Research Project:

M I CR O W A V E I N I N DU ST R Y

Supervised By:
Dr. Aras Saeed Mahmood

Prepared By:

Rebeen Omar Ali Zhira Latif Yar-Ahmad

University of Sulaimani College of Science Physics Department Fourth Stage 2005-2006

Research Research Project on:

MICROWAVE IN INDUSTRY
Supervised By:

Dr. Aras Saeed Mahmood

Research Project Prepared By:

Rebeen Omar Ali & Zhira Latif Yar-Ahmad

To Our Parents & Our Lovers

Document This Research Project Document is supervised by:

Dr. Aras Saeed Mahmood

Signature: Date: / /

MICROWAVE IN INDUSTRY
2005-2006

Contents
Chapter One:

Electromagnetic Spectrum
1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 Introduction Spectra of Objects Classification Systems Electric Energy Radio Frequencies Microwaves Infrared Radiation
Far-Infrared Mid-Infrared Near-Infrared

1-8 1-9

Visible Radiation (Light) Ultraviolet Light

1-10 X-Rays 1-11 Gamma Rays

Chapter Two:

Microwave
2-1 2-2 Microwaves, form of Electromagnetic Radiation Physics of Microwave Source
2-2-1 Cherenkov Radiation 2-2-2 Transition Radiation

2-2-3 Bremsstrahlung Radiation 2-3 Basic Microwave Concepts

2-3-1 Microwave Transmission 2-3-2 Microwave Circuit Elements 2-3-3 Generation and Amplification of Microwave 2-3-4 Power Coupling 2-3-5 Microwave Component Hardware
2-3-5-1 Active Microwave Components 2-3-5-2 Passive Microwave Components 2-3-5-3 Microwave Measurement Hardware

Chapter Three:

Application of Microwave
3-1 Introduction 3-2 Medical Application of Microwave 3-3 Microwave in Industry
3-3-1 Wireless 3-3-2 Measuring Moisture Profiles in Building Materials 3-3-3 Microwave Technology for Coating Materials 3-3-4 Microwave Oven
3-3-4-1 Introduction 3-3-4-2 How Do Microwave Ovens Work?

3-3-5 Feasibility and Performance of the Microwave Thermal Rocket Launcher

3-3-5-1 Abstract 3-3-5-2 Introduction 3-3-5-3 Feasibility

Chapter One:

Electromagnetic S p ect ru m

Chapter One:

Electromagnetic Spectrum
1-1 Introduction
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation. Also, the "electromagnetic spectrum" (usually just spectrum) of an object is the range of electromagnetic radiation that it emits, reflects, or transmits. The electromagnetic spectrum, shown in the table, extends from frequencies used in the electric power grid (at the long-wavelength end) to gamma radiation (at the short-wavelength end), covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to fractions of the size of an atom, though in principle the spectrum is actually infinite. Electromagnetic energy at a particular wavelength (in vacuum) has an associated frequency and photon energy E. Thus, the electromagnetic spectrum may be expressed equally well in terms of any of these three quantities [1]. They are related according to the equations:

And;

Where: c is the speed of light, 299792458 m/s.

(c 3 x 10 8 m/s)

h is Planck's constant, (h 6.626069 x 10 -34 J.s)

Figure (1-1) Electromagnetic Spectrum [2]

1-2 Spectra of Objects

Nearly all objects in the universe emit, reflect and/or transmit some light. The distribution of this light along the electromagnetic spectrum (called the spectrum of the object) is determined by the object's composition. Several types of spectra can be distinguished depending upon the nature of the radiation coming from an object:

If the spectrum is composed primarily of thermal radiation emitted by the object itself, an emission spectrum occurs.

If the spectrum is composed of background light, parts of which the object transmits and parts of which it absorbs, an absorption spectrum occurs [3].

Electromagnetic spectroscopy is the branch of physics that deals with the characterization of matter by its spectra [4].

