard 80C51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

12

4.4. BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig 4.2

4.5. PIN DIAGRAM:

13

Fig 4.3

4.6 PIN DESCRIPTION: VCC - Supply voltage. 14

GND - Ground. Port 0: Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as highimpedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification. Port 1: Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.

Table 4.1

Port 2: Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally 15

being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification. Port 3: Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S51, as shown in the following table.

Table 4.2

RST: Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. This pin drives High for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times

16

out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled. ALE/PROG: Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6

the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.

PSEN: Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89S51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. EA/VPP: External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming. XTAL1: Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. 17

XTAL2: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

4.7. OSCILLATOR CHARACTERISTICS: XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figs 6.2.3. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 6.2.4.There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

Fig 4.4

Fig 4.5

4.8. SERIAL COMMUNICATION: 18

Computers can transfer data in two ways: parallel and serial. In parallel data transfers, often 8 or more lines (wire conductors) are used to transfer data to a device that is only a few feet away. Examples of parallel data transfer are printers and hard disks; each uses cables with many wire strips. Although in such cases a lot of data can be transferred in a short amount of time by using many wires in parallel, the distance cannot be great. To transfer to a device located many meters away, the serial method is used. In serial communication, the data is sent one bit at a time, in contrast to parallel communication, in which the data is sent a byte or more at a time. Serial communication of the 8051 is the topic of this chapter. The 8051 has serial communication capability built into it, there by making possible fast data transfer using only a few wires. If data is to be transferred on the telephone line, it must be converted from 0s and 1s to audio tones, which are sinusoidal-shaped signals. A peripheral device called a modem, which stands for modulator/demodulator, performs this conversion. Serial data communication uses two methods, asynchronous and synchronous. The synchronous method transfers a block of data at a time, while the asynchronous method transfers a single byte at a time. In data transmission if the data can be transmitted and received, it is a duplex transmission. This is in contrast to simplex transmissions such as with printers, in which the computer only sends data. Duplex transmissions can be half or full duplex, depending on whether or not the data transfer can be simultaneous. If data is transmitted one way at a time, it is referred to as half duplex. If the data can go both ways at the same time, it is full duplex. Of course, full duplex requires two wire conductors for the data lines, one for transmission and one for reception, in order to transfer and receive data simultaneously. Asynchronous serial communication and data framing: The data coming in at the receiving end of the data line in a serial data transfer is all 0s and 1s; it is difficult to make sense of the data unless the sender and receiver agree on a set of rules, a protocol, on how the data is packed, how many bits constitute a character, and when the data begins and ends. Start and stop bits: 19

Asynchronous serial data communication is widely used for character-oriented transmissions, while block-oriented data transfers use the synchronous method. In the asynchronous method, each character is placed between start and stop bits. This is called framing. In the data framing for asynchronous communications, the data, such as ASCII characters, are packed between a start bit and a stop bit. The start bit is always one bit, but the stop bit can be one or two bits. The start bit is always a 0 (low) and the stop bit (s) is 1 (high). Data transfer rate: The rate of data transfer in serial data communication is stated in bps (bits per second). Another widely used terminology for bps is baud rate. However, the baud and bps rates are not necessarily equal. This is due to the fact that baud rate is the modem terminology and is defined as the number of signal changes per second. In modems a single change of signal, sometimes transfers several bits of data. As far as the conductor wire is concerned, the baud rate and bps are the same, and for this reason we use the bps and baud interchangeably. The data transfer rate of given computer system depends on communication ports incorporated into that system. For example, the early IBMPC/XT could transfer data at the rate of 100 to 9600 bps. In recent years, however, Pentium based PCS transfer data at rates as high as 56K bps. It must be noted that in asynchronous serial data communication, the baud rate is generally limited to 100,000bps. Computers can transfer data in two ways: parallel and serial. In parallel data transfers, often 8 or more lines (wire conductors) are used to transfer data to a device that is only a few feet away. Examples of parallel transfers are printers and hard disks; each uses cables with many wire strips. Although in such cases a lot of data can be transferred in a short amount of time by using many wires in parallel, the distance cannot be great. To transfer to a device located many meters away, the serial method is used. In serial communication, the data is sent one bit at a time, in contrast to parallel communication, in which the data is sent a byte or more at a time. The 8051 has serial communication capability built into it, there by making possible fast data transfer using only a few wires. The PC uses RS 232 as a Serial Communication Standard. RS232 STANDARDS: 20

