An-Najah National University

Faculty of Engineering Chemical Engineering Department

Processing and Characterization of Reinforced; Recycled Expanded Polystyrene

Students: Dania Rafi Ohood Atef Yaseen Jawabri

Supervised by: Eng. Shadi Swallha

December,2009

Abstract:
This research aims to give a full perception and overview about one of the thermoplastic polymers " Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) ' by making a survey of the most important characterization, properties, uses of this type of polystyrene polymers which is almost used in all aspects of life as goods packaging, so it is difficult to imagine the modern life without this kind of polymer because of its incentives and properties to replace a lot of materials in many applications specially metals. Since it is used in large quantities it is necessary to innovate methods to recycle it. The future work of the completion of this research aims to recycle it and reinforce it by some additives such as glass fibers because of its lack in properties to be recycled, in addition to study the mechanical properties of the recycled and make comparison with the virgin one.

Table of Contents:

Chapter One 1.Introduction2

Chapter Two 2.1 Polystyrene....4 2.2 Monomer...............4 2.3 Nature and Manufacturing....4 2.4 Polystyrene Types.....6 2.4.1 Nature of EPS....6 2.4.2 Properties...7 2.4.3 Uses...............8 2.4.4 Market...9 2.5.1 Foaming Agents...11 2.5.2 Biodegradable Foams.......12 2.5.3 Blowing Agents....13 2.5.4 CFC's & HCFC's..13 2.5.5 Polystyrene Foam.....13

Chapter Three 3.1 Recycling.15 3. EPS Recycling.......16 3.3 Scheme of EPS Recycling...17 3.4 Direct Uses of Recycled EPS..........18 3.5 Quantities of Recycled EPS ...18

Chapter Four 4.1 Polymer Additives..21

4.2 Additives Selection...22 4.3 Polymer's Modifying Causes.....22 4.4 Types of Modifying Agents......22 4.5 Fibers.....23 4.6 Uses of Fiber Glass...24 4.7 Types of Fiber Glass.24 4.8 Fiber Forms...25

Chapter Five Characterization and Mechanical Properties of Reinforced Polymer. 5.1 Tg & Mechanical Properties of Polymers.27 5.2 The Effect of Fibers on Mechanical Properties........28 5.3 Reinforced EPS and its Mechanical Properties....29 5.4 Impact and Tensile Testing of REPS...31 5.5 Comparison with Virgin EPS.......32 5.6 Young's Modulus and Rule of Mixture.........32 5.7 Purposes of Mechanical Characterization.....33

Chapter Six 6.1 Experimental Work...35 6.1.1 Materials.....35 6.1.2 Sample Preparation....35 6.2 Array of Future Work.......36

Conclusion.....39
Chapter Seven References..41

Table of Figures:
1. Styrene Monomer......4 2. EPS Market in Europe.10 3. Australian Plastics Recycling rates.19 4. Different Fiber Forms..23 5. Forms of Woven Fabrics.....25 6. Typical Stress-Strain Curves For a Fiber, Plastic, and an Elastomer.....27 7. Tensile Modulus of The Compositions of RPS Composites..30 8. Mechanical Performance of EPS After Recycling.31 9. Tensile Strength of Glass/Resin Composites.....31 10. Specific Strength of Different Composites....32

List of Tables:
1. Annual Polystyrene Production Capacities..5 2. glass fibers..36 3. processing of isolation and protective EPS at different percentages of woven mat glass fibers......36 4. processing of food packaging EPS at different temperatures with 30% woven mat glass fibers.....37 5. processing food packaging EPS at different percentages of woven mat glass fibers.37 processing of isolation and protective EPS at different percentages of glass fibers38 6. processing food packaging EPS at different percentages of glass fibers.38 processing of isolation and protective EPS at different temperatures of woven mat

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

EPS box. [1]

1.1 Introduction: Due to the huge usage of plastics in our modern life in stead of metals it is necessary to keep on innovating methods to deal with these materials which is the result of waste disposal activity; in the domain of packaging and isolation -a polymer like expanded polystyrene is used -in addition to other applications. Expanded polystyrene which has low density comparing with metals enables people to use it in different ways of packaging, buildings' and equipments' isolation despite its non biodegradability. This causes a serious problem to the environment due to the large quantities of its waste, so some countries around the world began to search methods allow them to reuse expanded poly styrene and recycle it to be used in less degree products' manufacturing like other materials. Recycled expanded polystyrene has a lack of some properties should be found in the recycled materials mainly the homogeneity; purity and strength so it is necessary to modify it and reinforce these recycled products by some techniques such as making blends of expanded poly styrene with other polymers like styrene butadiene rubber and glass fibers in different shapes ( woven mat; short or long single fibers) which is used in this project's work or natural ones from plants fibers , in addition to using solvents (have no impact with environment) with them which is mainly recycled and reinforced by two methods; film sticking using thermal press mold apparatus and cold melting method, on the other hand making blends of EPS with other materials specially the existent and cheap ones allow recycled EPS to be lighter for handling and packaging purposes in addition to decreasing in its price for consumers. For recycling purposes some works and projects took place in some countries in the world, including mainly few companies in USA , Canada and Australia which counted as the most processors of EPS waste in the world. The recent projects innovated to deal with EPS waste were blending EPS and reinforced it by using starch and cellulose which also can be achieved when recycling of EPS performed with paper recycling company. Because of the necessity of using plastics instead of metals and other materials the modern today keep on searching and trying methods to produce; use; reuse all of available polymeric products through progressive projects. [2-5] 8

CHAPTER TWO POLYSTYRENE

EPS packaging. [1]

2.1 Polystyrene Poly styrene is the name of a homopolymer made from the single monomer "styrene".

2.2 Monomer

Figure (1): styrene monomer.