1-3 Classification Systems

While the classification scheme is generally accurate, in reality there is often some overlap between neighboring types of electromagnetic energy. For example, SLF radio waves at 60 Hz may be received and studied by astronomers, or may be ducted along wires as electric power. Also, some lowenergy gamma rays actually have a longer wavelength than some high-energy X-rays. This is possible because "gamma ray" is the name given to the photons generated from nuclear decay or other nuclear and sub nuclear processes, whereas X-rays on the other hand are generated by electronic transitions

10

involving highly energetic inner electrons. Therefore the distinction between gamma ray and X-ray is related to the radiation source rather than the radiation wavelength. Generally, nuclear transitions are much more energetic than electronic transitions, so usually, gamma-rays are more energetic than X-rays. However, there are a few low-energy nuclear transitions (e.g. the 14.4 keV nuclear transition of Fe-57) that produce gamma rays that are less energetic than some of the higher energy X-rays [5]. Use of the radio frequency spectrum is regulated by governments. This is called frequency allocation [6].

1-4 Electric Energy

Electrical energy covers the low-frequency, long-wavelength end of the spectrum. The radiation is usually ducted along 2-wire and 3-wire transmission lines and sent to various devices besides antennas. At zero frequency the energy is emitted by batteries and DC power supplies, while at 50 Hz and 60 Hz it is produced by rotary magnetic generators and ducted through the international power grids. At frequencies between 20 Hz to 30 kHz the EM energy is translated to and from acoustic energy and is distributed over telephone lines, as well as being used to operate loudspeakers for public address or in music systems. Note that other than its frequency, there is no functional difference between the VHF energy guided along a television coaxial cable, versus the 60 Hz traveling along the cord leading to a light bulb. When connected to the appropriate antenna, both will radiate into space [7].

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1-5 Radio Frequencies (RF)

Radio waves generally are utilized by antennas of appropriate size, with wavelengths ranging from hundreds of meters to about one millimeter. They are used for transmission of data, via modulation. Television, mobile phones, wireless networking and amateur radio all use radio waves [8].

Radio spectrum
ELF SLF ULF VLF 3 Hz 30 Hz 30 Hz 300 Hz 300 Hz 3 kHz 3 LF 30 MF 300 HF 3 VHF UHF SHF EHF 30 300 3 30

kHz kHz 30 300

kHz MHz MHz MHz GHz GHz 3 30 300 3 GHz 30 300

kHz kHz MHz MHz MHz

Table (1-1) Radio spectrum [9]

GHz GHz

1-6 Microwaves
The super high frequency (SHF) and extremely high frequency (EHF) of Microwaves come next. Microwaves are waves which are typically short enough to employ tubular metal waveguides of reasonable diameter. Microwave energy is produced with klystron and magnetron tubes, and with solid state diodes such as Gunn and IMPATT devices. Microwaves are absorbed by molecules that have a dipole moment in liquids. In a microwave oven, this effect is used to heat food. It should be noted that an average microwave oven in active condition is, in close range, powerful enough to cause interference with

12

poorly shielded electromagnetic fields such as those found in mobile medical devices and cheap consumer electronics. This is a region of the light spectrum between far infrared and microwaves. Until recently, the range was rarely studied and few sources existed for microwave energy at the high end of the band (sub-millimeter waves or socalled terahertz waves), but applications are now appearing. The proposed WiMAX (When WiMAX is an acronym that stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. Also it is a standards-based wireless technology that provides high-throughput broadband connections over long distances) standard for wireless networking, a long-range enhancement lies within this region. Scientists are also looking to apply Terahertz technology in the armed forces, where high frequency waves will be sent at enemy troops to incapacitate them [10].

1-7 Infrared Radiation (IR)

The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from roughly 300 GHz (1 mm) to 400 THz (750 nm). It can be divided into three parts:

Far-Infrared, from 300 GHz (1 mm) to 30 THz (10 m). The lower part of this range may also be called microwaves. This

radiation is typically absorbed by so-called rotational modes in gas-phase molecules, by molecular motions in liquids, and by phonons in solids. The water in the Earth's atmosphere absorbs so strongly in this range that it renders the atmosphere effectively opaque. However, there are certain wavelength ranges ("windows") within the opaque range which allow

13

partial transmission, and can be used for astronomy. The wavelength range from approximately 200 m up to a few mm is often referred to as "sub-millimeter" in astronomy, reserving far infrared for wavelengths below 200 m.