To allow compatibility among data communication equipment made by various manufacturers, an interfacing standard called RS232 was set by the Electronics Industries Association (EIA) in 1960. In 1963 it was modified and called RS232A. RS232B AND RS232C were issued in 1965 and 1969, respectively. Today, RS232 is the most widely used serial I/O interfacing standard. This standard is used in PCs and numerous types of equipment. However, since the standard was set long before the advert of the TTL logic family, its input and output voltage levels are not TTL compatible. In RS232, a 1 is represented by -3 to -25V, while a 0 bit is +3 to +25V, making -3 to +3 undefined. For this reason, to connect any RS232 to a microcontroller system we must use voltage converters such as MAX232 to convert the TTL logic levels to the RS232 voltage levels, and vice versa. MAX232 IC chips are commonly referred to as line drivers.

CHAPTER 5 5. DS1307 5.1 DS1307 64 x 8 Serial Real-Time Clocks: The DS1307 Serial Real-Time Clock is a low-power, full binary-coded decimal (BCD) clock/calendar plus 56 bytes of NV SRAM. Address and data are transferred serially via a 2-wire, bi-directional bus. The clock/calendar provides seconds, minutes, hours, day, date, month, and year information. The end ofthe month date automatically adjusted for months with fewer than 31 days, including corrections for leap year. The clock operates in either the 24-hour or 12-hour format with AM/PM indicator. TheDS1307 has a built-in power sense circuit that detects power failures and automatically switches to the battery supply.

21

Fig 5.1 5.2 OPERATION The DS1307 operates as a slave device on the serial bus. Access is obtained by implementing a START condition and providing a device identification code followed by a register address. Subsequent registers can be accessed sequentially until a STOP condition is executed. When VCC falls below 1.25 x VBAT the device terminates an access in progress and resets the device address counter. Inputs to the device will not be recognized at this time to prevent erroneous data from being written to the device from an out of tolerance system. When VCC falls below VBAT the device switches into a lowcurrent battery backup mode. Upon power-up, the device switches from battery to VCC when VCC is greater than VBAT + 0.2V and recognizes inputs when VCC is greater than 1.25 x VBAT. The block diagram in Figure 1 shows the main elements of the serial RTC.

22

5.3 FEATURES OF DS1307

Real-time clock (RTC) counts seconds,minutes, hours, date of the month, month, day of the week, and year with leap-year compensation valid up to 2100 56-byte, battery-backed, nonvolatile (NV) RAM for data storage Two-wire serial interface Programmable squarewave output signal Automatic power-fail detect and switch circuitry Consumes less than 500nA in battery backup mode with oscillator running Optional industrial temperature range: -40C to +85C Available in 8-pin DIP or SOIC Underwriters Laboratory (UL) recognized

Fig 5.2 5.4 SIGNAL DESCRIPTIONS

VCC, GND DC power is provided to the device on these pins. VCC is the +5V input. When 5V is applied within normal limits, the device is fully accessible and data can be written and read. When a 3V battery is connected to the device and VCC is below 1.25 x VBAT, reads and writes are inhibited. However, the timekeeping function continues unaffected by the lower input 23

voltage. As VCC falls below VBAT the RAM and timekeeper are switched over to the external power supply (nominal 3.0V DC) at VBAT.