Thousands of small units of styrene, called monomers, link together to form large molecules of polystyrene by a process called polymerization. The monomer styrene, used in the manufacture of expanded polystyrene, has been manufactured for more than 60 years. Styrene is an important feed stock of a variety of polymer products . from the total amount of styrene produced almost 50% is used to make polystyrene and 10% used to make expanded polystyrene.

Styrene also exists naturally and can be found in many foodstuffs including strawberries, beans, nuts, beer, wine and coffee beans. Exhaustive research into the health effects of styrene has shown that although high exposure levels can be dangerous, like most chemical products, styrene is perfectly safe for normal use. Based on the current EU classifications and the current draft of the UKs risk assessment report, styrene monomer is considered to have low oral toxicity, and is not classified in terms of carcinogenicity .

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2.3 Nature and Manufacturing Polystyrene is made from petroleum, does not biodegrade. It crumbles into fragments that do not break down.

Expanded polystyrene starts as small spherical beads with a typical diameter of 0.5-1.5mm. They contain an expanding agent; a pure hydrocarbon, which does not contain any halogens and does not damage the earth's protective ozone layer.

When the beads are heated with steam, the agent starts to boil, the polymer softens and the beads expand to about forty times their initial size. After a maturing period to equilibrate temperature and pressure, the pre-foamed beads, which now have a closed cellular foam structure, are placed in a mould and again reheated with steam.

The mould can be designed to meet any requirements of the customer. The pre-foamed beads expand further, completely fill the mould cavity and fuse together. When molded, nearly all the volume of the EPS foam (in fact 98%) is air. This is what makes EPS so lightweight and buoyant. EPS beads are formed by steam-heating small amounts of pentane gas dissolved in the polystyrene base material during production. The gas expands under the action the steam, to form perfectly closed cells of EPS. The EPS beads are then molded into appropriate forms suited to their application such as insulation boards, blocks or customized shapes for the building and packaging industry. Polystyrene takes up more space in landfills than paper and eventually will re-enter the environment when landfills are breached by water or mechanical forces. In 1998 total plastic consumption stood at 158 m ton . the five biggest polymers (poly ethylene, polypropylene, PVC, polystyrene and nylon) together accounted for around 70% of this amount ,poly styrene took 9.7% share.

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Table (1): Annual Polystyrene Production Capacities (1,000 ton). country western Europe Eastern Europe North America Latin America Japan Australasia Africa & west Asia 1998 2190 270 2850 330 1162 2678 170 2000 2350 300 3150 35 1300 2950 200

Transparent poly styrene is hard but brittle which breaks easily like glass. Efforts have therefore been made to increase the toughness of PS by modification with rubber. Thermal decomposition of poly styrene occurs at temperature above 300 C. CFCs used in the past for foaming have been replaced by HCFCs with a lower ozone depletion potential. Polystyrene (commercial thermoplastic foams )is the most used outdoor weathering resistance; they resist moisture well but deteriorate when exposed to direct sunlight for a long period of the time. As with other thermoplastics, polystyrene foams undergoes slight deterioration of their mechanical properties when temperature is raised to Tg.

2.4 Polystyrene Types There are two types of polystyrene polymer: extruded and expanded polystyrene (EPS). Expanded Polystyrene or (EPS), is a lightweight (it weighs almost nothing), rigid, plastic foam insulation material produced by expanding solid beads of polystyrene. A cost-effective, easy-touse and process material, it performs as an acoustic and thermal insulator, is moisture resistant, recyclable and environmentally sound; and provides an extremely efficient packaging. 12

2.4.1 Nature of EPS: Expanded polystyrene foam (EPS) is usually white and made of expanded polystyrene beads. Familiar uses include packing "peanuts" and molded packing material for cushioning fragile items inside boxes. It is commonly packaged as rigid panels, which are also known as "beadboard". Thermal resistivity is usually about 28 mK/W. Some EPS boards have a flame spread of less than 25 and a smoke-developed index of less than 450, which means they can be used without a fire barrier (but require a 15 minute thermal barrier) according to US building codes. A growing use of EPS in construction are Insulating concrete forms. EPS is available in blocks and shapes, and can be cut and molded into an infinite number of shapes and sizes; also it can be used as an insulator against heat and the cold. It is good at absorbing shocks and protecting delicate items. 2.4.2 Properties: * Protective The outstanding shock absorbency and compression resistance provides excellent protection properties.

* Durable The exceptional durability of EPS makes it an effective and reliable protective packaging for a wide range of goods. There is no loss of strength in damp conditions, making EPS ideal for cool-chain products. The material is moisture resistant, so the highest hygiene requirements are met. EPS is also odorless and non-toxic.

*Lightweight EPS is made up of 98% air, making it a very lightweight material, its use for packaging does not 13

significantly add to the weight of the total product. This in turn means that fuel consumption is improved and fuel emissions are lower than with heavier materials. The reduction in emissions means less impact on global warming.

* Insulating The thermal insulation properties of EPS help keep food fresh through the distribution chain. It is widely used to package fresh fish and for seed trays where it assists in the growth of the plants. It is also used by the pharmaceutical industry to package items that are temperature sensitive and that need to be transported around the world.