Mid-Infrared, from 30 to 120 THz (10 to 2.5 m). Hot objects (blackbody radiators) can radiate strongly in this range. It is absorbed by molecular vibrations, that is, when the different atoms in a molecule vibrate around their equilibrium positions. This range is sometimes called the fingerprint region since the mid-infrared absorption spectrum of a compound is very specific for that compound.

Near-Infrared, from 120 to 400 THz (2,500 to 750 nm). Physical processes that are relevant for this range are similar to those for visible light [11].

1-8 Visible Radiation (Light)

This is the range in which the sun and stars similar to it emit most of their radiation. It is probably not a coincidence that the human eye is sensitive to the wavelengths that the sun emits most strongly. Visible light (and near-infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in molecules and atoms that move from one energy level to another. The light we see with our eyes is really a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A rainbow shows the optical (visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if you could see it) would be located just beyond the red side of the rainbow with ultraviolet appearing just beyond the violet end [1].

14

Color
violet blue cyan green yellow orange red

Wavelength interval
~ 380 to 430 nm ~ 430 to 500 nm ~ 500 to 520 nm ~ 520 to 565 nm ~ 565 to 590 nm ~ 590 to 625 nm ~ 625 to 740 nm

Frequency interval
~ 790 to 700 THz ~ 700 to 600 THz ~ 600 to 580 THz ~ 580 to 530 THz ~ 530 to 510 THz ~ 510 to 480 THz ~ 480 to 405 THz

Continuous spectrum

The spectrum of visible light

Figure (1-2) Visible Spectrum [1]

1-9 Ultraviolet Light (UV)

This is radiation whose wavelength is shorter than the violet end of the visible spectrum. Being very energetic, UV can break chemical bonds, make molecules unusually reactive or ionize them, in general changing their mutual behavior. Sunburn, for example, is caused by the disruptive effects of UV radiation on

15

skin cells, which can even cause skin cancer, if the radiation damages the complex DNA molecules in the cells (UV radiation is a proven mutagen). The Sun emits a large amount of UV radiation, which could quickly turn Earth into a barren desert, but most of it is absorbed by the atmosphere's ozone layer before reaching the surface [12].

1-10 X-Rays
Hard X-rays are of shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays. X-rays are used for seeing through some things and not others, as well as for high-energy physics and astronomy. Neutron stars and accretion disks around black holes emit X-rays, which enable us to study them [12].

1-11 Gamma Rays (-Ray)

These are the most energetic photons, having no lower limit to their wavelength. They are useful to astronomers in the study of high-energy objects or regions and find a use with physicists thanks to their penetrative ability and their production from radioisotopes. The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with high accuracy by means of Compton scattering. Note that there are no defined boundaries between the types of electromagnetic radiation. Some wavelengths have a mixture of the properties of two regions of the spectrum. For example, red light resembles infra-red radiation in that it can resonate some chemical bonds. [12

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Chapter Two:

Microwave

17

Chapter Two:

Microwave
2-1 Microwaves, form of Electromagnetic Radiation
Microwave power tubes, also called Electron Devices (VEDs), are used to generate and amplify microwave energy (a form of electromagnetic radiation) for a variety of applications. Department of Defence (DoD) uses microwave power tubes such as klystron, traveling wave (TWTs) in land, sea, air, and space applications; in radar system and electronic warfare systems. Department of energy (DoE) uses large, high-physics, and material science research. Additionally, DoE is considering developing a new capability for nuclear weapons material production, for which it would also use large, high-power klystrons. From the figure (1-1) depicts the electromagnetic frequency spectrum. The exact of frequencies to called Microwave is still subject to slight variation from one text to another depending on change in climate condition also daily weather condition [13].