VBAT Battery input for any standard 3V lithium cell or other energy source. Battery voltage must be held between 2.0V and 3.5V for proper operation. The nominal write protect trip point voltage at which access to the RTC and user RAM is denied is set by the internal circuitry as 1.25 x VBAT nominal. A lithium battery with 48mAhr or greater will back up the DS1307 for more than 10 years in the absence of power at 25C. UL recognized to ensure against reverse charging current when used in conjunction with a lithium battery. See Conditions of Acceptability at http://www.maximic.com/TechSupport/QA/ntrl.htm.

SCL (Serial Clock Input) SCL is used to synchronize data movement on the serial interface. SDA (Serial Data Input/output) SDA is the input/output pin for the 2-wire serial interface. The SDA pin is open drain which requires an external pull-up resistor.

SQW/OUT (Square Wave/Output Driver) When enabled, the SQWE bit set to 1, the SQW/OUT pin outputs one of four square wave frequencies (1Hz, 4kHz, 8kHz, 32kHz). The SQW/OUT pin is open drain and requires an external pull-up resistor. SQW/OUT will operate with either Vcc or Vbat applied.

X1, X2 Connections for a standard 32.768kHz quartz crystal. The internal oscillator circuitry is designed for operation with a crystal having a specified load capacitance (CL) of 12.5pF. For more information on crystal selection and crystal layout considerations, please consult Application Note 58, Crystal Considerations with Dallas Real-Time Clocks. The DS1307 can also be driven by an external 32.768kHz oscillator. In this configuration, the X1 pin is connected to the external oscillator signal and the X2 pin is floated.

CHAPTER 6

24

6. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER ADC0808/ADC0809: Description: The ADC0808, ADC0809 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with an 8-bit analog-to-digital converter, 8-channel multiplexer and microprocessor compatible control logic. The 8-bit A/D converter uses successive approximation as the conversion technique. The converter features a high impedance chopper stabilized comparator, a 256R voltage divider with analog switch tree and a successive approximation register. The 8-channel multiplexer can directly access any of 8-single-ended analog signals. The device eliminates the need for external zero and full-scale adjustments. Easy interfacing to microprocessors is provided by the latched and decoded multiplexer address inputs and latched TTL TRI-STATE outputs. The design of the ADC0808, ADC0809 has been optimized by incorporating the most desirable aspects of several A/D conversion techniques. The ADC0808, ADC0809 offers high speed, high accuracy, minimal temperature dependence, excellent long-term accuracy and repeatability, and consumes minimal power. These features make this device ideally suited to applications from process and machine control to consumer and automotive applications. 6.1 APPLICATIONS: RATIOMETRIC CONVERSION RESISTOR LADDER LIMITATIONS CONVERTER EQUATIONS ANALOG COMPARATOR INPUTS 6.2 FEATURES:

Easy interface to all microprocessors Operates ratio metrically or with 5 VDC or analog span Adjusted voltage reference 25

No zero or full-scale adjust required 8-channel multiplexer with address logic

0V to 5V input range with single 5V power supply Outputs meet TTL voltage level specifications Standard hermetic or molded 28-pin DIP package 28-pin molded chip carrier package ADC0808 equivalent to MM74C949

6.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig 6.1 Various function blocks: channel multiplexer 26

Comparator 56R resistor ladder witch tree successive approximation register output buffer address latch and decoder

6.4. PIN DIAGRAM:

Fig 6.2

6.5. PIN DESCRIPTION:

27

Table 6.1 Explanation: The 8-channel multiplexer can accept eight analog inputs in the range of 0 to 5V and allow one by one for conversion depending on the 3-bit address input. The channel selection logic is The successive approximation register (SAR) performs eight iterations to determine the digital code for input value. The SAR is reset on the positive edge of START pulse and start the conversion process on the falling edge of START pulse. A conversion process will be interrupted on receipt of new START pulse. The End-Of-Conversion (EOC) will go low between 0 and 8 clock pulses after the positive edge of START pulse. The ADC can be used in continuous conversion mode by tying the EOC output to START input. In this mode an external START pulse should be applied whenever power is switched ON. The 256'R resistor network and the switch tree is shown in fig.