*Versatile EPS can be molded into any shape or form to meet a products protection and insulation needs. Small amounts of EPS can be used as corners for heavy items or a valuable product may be completed encased in EPS to provide maximum . How does EPS behave in case of fire? Like practically all organic building materials polystyrene foam is combustible. However in practice its burning behavior depends on the conditions under which it is used, as well as the inherent properties of the material. These inherent properties differ depending on whether the cellular material is made from EPS with or without a fire retardant additive. The bonding of other materials to cellular polystyrene also considerably affects its burning behavior. It is strongly recommended that expanded polystyrene should always be protected by a facing material. Expanded polystyrene sheathing is used in new construction as well as remodeling. It is compatible with wood and steel framing, and masonry applications. The boards are installed vertically over the exterior sides of the studs, with the vapor retarder facing the heated side of the structure. EPS sheathing can be fastened with nails, screws, and/or staples depending upon the framing surface. Utilizing spot adhesive is the norm for masonry substrates. Be advised that some adhesives contain petroleum-based solvents that will dissolve EPS on contact. The joints of the sheathing should be close and flush. Seams are taped for added tightness and corner braces are installed to increase structural stability. Air-barrier house-wrap may not be needed if the 14

sheathing is properly installed and seam tape is used. A variety of sidings and finishes are easily affixed through the exterior sheathing to create an aesthetically pleasing building. EPS insulated sheathing board is manufactured with an array of facers. Aluminum foil, polyethylene and Kraft paper are all used to enhance performance properties and protect it from rough handling and ultraviolet degradation. EPS manufacturers use reflective aluminum foil to increase the resistance of radiant heat absorption. When a radiant barrier is combined with dead air space, it can actually add to the insulation value of the wall assembly. 2.4.3 Uses: 1. Construction: In construction business, EPS sheets and boards are thermal and sound insulation in walls, roofs and on floors, while beads are used as an aggregate in lightweight concrete, plasters and renderings. Other uses include under floor heating systems, drainage boards, permanent formwork, foundation and prefabricated wall systems. Since EPS remains unaffected by micro-organisms in soil, it is ideal for geothermic insulation beneath roads, around foundations and in embankments where it prevents soil break-up through freezing. 2. Protective Packaging: The purpose of packages is to protect its contents on its way from the manufacturer to the consumer. Due to its excellent cushioning properties, heat resistance and limitless design possibilities, EPS is used for protective packaging in a variety of industries such as industrial, pharmaceutical, retail etc. 3.Food Packaging: EPS is particularly suitable for fresh food packaging and transportation since it is shock resistant, nontoxic, and odorless and does not attract insects or bacteria. used for loose

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4. Insulation: EPS has excellent thermal properties and is used in applications such as cold rooms, deep freeze facilities, refrigeration, fermentation tanks, and vessels and for pipe and duct lagging. 5. Flotation: EPS is a lightweight and buoyant product, and an ideal, material for the construction of jetties, floats, etc. 6. Display: EPS is also used for publicity and sales promotion packaging, since it can be molded into almost any shape. Decorative effects are easily achieved by printing, "coating and electrostatic flock spraying. EPS is easily painted using acrylic PVA applied by either spray or brush, and is easily cut and worked using conventional hand tools . 2.4.4 Market: Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is used extensively in the United States and Europe for packaging fragile electronic equipment. Its market in Europe: Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is among the biggest commodity polymers produced in the world. The total world demand in 2007 was over 4 million tones. EPS is used in many applications like thermal insulation board in buildings, lightweight fill in road building, packaging, cushioning of valuable goods and food packaging. Western Europe contributes 27 percent of the global demand for EPS and was more than 1 million tones in 2007. The corresponding value of this volume is approximately 3 billion Euros. The average annual growth is expected to be 2.5 percent per annum up to 2010.

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Figure (2): EPS market in Europe.

What is the new about EPS?

In recent years the expanded polystyrene composites with cellulose and starch have also been produced. (3)

2.5 Foaming Agents: Polymer foams are made up of a solid and gas phase mixed together to form a foam. This generally happens by combining the two phases too fast for the system to respond in a smooth fashion. The resulting foam has a polymer matrix with either air bubbles or air tunnels incorporated in it, which is known as either closed-cell or open-cell structure. Closed-cell foams are generally more rigid, while open-cell foams are usually flexible. The gas that is used in the foam is termed a blowing agent, and can be either chemical or physical. Chemical blowing agents are chemicals that take part in a reaction or decompose,

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giving off chemicals in the process. Physical blowing agents are gases that do not react chemically in the foaming process and are therefore inert to the polymer forming the matrix. Polymer foams are produced in a number of different ways. Examples are through slab-stock by pouring, extrusion and different forms of molding. Polymer foams can be divided into either thermoplastics or thermosets, which are further divided into rigid or flexible foams. The thermoplastics can usually be broken down and recycled, while thermosets are harder to recycle because they are usually heavily cross linked. Issues facing the polymer foam industry is that of waste disposal, recyclability, flammability and the effect of blowing agents on the environment. The restrictions on the use of CFC's (chloro-fluoro-carbons) has become very important in making polymer foams more environmentally friendly. Advances in biodegradable foam materials are also helping to improve the recyclability and waste disposal. It is hard to go a day without coming across some sort of polymer foam. Polymer foams are found virtually everywhere in our modern world and are used in a wide variety of applications such as disposable packaging of fast-food, the cushioning of furniture and insulation material. Polymer foams are made up of a solid and gas phase mixed together to form a foam. This generally happens by combining the two phases too fast for the system to respond in a smooth fashion. The resulting foam has a polymer matrix with either air bubbles or air tunnels incorporated in it, which is known as either closed-cell or open-cell structure. Closed-cell foams are generally more rigid, while open-cell foams are usually flexible. The gas that is used in the foam is termed a blowing agent, and can be either chemical or physical. Chemical blowing agents are chemicals that take part in a reaction or decompose, giving off chemicals in the process. Physical blowing agents are gases that do not react chemically in the foaming process and are therefore inert to the polymer forming the matrix. Polymer foams are produced in a number of different ways. Examples are through slab-stock by pouring, extrusion and different forms of molding. Polymer foams can be divided into either thermoplastics or thermosets, which are further divided into rigid or flexible foams. The thermoplastics can usually be broken down and recycled, while thermosets are harder to recycle because they are usually heavily crosslinked. Issues facing the polymer foam industry is that of waste disposal, recyclability,

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flammability and the effect of blowing agents on the environment. The restrictions on the use of CFC's (chloro-fluoro-carbons) has become very important in making polymer foams more environmentally friendly. Advances in biodegradable foam materials are also helping to improve the recyclability and waste disposal. The reason polymer foams are so widely used is that they have
a lot of advantageous properties. The density is low, and so the weight reduction compared to other options is significant. Some polymer foams have very low heat transfer, making them optimal insulators. Many are flexible and soft, meaning they provide more comfort when used for furniture and bedding.