2-2 Physics of Microwave Source

Microwave tubes use electrons to generate coherent electromagnetic radiation. Coherent radiation is produced when electrons that are initially uncorrelated, and produce spontaneous emission with random phase, are gathered into micro bunches that radiate in phase. There are three basic types of electromagnetic radiation by charged particles:

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2-2-1 Cherenkov Radiation

Cherenkov radiation occurs when electrons move in a medium with a refractive index n > 1, and the electron velocity v
e

is grater than phase

velocity v ph of the electromagnetic waves, vph = c / n where c is the speed of light. This radiation process can occur only when the refractive index is large enough. Thus; n>c/v The most famous microwave tubes based on Cherenkov radiation include traveling-wave tubes (TWTs) and backward-wave oscillators (BWOs) employing a slow wave-structure (SWS) to slow down the velocity of the electromagnetic wave to bring it into synchronism with the electron beam to allow beam-wave interaction. The SWS takes the form of either the most popular helix or various other forms such as a coupled-cavity structure, a dielectric-loaded waveguide, etc For optimum interaction, the transverse dimensions of SWS need to be a fraction of the wavelength of the radiation. This leads to rapid miniaturization of the transverse dimensions with increasing frequency, which does not only pose great difficultly in the fabrication of the fragile SWS but also severe limitation on the thermal capacity of the device. This ultimately limits the power that can be generated in such a device [13].

2-2-2 Transition Radiation

Transition radiation occurs when electron pass through a border between two media with different refractive indices, or through some perturbation in the medium such as conducting grids or plates. In radio-frequency tubes, these

19

perturbations are grids, while in microwave tubes such as klystrons; they are short gap cavities, within which the microwave fields are localized [13].

2-2-3 Bremsstrahlung Radiation

Bremsstrahlung radiation occurs when electros oscillate in external magnetic and / or electric fields. In Bremsstrahlung devices, the electrons radiate electromagnetic wave (EM) whose Doppler-shifted frequencies (k z

v z) coincide either with the frequency of the electron oscillations, w c, or with a harmonic of w c : wkz vz=s wc Here, s (s=1, 2, 3, ) is the resonant harmonic number. Since the above equation can be satisfied for any wave phase velocity, it follows that radiated waves can be either fast {i.e., vph> c} or slow. This means that the interaction can take place in a smooth metal waveguide and does not require the periodic variation of the waveguide wall that is required to support low waves. In the wave devices, the waves are not localized near the walls of the microwave structure. Correspondingly, the interaction space can be extended in the transverse direction, which makes the use of fast waves especially advantageous for millimeter-wave and sub millimeter-wave generation, since the use of large waveguide or cavity cross sections reduce wall losses and breakdown restrictions, as well as permitting the passage of larger and higher power electron beams [13].

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2-3 Basic Microwave Concepts

2-3-1 Microwave Transmission
The principle of microwave transmission cannot be derived by mere extension of either low frequency radio or high frequency optical concepts although they are all based upon the same fundamental law of electromagnetism. For instance, if microwave power is fed in a conventional two conductor line where the longitudinal and transverse dimensions of the line are comparable to the wavelengths of the propagating signal, it leads to a series of interesting effect that fall outside the scope of problems examined by classical theory of long transmission lines. It turns out that such a line cannot be used for microwave transmission. On has, therefore, to use hollow metal tubes called waveguides. The energy propagation in these structures is basically a reflection phenomenon [14].

2-3-2 Microwave Circuit Elements

It is a well-established fact that conventional circuit elements such as resistors, inductors and capacitors do not respond well at microwave frequencies. For instance, a coil of wire may be an excellent inductor at 1 MHz, but at 500 MHz it may be an equally good capacitor because of the predominating effect of inter-turn capacitance. However, this does not mean that energy dissipating (resistors) and storing (capacitors & inductors) elements cannot be constructed at microwave frequencies but their geometrical shape will be quite different. When a number of such microwave circuit elements are connected together, we have a microwave circuit [14].