28

Fig 6.3 The 256R ladder network has been provided instead of conventional R/2R ladder because of its inherent monotonic, which guarantees no missing digital codes. Also the 256R resistor network does not cause load variations on the reference voltage. The comparator in ADC0809/ADC0808 is a chopper- stabilized comparator. It converts the DC input signal into an AC signal, and amplifies the AC sign using high gain AC amplifier. Then it converts AC signal to DC signal. This technique limits the drift component of the amplifier, because the drift is a DC component and it is not amplified/passed by the AC amp1ifier. This makes the ADC extremely insensitive to temperature, long term drift and input offset errors. In ADC conversion process the input analog value is quantized and each quantized analog value will have a unique binary equivalent.

The quantization step in ADC0809/ADC0808 is given by:

Fig 6.4 29

CHAPTER 7 7. 1. LC 3 mm (T1) LED: A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962 early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[3] LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. Features Package: colored, diffused 3 mm (T1) package Feature of the device: high luminous intensity at low currents; solder leads with Stand-off Wavelength: 628 nm (super-red), 587 nm (yellow), 570 nm (green) Viewing angle: 60 Technology: GaAlP Optical efficiency: 2 lm/W Grouping parameter: luminous flux, wavelength Soldering methods: TTW soldering 30

 Packing: bulk, available taped on reel

Fig 7.1

Applications: Optical indicators Backlighting (LCD, switches, keys, displays, illuminated advertising, general Lighting) Interior automotive lighting (e.g. dashboard backlighting, etc.) 7.2. LM35 Precision Centigrade Temperature Sensors: The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling. The LM35 does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of 14C at room temperature and 34C over a full 55 to +150C temperature range. Low cost is assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level. The LM35s low output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration make interfacing to readout or control circuitry especially easy. It can be used with single power supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it 31

draws only 60 A from its supply, it has very low self-heating, less than 0.1C in still air. The LM35 is rated to operate over a 55 to +150C temperature range, while the LM35C is rated for a 40 to +110C range (10 with improved accuracy). The LM35 series is available packaged in hermetic TO-46 transistor packages, while the LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D are also available in the plastic TO-92 transistor package. The LM35D is also available in an 8-lead surface mount small outline package and a plastic TO-220 package.

. Fig 7.2 Features

Calibrated directly in Celsius (Centigrade) Linear + 10.0 mV/C scale factor 0.5C accuracy guaranteeable (at +25C) Rated for full 55 to +150C range Suitable for remote applications Low cost due to wafer-level trimming Operates from 4 to 30 volts Less than 60 A current drain Low self-heating, 0.08C in still air Nonlinearity only 14C typical Low impedance output, 0.1 W for 1 mA load

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Fig 7.3 Applications:

Fig 7.4

The LM35 can be applied easily in the same way as other integrated-circuit temperature sensors. It can be glued or cemented to a surface and its temperature will be within about 0.01C of the surface temperature.This presumes that the ambient air temperature is almost the same as the surface temperature; if the air temperature were much higher or lower than the surface temperature, the actual temperature of the LM35 die would be at an intermediate temperature between the surface temperature and the air temperature. This is expecially true for the TO-92 plastic package, where the copper leads are the principal thermal path to carry heat into the device, so its temperature might be closer to the air temperature than to the surface temperature. To minimize this problem, be sure that the wiring to the LM35, as it leaves the device, is held at the same temperature as the surface of interest. The easiest way to do this is to cover up these wires with a bead of epoxy which will insure that the leads and wires are all at the same temperature as the surface, and that the LM35 dies temperature will not be affected by the air temperature. The TO-46 metal package can also be soldered to a metal surface or pipe without damage. Of course, in that case the V terminal of the circuit will be grounded to that metal. Alternatively, the LM35 can be mounted inside a sealed-end metal tube, and can then be dipped into a bath or screwed into a threaded hole in a tank. As with any IC, the LM35 and accompanying wiring and circuits must be kept insulated and dry, to avoid leakage and corrosion. This is especially true if the circuit may operate at cold temperatures where 33

condensation can occur. Printed-circuit coatings and varnishes such as Humiseal and epoxy paints or dips are often used to insure that moisture cannot corrode the LM35 or its connections. These devices are sometimes soldered to a small light-weight heat fin, to decrease the thermal time constant and speed up the response in slowly-moving air. On the other hand, a small thermal mass may be added to the sensor, to give the steadiest reading despite small deviations in the air temperature.