2.5.2 Biodegradable Foams: Biodegradable polymer foams are investigated not only because of the increasing waste and environmental problems for traditional polymer foams, but also because of the increasing price of petroleum products that are used in manufacturing the polymer foams, they are water soluble and sensitive to humidity, while traditional petroleum-based foams are more inert to water. , they are important in reducing the amount of CO2 emission.

2.5.3 Blowing Agents water was used as a blowing agent to produce CO2.
Because the water needed to be part of a reaction, it's a chemical blowing agent. Physical blowing agents don't take part in a chemical reaction, but are volatile liquids that evaporate and make the foam expand. First generation physical blowing agents are mostly outruled because of their negative environmental impact on the ozone layer. This is especially the case for chlorofluorocarbons.

2.5.4 CFC's and HCFC's

CFC's are ideal blowing agents besides the tremendous environmental concerns associated with them. They are not flammable, have fitting boiling points and are non-toxic. They also have good

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thermal insulation properties.This is why it has been hard to find a replacement for these blowing agent that has equivalent properties. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) are blowing agents with a lot smaller impact on the ozone layer and with similar properties. HCFC's are being phased out since they still have ozone depletion problems. Although HFC's have no impact on the ozone depletion, it has high global warming potential. However, they have a lower shelf life and can CO2 Liquid CO2 is used as a blowing agent because it does not have the same environmental issues as CFC's and HCFC's. It has a low global warming potential and is inexpensive. It is also easier to obtain low density foams using CO2.

2.5.5 Polystyrene Foam

Polystyrene foam's most known application is the white polystyrene cups which are ideal for hot beverages because of the foam's good thermal insulation properties. Polystyrene foam is also used for packaging purposes, mostly food containers and disposable dishes and egg cartons. High-impact polystyrene can also be used in structural appliances instead of rigid materials like wood and metal. [6-10]

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CHAPTER THREE RECYCLING

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3.1 Recycling: Recycling of plastic materials is now an important field in the plastics industry, not just an activity born under environmental pressure. The recycling processes include industrial operations in which secondary materials are reprocessed and/or monomers recovered for further polymerization.

The recycling of plastic wastes is not a recent problem for plastic users and producers. Since long, industrial scraps are recycled within the production cycle itself or recovered as lower grade materials and re fabricated into new products. A general problem of waste management is becoming more and more relevant. Traditional disposal policies such as landfill and incineration are facing increasing opposition due to the ecological drawbacks and rising costs. Recycling, i.e. reprocessing and reshaping of used plastic and polymers into a new material or object seems the logical solution to close the plastic cycle which will be fully exploited in the future. Plastic wastes or scraps are generated from two main sources: industrial wastes and postconsumer wastes. Present public interest in the environmental impact has affected further strategies of big companies. Their knowledge on the recyclability of their industrial wastes was applied to solve the early steps of the recyclability of the products manufactured by these companies. The biggest source of plastic wastes generation, which creates the real problem, is termed post-consumer wastes. Three kinds of wastes are generated: municipal, agricultural, and uncontrolled plastic wastes. The agricultural plastic wastes can be collected and well classified in the place of their generation. After their proper characterization, their recyclability can be determined. Municipal plastic wastes are the most visible, the recyclability process is focused on post consumer wastes which are easy to be collected and processed. A plastic recycling continues to grow around the world, although it has declined to some extent in the United States in the last several years. Interest in and availability of biodegradable plastics has increased substantially in the last decade as concern about high oil prices and global climate change increases.

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An obvious benefit of recycling and use of biodegradable plastics is that both reduce the requirement for landfill or incineration of waste materials. Items that are recycled are, by definition, diverted from the waste stream. Biodegradable plastics can be managed by composting, generally perceived as more environmentally beneficial than landfill or incineration. Additional benefits from recycling of plastics result from the fact that use of recycled resin displaces use of virgin materials and thus reduces depletion of natural resources. The use of recycled plastics usually results in a decrease in air and water pollution. Problems connected with recycling of polymeric materials arise mainly from the heterogeneous nature of plastics waste and from degradation of polymers occurring either during their processing or their lifetime.

3.2 EPS Recycling. One of nonbiodegradable polymers which need a special concern of recycling is expanded poly styrene (EPS). Due to present economic conditions, polystyrene food service packaging is generally not recycled. Polystyrene protective packaging and non-packaging non-durables (i.e., video/audio cassettes, agriculture trays, etc.) are the primary forms of polystyrene collected for recycling. There has been a decrease in the amount of polystyrene food service packaging recycled during this period. Non-food service packaging is not contaminated with food and other wastes as is food service polystyrene packaging, and therefore is more cost-effective to recycle. Presently, food service polystyrene packaging is not recycled while it is also not economically sustainable. It is important to note that because of unfavorable economics, no other postconsumer foodservice disposable material, including paper and paperboard, is recycled in a measurable way. A prototype production system for recycling expanded polystyrene (EPS), which uses a solvents, as the EPS shrinking agent, has been developed for reducing the impact with environment since it is a clean processing. This system includes dissolving EPS and a recycling it to separate the solvent.