21

2-3-3 Generation and Amplification of Microwave

The operation of conventional vacuum tubes and solid state devices is limited by transit time effects. However, the frequency ranges of operation of these devices can be extended to the lower edge of the microwave spectrum at the coast of power output and noise characteristics. Therefore, the development of new devices was essential to exploit this frequency region. Fortunately, number of new principles of operation such as velocity modulation, interaction of space change waves with electromagnetic fields, avalanche breakdown, quantum mechanic, tunneling, transferred electron techniques, etc. have enable the generation microwaves [14].

2-3-4 Power Coupling

The waveguide transmission of microwaves is associated with a number of interesting problems such as coupling of power to another system say from generator to line, exciting of waves in a waveguide, etc. to overcome these, three basic coupling methods, viz. electrical coupling (probe), magnetic coupling (loop), and aperture coupling (waveguide to waveguide) have been evolved. This basic feature of these methods is that one can control the amount of coupling because these structures have small antennas that radiate into the waveguide to be coupled [14].

2-3-5 Microwave Component Hardware

Microwave hardware may be divided into three basic categories:

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2-3-5-1 Active Microwave Components

These include generation, amplification and detection of microwaves.

2-3-5-2 Passive Microwave Components

This category includes microwave hardware used in attenuation, propagation and analysis of microwave. The important components are couplers, tee junctions, isolators, circulators, resonant cavities, joints, switches or duplexer transformers and filters. Etc.

2-3-5-3 Microwave Measurement Hardware

This includes microwave measurement instrumentation [14].

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Chapter Three:

Applications of Microwave

24

Chapter Three:

Applications of Microwave
3-1 Introduction
Microwave can be used in more fields, medical, agricultural, controlling, engineering, and also military and some other of its applications. As:

3-2 Medical Application

A 2MW S-Band Microwave system has been designed for a 12MeV Microtron for the medical applications. The microwave system has been developed, tested and has been interfaced with the microtron. A 2MW magnetron has been used as a microwave generator. A line type pulse modulator supplies over 41kV pulses of 5 microsecs duration to the magnetron. The power to the microtron accelerating cavity is supplied through a pressurised waveguide line consisting of four port circulator, dual directional coupler, rotating joint, flexible waveguide and a microwave vacuum window [15].

3-3 Microwave in Industry:

3-3-1 Wireless
Wireless is the process by which radio waves are propagated through the air, the amount of data carried, immunity to interference from internal and

25

external sources, and a host of other characteristics varies from technology to technology [16]. In wireless technologies the term of Spread Spectrum must be understand which is a method commonly used to modulate the information into manageable bits that are sent over the air wirelessly. Essentially, spread spectrum refers to the concept of splitting information over a series of radio channels or frequencies. Generally, the number of frequencies is in the range of about 70, and the information is sent over all or most of the frequencies before being demodulated, or combined at the receiving end of the radio system. Since the beginning of development of microwave wireless transmission equipment, manufacturers and operators have tried to mitigate the effects of reflected signals associated with signal propagation. These reflections are called multipath. In real-world situations, microwave systems involve careful design to overcome the effects of multi-path. Most existing multi-path, mitigation approaches fall well short of the full reliable information rate potential of many wireless communications systems. This section discusses how to create a digital microwave transmission system that not only can tolerate multi-path signals, but that also can actually take advantage of them. Digital microwave systems fall into two categories: Wavelengths less than 10 GHz and wavelengths greater than 10 GHz (referred to as millimeter wave). Several bands exist below 10 GHz for high-speed transmissions. Bands that are below 10 GHz have long propagation distances (up to 30 miles). They are only mildly affected by climatic changes such as rain. These frequencies are generally not absorbed by objects in the environment. They tend to bound and thus result in a high amount of multi-path.