7.3. HD44780U (LCD-II):

The HD44780U dot-matrix liquid crystal display controller and driver LSI displays alphanumerics, Japanese kana characters, and symbols. It can be configured to drive a dot-matrix liquid crystal display under the control of a 4- or 8-bit microprocessor. Since all the functions such as display RAM, character generator, and liquid crystal driver, required for driving a dot-matrix liquid crystal display are internally provided on one chip, a minimal system can be interfaced with this controller/driver.

A single HD44780U can display up to one 8-character line or two 8-character lines. The HD44780U has pin function compatibility with the HD44780S which allows the user to easily replace an LCD-II with an HD44780U. The HD44780U character generator ROM is extended to generate 208 5 8 dot character fonts and 32 5 10 dot character fonts for a total of 240 different character fonts. The low power supply (2.7V to 5.5V) of the HD44780U is suitable for any portable battery-driven product requiring low power dissipation.

Features
5 8 and 5 10 dot matrix possible Low power operation support: 2.7 to 5.5V Wide range of liquid crystal display driver power 3.0 to 11V Liquid crystal drive waveform A (One line frequency AC waveform) Correspond to high speed MPU bus interface 2 MHz (when VCC = 5V)

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 4-bit or 8-bit MPU interface enabled 80 8-bit display RAM (80 characters max.) 9,920-bit character generator ROM for a total of 240 character fonts 208 character fonts (5 8 dot) 32 character fonts (5 10 dot) 64 8-bit character generator RAM 8 character fonts (5 8 dot) 4 character fonts (5 10 dot) 16-common 40-segment liquid crystal display driver Programmable duty cycles 1/8 for one line of 5 8 dots with cursor dots with cursor 1/16 for two lines of 5 8 dots with cursor Wide range of instruction functions: Display clear, cursor home, display on/off, cursor on/off, display character blink, cursor shift,display shift Pin function compatibility with HD44780S Automatic reset circuit that initializes the controller/driver after power on Internal oscillator with external resistors Low power consumption 1/11 for one line of 5 10

Block diagram:

Fig 7.5 35

HD44780U Pin Arrangement (FP-80B):

Fig 7.6

Pin Functions: 36

Table 7.1 Function Description:

Registers: The HD44780U has two 8-bit registers, an instruction register (IR) and a data register (DR). The IR stores instruction codes, such as display clear and cursor shift, and address information for display data RAM (DDRAM) and character generator RAM (CGRAM). The IR can only be written from the MPU. The DR temporarily stores data to be written into DDRAM or CGRAM and temporarily stores data to be read from DDRAM or CGRAM. Data written into the DR from the MPU is automatically written into DDRAM or CGRAM by an internal operation. The DR is also used for data storage when reading data

37

from DDRAM or CGRAM. When address information is written into the IR, data is read and then stored into the DR from DDRAM or CGRAM by an internal operation. Data transfer between the MPU is then completed when the MPU reads the DR. After the read, data in DDRAM or CGRAM at the next address is sent to the DR for the next read from the MPU. By the register selector (RS) signal, these two registers can be selected.

Busy Flag (BF): When the busy flag is 1, the HD44780U is in the internal operation mode, and the next instruction will not be accepted. When RS = 0 and R/W = 1 (Table 1), the busy flag is output to DB7. The next instruction must be written after ensuring that the busy flag is 0. Address Counter (AC): The address counter (AC) assigns addresses to both DDRAM and CGRAM. When an address of an instruction is written into the IR, the address information is sent from the IR to the AC. Selection of either DDRAM or CGRAM is also determined concurrently by the instruction. After writing into (reading from) DDRAM or CGRAM, the AC is automatically incremented by 1 (decremented by 1). The AC contents are then output to DB0 to DB6 when RS = 0 and R/W = 1 (Table 1).