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3.3 Scheme of Recycling: 1. Compaction in order to recycle used EPS packaging, it must be segregated from other materials. EPS is easily recognizable and can be collected at retail outlets, distribution centers, factories or warehouses. Then the collected material is compacted up to one-fortieth of its original size for easy, cost-effective transportation.

2. Collection the recycler will send a lorry to collect the material once there is a full lorry load ready. This is taken back to the recycler's factory.

3. Granulation the recycler feeds the EPS into a granulator that chops the material into smaller pieces.

4. Blending the material is passed into a blender for thorough mixing with similar granules.

5. Extrusion the material is fed into the extruder, where it is melted. Color can be added and the extruded material is then molded into a new value added product. (2) Many businesses in the UK have set up recycling schemes for their used EPS. Some have their material collected uncompacted; this is recycled into insulation board for use in construction. Others invest in compacting machinery which reduces the size of their EPS by between 40-95%. The material is then transportable and can be sold to a recycler. This compacted material can be transformed into recycled polystyrene pellets. These pellets are used to manufacture coat hangers, picture frames, replacement hardwood and CD cases. Some of the members of the EPS Packaging Group have set up consumer recycling points on their sites so that local people and small businesses can recycle their used polystyrene. This material is ground down and put back into new packaging. There are no toxic emissions in this method of waste management of EPS. It is incinerated in modern plants and at high temperatures. The by- products are steam, carbon dioxide and very low levels of non-toxic ash. These emissions are less contaminating than the typical camp fire.

3.4 Direct Uses of Recycled EPS:

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Recycled EPS is used in a wide range of everyday products such as

door and window frames fencing decking gazebos garden furniture shop fittings DVD & CD cases picture frames planters Coat hangers. Recycled EPS is also used in many metal casting operations. It can be combined with

cement to be used as an insulating amendment in the making of concrete foundations American manufacturers have produced insulated concrete forms made with approximately 80% recycled EPS since 1993. However, polystyrene recycling is not a closed loop, producing more polystyrene; polystyrene cups and other packaging materials are instead usually used as fillers in other plastics, or in other items that cannot themselves be recycled and are thrown away.

3.5 Quantities of Recycled EPS: Expanded polystyrene (EPS) which used in transport packaging may be recycled. Postconsumer and post-commercial EPS is currently being recycled at an average annual rate of 1012%. While the European EPS industry is currently taking back more than 35% of used EPS. Expanded polystyrene is the only common rigid-foam board stock insulation made with neither CFCs nor HCFCs. During manufacture, polystyrene beads are expanded with pentane, a hydrocarbon that contributes to smog, but is not implicated in ozone depletion or global warming. The pentane quickly leaks out of the insulation and is replaced by air.

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In many parts of the world, more than 50 per cent of EPS is used for long-lasting applications such as building insulation. Because more EPS packaging is being recycled, the amount of used material which ends up in the municipal waste stream, i.e. waste from homes and offices, is reduced. EPS wastes which had been contaminated with paper can be recycled together in an easy and not costly manner to obtain a material having a poor mechanical properties.[11-26]

figure (3): Australian plastics recycling rates, 2003

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EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE (EPS) AND THE ENVIRONMENT PAGE

CHAPTER FOUR POLYMER ADDITIVES

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4.1 Polymer Additives: The successful use of plastic material in many applications, such as in the automotive industry, the electronic sector, the packaging and manufacturing of consumer goods, is substantially attributable to the incorporation of additives into virgin (and recycled)resins. Additives can mean ingredients for plastics but thy play a crucial role also in other materials, such as coating, lacquers and paints, printing inks, photographic films and papers, and their processing. Plastics additives now constitute a highly successful and essential sector of the chemical industry. Polymer additives also are a growing sector of the specialty chemical industry. It is useful at this point to consider the definition of an additives is a substance which is incorporated into plastic to achieve a technical effect in the finished product, and is intended to be an essential part of the finished particle. Some examples of additives are antioxidants, antistatic agents, antifogging agents, emulsifiers, fillers, impact modifiers , lubricants, plasticizers, release agents, solvents, stabilizers, thickeners, and UV absorbers. Additives may be either organic (e.g.: alkyl phenol), inorganic (e.g.: oxides, fillers, salts)or organometalic (e.g.: Ni complexes, Zn accelerators, metallocarboxylates). Additives confer on plastics significant extension of properties in one or more directions, such as general durability ,stiffness and strength, impact resistance, thermal resistance, resistance to flexure and wear, etc. Additives are needed not only to make resins processable and to improve the properties of the molded product during use .As the scope of plastics has increased , so has the range of additives: for better mechanical properties, rsistance to heat, light and weathering ,electrical conductivity, etc. The demand of packaging have produced additive systems to aid the efficient production of film and have developed the general need for additives which are safe for use in packaging and other applications where there in direct contact with food or drink.

An additives can be primary ingredient that form an integral part of the products basic characteristics , or secondary ingredient which functions to improve performance and/or durability.