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Bands over 10 GHz, such as 24 GHz, LMDS (28 GHz), and 38 GHz, are very limited to distance (less than 5 miles). They are also quite susceptible to signal fades attributed to rain. Multi-path tends not to be an issue because the transmission distances are less and because most of the multi-path energy is absorbed by the physical environment. However, when these frequencies are used in highly dense urban areas, the signals tend to bounce off objects such as metal buildings or metalized windows [17]. The use of repeaters can add to the multi-path propagation by delaying the received signal. What Is Multi-path? Multi-path is the composition of a primary signal plus duplicate or echoed images caused by reflections of signals off objects between the transmitter and the receiver. The actual received signal is a combination of a primary signal and several echoed signals. Because the distance traveled by the original signal is shorter than the bounced signal, the time differential causes two signals to be received. These signals are overlapped and combined into a single one. In real life, the time between the first received signal and the last echoed signal is called the delay spread, which can be as high as 4 sec. For a service provider to offer differentiated services via wireless access, the wireless access system should offer higher capacity than alternative access technologies. The capacity of the system is increased by three items: A highly efficient physical layer that is robust to interference, resulting in high bandwidth efficiency per sector. A statistically efficient industry standard Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol that delivers quality of service (QoS). A multi-cellular system. Large bandwidth enables differentiated services such as Voice over IP (VoIP) now, and interactive video in the future, both with QoS.

27

So most communication, far-monitoring and controlling are lead by microwave wireless like mobile telephone and remote control [18].

3-3-2 Measuring Moisture Profiles in Building Materials

A microwave impulse method is employed for measuring moisture profiles in building materials. The experimental setup is relatively compact and consists of three basic components, the impulse generator, the applicator and the sampling oscilloscope. The generator produces triangular impulses of a width of 250 ps and amplitude 2 V. It consists of the impulse generator itself, its feed circuits, and controlling, auxiliary, and protecting circuits. The energy output is realized by three SMA coaxial connectors. These signals make it possible to determine the reference and measured position of the impulse and to synchronize the sampling oscilloscope. The applicator connected to the generator output ensures the necessary exposure of both measured and reference specimens. It consists of two pairs of transmitting and receiving antennas formed by coaxial/waveguide reducers and horns. The pairs of antennas are fixed parallel in separate holders ensuring a defined position, and therefore also stability and reproducibility of measurements. The specimens of the tested materials are put into the applicator between the measuring antennas. The sample thickness is limited mechanically to about 100 mm, from the electric point of view it is limited by the attenuation in the measured material and sensitivity of the oscilloscope. The dynamics of the signal is over 20 dB. The sampling oscilloscope analyses the impulse signals. He has a sampling sweep unit and two sampling units with an S-4 sampling head. The time resolution of the oscilloscope is about 10 ps and the sensitivity 2 mV. The frequency range is up to 14 GHz.

28

The signal from the oscilloscope display is recorded by a digital camera and analyzed by a PC. The experiment is arranged in the form of a horizontal capillary suction of water into three typical porous building materials, cement paste, ceramic brick and autoclaved aerated concrete. Samples are water and water vapor insulated with Epoxy resin on four lateral sides to ensure the one-dimensional transport. Moisture contents are measured at different positions and time intervals during the experiment producing moisture profiles versus time. The moisture diffusivity is then calculated from the moisture profiles using the inverse analysis involving Boltzmann transformation [19].

3-3-3 Microwave Technology for Coating Materials

Complementary expertise in coating technology, microwave plasma and microwave materials processing technologies encouraged Fraunhofer USA and Michigan State University to join forces. The result: Fraunhofer USA Center for Coatings and Laser Applications is able to offer systems and processes covering the complete spectrum of plasma design and development, reactor design and development, process optimization right the way through to industrial system integration. Exceptional expertise in the modeling, design, diagnostics and control of microwave plasma sources and system reactors make the center your ideal choice of partner in plasma source and system design and process development [20]. Applications for this technology include coating the inside of tubes and parts, plasmas-on-a chip and local area materials processing with plasmas [21].