Table 7.2
Display Data RAM (DDRAM): Display data RAM (DDRAM) stores display data represented in 8-bit character codes. Its extended capacity is 80 8 bits, or 80 characters. The area in display data RAM (DDRAM) that is not used for display can be used as general data RAM. See Figure 1 for the relationships between DDRAM addresses and positions on the liquid crystal display.

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Character Generator ROM (CGROM): The character generator ROM generates 5 8 dot or 5 10 dot character patterns from 8-bit character codes (Table 4). It can generate 208 5 8 dot character patterns and 32 5 10 dot character patterns. User defined character patterns are also available by mask-programmed ROM. Character Generator RAM (CGRAM): In the character generator RAM, the user can rewrite character patterns by program. For 5 8 dots, eight character patterns can be written, and for 5 10 dots, four character patterns can be written. Write into DDRAM the character codes at the addresses shown as the left column of Table 4 to show the character patterns stored in CGRAM. Correspondence between Character Codes and Character Patterns (ROM Code: A00):

Table 7.3

7.4. LM555 TIMER: 39

The LM555 is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays or oscillation. Additional terminals are provided for triggering or resetting if desired. In the time delay mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For astable operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency and duty cycle are accurately controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the output circuit can source or sink up to 200mA or drive TTL circuits.

Features:
Direct replacement for SE555/NE555 Timing from microseconds through hours Operates in both astable and monostable modes Adjustable duty cycle Output can source or sink 200 mA Output and supply TTL compatible Temperature stability better than 0.005% per C Normally on and normally off output Available in 8-pin MSOP package

Connection Diagram:

Fig 7.7 Applications 40

Precision timing Pulse generation Sequential timing Time delay generation Pulse width modulation Pulse position modulation

Linear ramp generator

7.5. POWER SUPPLY: The power supplies are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. A d.c power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of a.c mains fluctuations or load variations is known as Regulated D.C Power Supply For example a 5V regulated power supply system as shown below:

Fig 7.8 Transformer: A transformer is an electrical device which is used to convert electrical power from one Electrical circuit to another without change in frequency. 41

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC. Step-up transformers increase in output voltage, step-down transformers decrease in output voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.

Fig 7.9 Turns ratio = Vp/ VS = Np/NS Power Out= Power In VS X IS=VP X IP Vp = primary (input) voltage Np = number of turns on primary coil Ip = primary (input) current 42

RECTIFIER: A circuit which is used to convert a.c to dc is known as RECTIFIER. The process of conversion a.c to d.c is called rectification TYPES OF RECTIFIERS: Half wave Rectifier Full wave rectifier

1. Centre tap full wave rectifier. 2. Bridge type full bridge rectifier. Full-wave Rectifier: From the above comparison we came to know that full wave bridge rectifier as more advantages than the other two rectifiers. So, in our project we are using full wave bridge rectifier circuit. Bridge Rectifier: A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve fullwave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement as shown in fig(a) to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

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Fig 7.10 Operation: During positive half cycle of secondary, the diodes D2 and D3 are in forward biased while D1 and D4 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(b). The current flow direction is shown in the fig (b) with dotted arrows.

Fig7.11 During negative half cycle of secondary voltage, the diodes D1 and D4 are in forward biased while D2 and D3 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(c). The current flow direction is shown in the fig (c) with dotted arrows.

Regulator: Voltage regulator ICs is available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection'). Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the positive lead of your unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to the Input pin, connect the negative lead to the 44

Common pin and then when you turn on the power, you get a 5 volt supply from the output pin.