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 .2 Additives Selection 4 The number of additives in use today runs to many thousands, their chemistry is often extremely complex and the choice of materials can be bewildering. It is classified into two types: additives and modifying. Selection of additives is critical and often a proprietary knowledge. Additives are normally present in plastic formulations intentionally for a variety purposes. There may also be unintentional additives, such as water, contaminants, stearic acid in calcium stearate, etc. Substances which just provide a suitable medium in which polymerization occurs or directly influence polymer synthesis are not additives and are called polymerization aids. Some examples are accelerators, catalysts. The important criterion in selecting a fiber for reinforcement use is that its modulus must exceed that of the matrix it is to reinforce, i.e. the fiber must be stiffer than the resin. The young's modulus (E) for the glass and aramid fibers have values in the range carbon fiber, , and these fiber confers powerful reinforcement. MPa.For

4.3 Polymer's Modifying Reasons Going to high strength, small specific density , proper and suitable use and low cost , polystyrene materials reinforced with glass fibers are excellent and wildly used structural material. To increase the area of special purpose applications, the quality of fiber glass products,(in particular, dimensional accuracy and dimensional stability) should be improved with preservation of their low cost. For this purpose ,various procedures of chemical and physicochemical modification can be used. These method can provide required results and can be realized without significant investments and material expenses. 4.4 Types of Modifying Agent Modifying agent serves to promote adhesion of the glass to the specific resin being used. Chemical Foaming Agents (CFA) provide a multitude of benefits to improve polymer processing in a variety of situations.

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The use of CFAs offers many advantages for processors and OEMs. Overall cost of product is reduced as less polymer is used per part; scrap rates are lowered; cycle times are improved; and energy and shipping costs are reduced. 4.5 Fibers The most important and widely used modifying agent is the fiber, and the glass is the most widely used reinforcing fiber by far . The term " GRP" (glass reinforced plastic)is often applied to this section of the industry and its products. Fibers consist of thousands of filaments, each filament having a diameter of between 5 and 15 micrometers, allowing them to be producible using textile machines.

Figure (4): Different Fiber Forms

4.6 Uses of Glass Fiber 30

Glass fiber reinforcements are classified according to their properties. It is used as a reinforcing agent for many polymer products; the resulting composite material, properly known as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) or glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), is called "fiberglass" in popular usage. It can be used as an insulator and is sometimes used in a cosmetic capacity to fill damages. e.g. panel damage, vehicle repairs, etc . Glass fibers coated with nickel, by the electron beam deposition process, are used in molding compounds and as reinforcements for electrically conductive parts. The major disadvantage of glass fiber is its unidirectional reinforcement which leads to uneven shrinkage and warp age.

4.7 Types of Glass Fiber At present five major types of glass used to make fibers and their uses depending on the desired properties of the final product: 1) E- glass which is an acid and it is electrical grade with low alkali content. borosilicate glass like Pyrex, It manifests better electrical insulation and strongly resists attack by water. More
than 50% of the glass fibers used for reinforcement is

E-glass, and is the" workhorse" of the

whole fiber reinforced plastics industry (FRP) . 2) C- glass is chemical glass, a special mixture with extremely high chemical resistance. 3) S-glass has higher strength and modulus with a 33% higher tensile strength than E-glass but is more expensive. 4) D-glass has a low dielectric constant with superior electrical properties. However, its mechanical properties are not so good as E-or S-glass. It is available in limited quantities. 5) A-glass is a high-alkali glass containing 25% soda and lime, which offers very good resistance to chemicals, but lower electrical properties.

Other important fiber are carbon(CFRP) is made by carbonizing an organic fibrous polymer, usually polyacrylonitrile, under specialized conditions. Carbon fiber has proven to be extremely useful as reinforcement material to produce composite materials. Carbon fiber can be applied in components wherever light weight and high strength is required called polyacrylonitrile.

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4.8 Fiber Forms Fiber are used in a number of different formats. They can be in continuous lengths in roving (long) , short, and woven mat. Continuous fibers may be laid down in a swirl pattern, or chopped fibers laid in a random manner, and the mat bonded with a resinous binder, to give continuous fiber mat and chopped strand mat. In chopped strand mat ,the fibers are chopped to about 6 cm length. These mats give isotropic properties. [27-33]

Figure (5) Forms of Woven Fabrics

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CHAPTER FIVE CHERECHTERIZATION AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED PLASTIC

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5.1 Tg and Mechanical Properties of Polymers: The mechanical behavior of polymers differs from that of metallic materials due to some basic relationships between microstructure and mechanical properties . Polymers are high-molecular-weight materials that may exhibit the mechanical behavior of a fiber, plastic, or elastomer (Fig. 1). The use of a polymer as an elastomer (rubber), a plastic, or a fiber depends on the relative strength of its intermolecular bonds and structural geometry. Noncrystalline polymers with weak intermolecular forces are usually elastomers or rubbers at temperatures above the glass transition temperature, Tg. In contrast, polymers with strong hydrogen bonds and the possibility of high crystallinity can be made into fibers. Polymers with moderate intermolecular forces are plastic at temperatures below Tg.

Fig. (6) Typical stress-strain curves for a fiber, a plastic, and an elastomer.

most polymers are amorphous (noncrystalline) materials with a hard glassy structure below the glass transition temperature (Tg), and either a viscous or rubbery structure above the glass transition temperature. This is in contrast to low-molecular-weight materials (such as metals)

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that typically have crystalline structures. However, the structure of some polymers is regular enough to promote some crystallization, which may result in a flexible crystalline structure above the glass transition temperature At temperatures well below Tg, plastics exhibit a high modulus and are only weakly viscoelastic. At temperatures above Tg, there is drastic reduction of modulus, which may be as large as three orders of magnitude. Therefore, the glass transition temperature is the most important temperature that can be specified for most polymers because in all but highly crystalline polymers, it represents the temperature above which the polymer loses most of its stiffness and thus its dimensional stability. It should also be understood that glass transition temperatures are not distinct transition temperatures like phase transformations, because the transition occurs over a range of temperatures. In a thermoplastic polymer such as polystyrene, the change that occurs gradually over the Tg region eventually leads to a complete loss of dimensional stability. In a thermoset (network) polymer such as epoxy, the change is less severe, but nonetheless produces significant softening and loss of mechanical properties. The value of Tg may also depend upon the method of measuring viscoelastic transition. Thus, Tg for a polymer represents roughly the center of the transition region. Glass transition temperatures are also influenced by moisture absorption and the intentional addition of plasticizers. Absorbed moisture invariably lowers the Tg, and the more moisture is absorbed, the lower the transition temperature. This is consistent with the role of water as a plasticizer.