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3-3-4 Microwave Oven

3-3-4-1 Introduction:
It is possible that millions of people are ignorantly sacrificing their health in exchange of the convenience of microwave ovens? Why did the Soviet Union ban the use of microwave ovens in 1976? Who invented microwave ovens, and why? The answers to these questions may shock you into throwing your microwave oven in the trash [22]. Over 90% of American homes have microwave ovens used for meal preparation. Because microwave ovens are so convenient and energy efficient, as compared to conventional ovens, very few homes or restaurants are without them. In general, people believed that whatever a microwave oven dose to foods cooked in it does not have any negative effect on either the food or them. Of course, if microwave ovens were really harmful, our government would never allow them on the market, would they? Regardless of what has been officially released concerning microwave ovens, we have personally stopped using ours based on the research facts outlined in this article [23]. Microwave cooking is not natural, nor healthy, and is far more dangerous to the human body than anyone could imagine. However, the microwave oven manufacturers, and plain old human nature are suppressing the facts and evidence. Because of this, people are continuing to microwave their food-in blissful ignorance-without knowing the effect and danger of doing so [24].

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3-3-4-2 How Do Microwave Ovens Work?

Microwave is a form of electromagnetic energy, like light waves or radio waves, and occupy apart of of

electromagnetic

spectrum

power, or energy. Microwaves are very short waves of electro

magnetic energy that travel at the speed of light. In our modern technological age, microwaves are used to relay long distance
Figure (3-1) Microwave oven [25]

telephone signals, television

programs, and computer information across the earth or to a satellite in space. But the microwave is most familiar to us an energy source for cooking food. Every microwave oven contain a magnetron, a tube in which electron are effected by magnetic and electric field in such away as to produce micro wavelength radiation at about 2450 Mega Hertz (MHz) or 2.45 Giga Hertz (GHz). This microwave radiation interacts with the molecules in food. All wave energy changes polarity from positive to negative with each cycle of the wave. In microwaves, these polarity changes happen millions of times every second. Food molecules-especially the molecules of water-have a positive and negative end in the same way a magnet has a north and a south polarity. In commercial models, figure (3-1) the oven has a power input of about 1000 Watts of alternating current. As this microwave generated from the magnetron bombard the food, they cause the polar molecules to rotate at the same frequency millions times a second. All this agitation creates molecular friction, which heats up the food. The friction also causes substantial damage to the

31

surrounding molecules, often tearing them apart or forcefully deforming then. The scientific name for this deformation is structural isomerism [26]. By comparison, microwaves from the sun are based on principles of pulsed direct current (DC) that do not create frictional heat; microwave ovens use alternating current (AC) creating frictional heat. A microwave oven produces a spiked wavelength of energy with all the power going into only one narrow frequency of the energy spectrum. Energy from sun operates in a wide frequency spectrum [27]. Radiation = spreading energy with electromagnetic waves Radiation, as defined by physics terminology, is the electromagnetic waves emitted by the atoms and molecules of radioactive substance as a result of nuclear decay. Radiation causes ionization, which is what occurs when a natural atoms gains or loss electrons. In simpler terms, microwave ovens decay and change the molecular structure of the food by the process of radiation. Had the manufactures accurately called them radiation ovens, its doubtful they would have ever sold one, but that is exactly what a microwave oven is. We have been told that microwaving food is not the same as irradiating it (radiation treatment). The two process are supposed do use to completely different waves of energy and at different intensities. No FDA or officially released government studies have proven current microwaving usage to be harmful, but we all know that the validity of studies can be and are sometimes deliberately limiting. Many of these studies are later proven to be inaccurate. As consumers, we are supported to have a certain degree of common sense to use in judgment [28].

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3-3-5 Feasibility and Performance of the Microwave Thermal Rocket Launcher

3-3-5-1 Abstract
Beamed-energy launch concepts employing a microwave thermal thruster are feasible in principle, and microwave sources of sufficient power to launch tons into LEO already exist. Microwave thermal thrusters operate on an analogous principle to nuclear thermal thrusters, which have experimentally demonstrated specific impulses exceeding 850 seconds. Assuming such performance, simple application of the rocket equation suggests that payload fractions of 10% are possible for a single stage to orbit (SSTO) microwave thermal rocket. We present an SSTO concept employing a scaled X-33 aeroshell. The flat aeroshell underside is covered by a thin-layer microwave absorbent heat-exchanger that forms part of the thruster. During ascent, the heat-exchanger faces the microwave beam. A simple ascent trajectory analysis incorporating X-33 aerodynamic data predicts a 10% payload fraction for a 1 ton craft of this type [29]. In contrast, the Saturn V had 3 non-reusable stages and achieved a payload fraction of 4%.