Fig 7.12

Circuit Description: This section gives an overview of the whole circuitry and hardware involved in the project. The aim of the project is to transfer data from one PC to another in the secured manner. In this project, there are two sections. One Transmitter section and the other is Receiver section. On the transmitter section, the modules which are interfaced to the microcontroller are MAX-232, RF Transmitter module, encoder (HT640) and power supply. The required voltage for the operation of the circuit is +5V dc. This voltage will gets from the output of the power supply section, which is applied to all the hardware components which are required to operate at this voltage. The data transmitting will be done as follows, the data which we want to transmit is writing on the PC is received by microcontroller through the serial port. The data is serially transmitted through the MAX-232 IC, which is interfaced between the PC and Microcontroller. The received data will transmitted to the Transmitter module through the encoder (HT640). First, the received data in the microcontroller is fed to the encoder through the data pins in the parallel way. Then this data is encoded with the address bus and is transmitted serially through the Dout pin of the encoder to the DATA pin of the Transmitter module. This data is modulated with the carrier wave through some ASK 45

modulation technique at the transmitter module and is transmitter through the antenna. After the transmission is done the TE will indicates high at the transmitter section. The data is which is received through the antenna of the receiver module is demodulated and is fed to the decoder (HT648L) through the DATA pin of the Receiver module. If both section of the address is matched then the original data will be enabled port of the microcontroller through the data pins of the decoder. Then that will be fed to the MAX-232 through the serial port and is displayed on the PC in the coded manner. If we connect a led across the VT pin at the decoder will goes high after receiving the data at the receiver section. Then some of the password is given for changing the coded data into original. This is the way of providing the data communication between two PCS securely. The logic behind that encrypting the data will be implemented in the software.

CHAPTER 8 8.SOFTWARE 8.1. SOFTWARE COMPONENTS: Software used is Keil software for C programming Express PCB for lay out design Express SCH for schematic design 46

KEIL Vision3 What's New in Vision3? Vision3 adds many new features to the Editor like Text Templates, Quick Function Navigation, and Syntax Coloring with brace high lighting Configuration Wizard for dialog based startup and debugger setup. Vision3 is fully compatible to Vision2 and can be used in parallel with Vision2. What is Vision3? Vision3 is an IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that helps you write, compile, and debug embedded programs. It encapsulates the following components: A project manager. A make facility. Tool configuration. Editor. A powerful debugger.

Express PCB Express PCB is a Circuit Design Software and PCB manufacturing service. One can learn almost everything you need to know about Express PCB from the help topics included with the programs given. Details: Express PCB, Version 5.6.0 Express SCH: The Express SCH schematic design program is very easy to use. This software enables the user to draw the Schematics with drag and drop options. A Quick Start Guide is provided by which the user can learn how to use it. Details: Express SCH, Version 5.6.0

8.2. EMBEDDED C:

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The programming Language used here in this project is an Embedded C Language. This Embedded C Language is different from the generic C language in few things like a) Data types b) Access over the architecture addresses. The Embedded C Programming Language forms the user friendly language with access over Port addresses, SFR Register addresses etc. Embedded C Data types: Data Types unsigned char signed char unsigned int signed int sbit bit sfr Size in Bits 8-bit 8-bit 16-bit 16-bit 1-bit 1-bit 8-bit Data Range/Usage 0-255 -128 to +127 0 to 65535 -32,768 to +32,767 SFR bit addressable only RAM bit addressable only RAM addresses 80-FFH only

CHAPTER 9 9. MAIN DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT: 9.1 Description: With utilization of voltage source type inverters, AC traction motors are presently common in electric railway traction applications. Several AC motors such as switched reluctance, permanent magnet synchronous and asynchronous motors are being used widely in electrified traction applications. Meanwhile, serial excitation DC motors and induction AC motors are used mostly for DC electrified traction systems . Every electric railway traction wagon manufacturing company uses one of the mentioned motor structures for traction force generation which is needed to run the train sets. DC electrified railways mostly used as urban or suburban transportation means are feed with 750, 1500 or 3000 V DC through several bulk substations which the 20 or 48