5.2 The Effect of Fibers on The Mechanical Properties: Reinforced plastics consist of polymer matrix (polymer + fiber). ?Fiber Reinforced Plastic(FRP) is composite with a polymer matrix and glass, carbon or aramid fiber reinforcement. Common use of FRPs occur in the aerospace , automotive and marine industries as low weight, high strength materials. The durability is a function of both fiber and matrix. The strength, however, is more influenced by the fibers making them very strong in tension.

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5.3 Reinforced EPS and its Mechanical Properties: 1.Modulus of elasticity: Short-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (SFRP) composites are very attractive because of their ease of fabrication, economy, and superior mechanical properties. High fiber content is required to achieve a high-performance SFRP composite. Therefore, the effect of fiber content on the mechanical properties of SFRP composites is of particular interest and significance. It is often observed that the increase in fiber content leads to the increase in the strength and modulus. polystyrene (PS) composites reinforced with short glass fibers (SGF) can be prepared by injection molding techniques (Polystyrene is a part of the group of commodity thermoplastics produced in large quantities). The tensile modulus(Ec) of SFRP considering the effects of fiber weight fraction ( the effects of fiber orientation, neglecting the effects of fiber length) can be predicted by the modified rule of mixtures equation as

Where kE is the fiber efficiency factor for the composite modulus, which is a function of fiber length and orientation; Ef and Em are the module of fiber and matrix, respectively; and Vf is fiber volume fraction. For continuous fiber composites, the factor is rather constant and almost equal to unity. However, this factor is not constant and smaller in short-fiber composites; it is mainly affected by fiber orientation and fiber length, determined empirically. In fact, for SGF composites, this factor is a nonlinear function of fiber content.

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FIG. (7). Tensile Modulus of The Compositions of RPS Composites.

The experimental and simulation of tensile tests results done by some experts shows that fiberfiber interactions have important effects on SGF=PS composite manufacturing and should be assumed in the design procedure of these composites in industry. Glass fiber increases strength and stiffness A thermoplastic cannot flow in its solid state. To enable it to flow it needs to be heated above its melting point (Tm). Once a polymer is heated above the melting point the viscosity will decrease as the temperature increases. The rate of this change varies, according to the particular type of material. Eventually the polymers will reach a point where they become thermally unstable and start to degrade. Generally, this shows itself as a discoloration with the melt turning yellow or brown. This can be a problem when processing mixed plastic fractions, because of the difference in processing temperature required to melt the various fractions contained in a heterogeneous mixture.( Melting point of Polystyrene (PS) = 240).

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5.4 Tensile and Impact Testing of Recycled Expanded Polystyrene

Figure (8) Mechanical Performance of EPS After Recycling.

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Figure (9): Tensile Strength of Glass/Resin Composites

Figure (10): Specific Strength of Different Composites

5.5 Comparison With Virgin EPS& its Mechanical Properties: Expanded polystyrene has a large volume per unit weight for containing a large amount of air to encounter a problem of high transportation cost in transportation to the disposal and recycling facility. Namely, while the specific gravity of polystyrene resin (styrene) before foaming is a value slightly smaller than 1, the specific gravity of expanded polystyrene becomes about 0.02 for expansion of volume to be fifth times greater through foaming process which can be said as mixing with air. Therefore, a truck having a capacity for transporting 1 ton of waste material may transport only 20 kg of expanded polystyrene. In other words, in order to transport 20 kg of polystyrene, fifty times of volume of air has to be transported simultaneously.

5.6 Young's Modulus and Rule of Mixture:

young 's modulus of the composites must follow a law of mixture pattern for obtaining good approximation. Depending on fiber orientation the effect is highly anisotropic. 39

For a composite with the fibers laid in one direction, the full reinforcement is developed in the same direction. At an angle to the fiber lay direction the stiffness is less . The law of mixtures which applies is: Ec = Ef Vf + Em Vm Where Ec , Ef and Em are the young 's modulus of the composite ,fiber, and matrix respectively, and Vf , Vm are the volume fractions of the fiber and matrix, respectively. In the angled direction the appropriate angled component of the fiber modulus applies.

5.7 Purposes of Mechanical Characterization The three most common purposes of mechanical property characterization are research and development, quality control (QC), and design data generation. In general, design data generation is the most rigorous. Research and development testing is used to develop and assess the validity of the test methods, to aid in exploring materials science and mechanics concepts, and to support scientific discovery in materials development and applications research. In the materials industry, research and development testing supports the study of materials performance in comparison to program objectives, competitive materials, or other developmental materials. Once a material is developed, the tests can also be used to produce the first generation of property data used to market the new material.[33-39]

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CHAPTER SIX EXPEREMENTAL WORK

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6.1 Experimental work:

6.1.1 Materials Used: Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) waste for food packaging and Isolation purposes was collected, cleaned and converted into small sheets. A part of the collected EPS was worked with glass fibers so that a matrix of EPS was filled once with short glass fibers , once with long ones and once with a matt of glass fibers. The glass fibers are E-glass fibers provided from the local market. Another part of the collected EPS will be dissolved in natural solvents and organic solvents such as acetone to maintain the highest homogeneity between fibers and the matrix .