63 kV power supply is stepped down and rectified in several traction substations along the route. The traction substations mostly use 12 or 24 pulse converters for reducing the harmonics in the DC bus which is going to feed the electrical motors and also the AC network feeding the traction system [3]. In this paper, urban railway of Tabriz is studied as a practical application. Tabriz urban railway is a 750 V DC system which feeds the train sets through overhead contact system . The train sets are 5-car sets which the end cars do not have any electrical drives and there are four induction motors on each of the three middle ones used for generating the sufficient traction force for the train sets. The induction motors are fed through inverters which supply the 0.4 kV, 3 ph, 50 Hz power demand of the induction motors. The connections of the induction motors can be changed from series to parallel modes which enables higher electric torque at starting and braking times for achieving the required acceleration and deceleration ratings by connecting them in series mode and having higher speed at normal conditions by connecting them in parallel.

Fig 9.1 Traction loads require a high torque at starting to meet the train resistance and acceleration effort which lasts 2-4 minutes for urban or suburban trains. Also because of irregular interruptions on the pantograph structure of the trains, the interruptions 49

should not cause distress to the traction motor by way of current rush and its associated ill-effects. The induction motor should also be capable of dynamic braking- rheostatic or regenerative which enables the possibility of running the motor as generator that can impart considerable advantages to electric traction by way of saving energy saving as the regenerated power in most situations can be consumed within the system. All traction motors are subjected to vibration and impacts arising out of the movement of the train set on the rails which has a significant effect on the brush gear and commutation of the traction motors. Induction motors are capable of higher rotational speed and power output; hence their weight is much lower for the same output of a DC series one. An induction motor is also capable of producing more tractive effort than the same motor volume of a DC series one. This is due to the absence of commutator which allows more space for torque producing electromagnetic. In addition, induction motors have higher thermal limit than DC motors because the only winding having insulation is static and the stator has a larger surface area for hear transfer. The characteristics of induction motors for LRT systems of the cities in Iran, including force-acceleration are used.

The induction motors are fed through SPWM controlled inverters and the induction motors are controlled in V/F constant mode. The DC voltage is feeding the voltage source inverter through a LC filter. The capacitor of this filter is used for reducing the ripples of the DC voltage caused by the converters in the traction substations and the reactance for reducing the ripples of the current passing through the inverter. The three phase output of the inverter again passes through low value reactances for minimizing the THD of the AC current feeding the induction motors. The 750 V DC input of the VSI is inverted to 0.4 kV three phase with the RMS value.

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10. CONCLUSION: The project DEVELOPMENT OF A SLIP AND SLIDE SIMULATOR FOR ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE BASED ON INVERTER CONTROLLED INDUCTION MOTOR has been successfully designed and tested. Integrating features of all the hardware components used have developed it. Presence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully thus contributing to the best working of the unit. Secondly, using highly advanced ICs and with the help of growing technology the project may be successfully implemented.

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11. FUTURE ASPECTS: A vast amount of future implementation is there for this particular project as it always prevents accidents and a chance of utilization of power from braking is also possible. Induction motors are used widely for DC electrified urban railway traction systems because of lower manufacturing and maintenance costs and weight, better electrical current and torque characteristics and regenerative braking possibility. In this paper, different characteristics of induction motors used for railway traction applications were investigated and proved through the simulation results for a practical usage on Tabriz urban railway system done with PSCAD/EMTDC software. The input current, active and reactive power and electrical and mechanical torque waveforms of the inverter fed induction motor in accelerating, constant speed and regenerative braking modes were studied.

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12. BIBLIOGRAPHY: NAME OF THE SITES:

1. WWW.MITEL.DATABOOK.COM 2. WWW.ATMEL.DATABOOK.COM 3. WWW.FRANKLIN.COM 4. WWW.KEIL.COM

REFERENCES: 8051 by Mazidi & Mazidi 8051 by Ayala Electronic principles by V.K. Mehta 53

Communications by Kennedy &Davis Basic electronic components by Millman

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