6.1.2 Sample Preparation: Rectangular metallic frame made from stainless steel of thickness( 1 mm ) was used to maintain the thickness and the shape of the composite sheet produced from EPS and glass fibers and, 4 EPS sheets were used in preparation of each sample, they were filled with glass fibers so 2 sheets below fibers and 2 above. The sheets were covered with aluminum foil and pressed using thermo-stamp press mold apparatus which was home designed and manufactured at different processing conditions.

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6.2 Array of Future Work:

Table(2): processing of isolation and protective EPS at different temperatures of woven mat glass fibers.

No. of sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

T (C) 140 160 180

Time (min.)

Shape of Eglass fibers

% of glass fiber (ave.)

Poly styrene waste type

15 200 220 240 260

Woven mat

30%

Isolation and protection EPS

Table(3): processing of isolation and protective EPS at different percentages of woven mat glass fibers. No. of sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 43 220 15 Woven mat T (C) Time (min.) Shape of Eglass fibers % of glass fiber (ave.) 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 40% 50% Isolation and protection EPS Poly styrene waste type

Table(4): processing of food packaging EPS at different temperatures with 30% woven mat glass fibers.
No. of sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 T (C) 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 15 Woven mat 30% Food Packaging Time (min.) Shape of Eglass fibers % of glass fiber (ave.) Poly styrene waste type

Table (5): processing food packaging EPS at different percentages of woven mat glass fibers . No. of sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 220 15 Woven mat T (C) Time (min.) Shape of Eglass fibers % of glass fiber (ave.) 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 40% 50% Food Packaging Poly styrene waste type

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Table(6): Processing of Isolation and Protective EPS at Different Percentages of Glass Fibers.

No. of sample

T (C)

Time (min.)

1 2 3 220 4 5 6 7 15

% of glass fiber (ave.) 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 40% 50%

Length of fibers 30mm 20 mm

Poly styrene 10 mm waste type

Isolation and protection EPS

Table(7): Processing Food Packaging EPS at Different Percentages of Glass Fibers. No. of sample T (C) Time (min.) % of glass fiber (ave.) 5% 10% 15% 220 4 5 6 7 15 20% 25% 40% 50% Food Packaging Length of fibers 30mm 20 mm 10 mm Poly styrene waste type

1 2 3

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Conclusion
1.Expanded polystyrene is used in large quantities all over the world , which produce huge amount of waste due to packaging, isolation, protection..purposes. 2.expanded polystyrene waste is found in tow types ,the first one is used widely in sweet and food packaging while the other which is highly foamed used mainly in buildings isolation and objects protection. 3.among the world all recycling processes are for the second type while many of international literatures say that the first type can't be recycled or recycled difficulty. 4.E-glass fiber is the most suitable type of fibers will be used as reinforcing , modifying additive for expanded polystyrene polymer. 5.recently the expanded polystyrene has a little impact to the environment since the use of CFCs with EPS is limited.

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CHAPTER SEVEN REFERENCES

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17. http://www.epsrecycling.org/pages/what%20is1.html Retrieved on (6/9/2009) 18. http://www.freepatentsonline.com/5859072.html Retrieved on (7/9/2009) 19. http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Plasticizers/Out-Of-Diet-PG5nov03.htm Retrieved on (24/8/2009) 20. http://www.epsmolders.org/3-sheathing.html Retrieved on (6/10/2009) 21. http://www.epsrecycling.org/pages/what%20is1.html Retrieved on (6/9/2009) 22. http://www.sundolitt.co.uk/default.asp?menu=8644 Retrieved on (7/9/2009) 23. Lecture,Department of Mechanical Engineering, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California 95053, ETATS-UNIS . 24.D. Jianni,Innovations in Recycled Expanded Polystyrene Foam for Use in Electronic Protective Packaging, Industrial Technology & Packaging,2008. 25.C. Shin, G. Chase,Separation of liquid drops from air by glass fiber filters,Journal of Despersion Scienceand Technology,Taylor&Francis,Inc,p (5-9),2006. 26. G. Vennessa, Introduction to Plastic Recycling, 2nd ed. ,2007,Smith Rapra Technology Ltd.,ch 1, P (9,13-14). 27www.patentstorm.us/patents/4113430/claims.html 28. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_uses_of_fiber_glass&src=ansTT Retrieved on (9/12/2009). 29. D.H Morton Jones, Polymer Processing ,1989,Chapmur and Hall Ltd.ch4 ,pages(221-224). 30. Jan C.J. Bart, Additives in Polymers" industrial analysis and applications",2005,John Wiley &sons,Ltd, chapter 1, pages 1-45. 31. B. M.Daniel, D.L Steven, ASM Handbook "Composits", 2001, ASM International. 32.K. John et al, polymer blends,International Tournal of Polymer ,vol.8,p (295-299),2003. 33.G. Danial, V. Suong, W. Stephen, composite materials "design and applications",CRC Press LLC,2003,ch 1,p (20). 34. D. Hull, Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, 2000, ASM International, ch. 4,pages 70-74. 49

35.K. Anil, G Rakish, Fundamentals of polymers,1998,McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc, ch.2,pages 30-37. 36.M. Haidopoulos, F. Mirabeua,M. Horgnies, Morphology of Polystyrene Films Deposited by RF Plasma, Tournal of Microscopy, vol.228, 2007, p. (227-239). 37.W. Ya, J. Zhi, Sh. Jing, Formation and development of phase Morphology and Structure on Polystyrene Blends,Tournal of Macromolecular Science,vol.43,p.(1075-1093,2004. 38.S. Hamid, G. Masood,study on fiber weight fraction effect on tensile modulus of PS composites reinforced with short glass fiber, Polymer Plastic Technology & Engineering,p.(427432,2008. 39. G. Danial, V. Suong, W. Stephen, composite materials "design and applications",CRC Press LLC,2003,ch 2,p (55-64).

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