3-3-5-2 Introduction
The microwave thermal rocket, shown in figure (3-2), is a reusable single stage vehicle that can afford the mass penalty of a robust, low cost, construction because it a uses a high performance microwave thermal propulsion system with double the ISP of conventional rockets [30].

33

Figure (3-2) the Microwave Thermal Rocket (MTR) [30]

The microwave thermal thruster is the key enabling component of the microwave thermal rocket. Hydrogen heat-exchanger propulsion is not new. Nuclear thermal thrusters operate on the hydrogen heat-exchange principle using neutrons as an energy source, rather than microwaves. But the microwave thermal thruster geometry is different; unlike nuclear rockets, which contain a neutron gas in a cylindrical heat exchange geometry using neutron reflective walls, the microwave rocket intersects a transatmospheric microwave beam in the most efficient way possible; upon the flat microwave-absorbent underside of a lifting body aeroshell.

3-3-5-3 Feasibility Trans-Atmospheric Microwave Beam Propagation

Beaming energy sufficient to propel a ton into LEO requires 100 MW+ of energy transmission through the atmosphere. Microwaves have two main

34

advantages: First, at microwave wavelengths, atmospheric turbulence is not the major problem it is with lasers. Second, commercially available microwave sources are already capable of generating this level power output; whereas todays most powerful lasers are still two orders of magnitude weaker [30]. The advent of sub-millimeter astronomy has highlighted the existence of locations with particularly low atmospheric water content; opening up new microwave transmission windows between 35-300 GHz and sometimes beyond Microwave frequency determines the maximum beam energy density via the constraint of atmospheric breakdown. Atmospheric breakdown occurs more easily at low frequencies, ionizing air into plasma that can distort and reflect the incoming beam [31].

35

References
[1]: (Electromagnetic spectrum - Wikipedia, the free www.encyclopedia.htm)

[2]: Bill Blair (wpb@pha.jhu.edu) (http//www.Electromagnetic Spectrum Description.htm)

[3]: (www. Learning from Light Educational Home Page.htm)

[4]: (European Microwave Week 2006 www.Manchester.htm)

[5]: (University of Bahrain-Engineering College- www.Course Descriptions.htm)

[6]: (Basic Concepts - Microwave Encyclopedia - Microwaves101_com.htm)

[7]: (Federal Communication Commission-www. FCC Microwave Services General Information.htm)

[8]: (Texas A&M University Undergraduate Catalog-www.2004-2005 Edition.htm)

[9]: (Teachers' Domain-www.Electromagnetic Spectrum Diagram.htm)

[10]: (Department of Microwave Techniques-Prof. Dr.-Ing. W. Menzel Prof. Dr. M. Hoffmann-www. 123_html.htm)

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[11]: (How Things Work - How Things Work Home Page.htm)

[12]: (Electromagnetic-Spectroscopy.edu)

[13]: (design Study of The 455 GHz, 1.027 kW Second Harmonic Gyrotron Oscillator- By: Dr. Aras Saeed Mahmood / Ph. D. Thesis- May 2005)

[14]: (Microwave Application book)

[15]: (Purushottam Shrivastava, Y.D. Wanmode, D. Baxy and P.R. Hannurkar Centre for Advanced Technology, PO CAT, Indore 452013 INDIA) & (Physics Department - Medical Applications of Microwaves.htm)

[16]: http://www.comet.columbia.edu/~angin/e6950/coolsites.html (Wireless topics home page)

[17]: (http://www.ti.com/sc/data/wireless/panos1.pdf {Wireless systems and technology overview})

[18]: (http://www.rutgers.edu/pub/Links.html {Wireless links})

[19]: (Department of Structural Mechanics, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University, Thkurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic Email: pavlikj@fsv.cvut.cz, tesarek@fsv.cvut.cz, cernyr@fsv.cvut.cz)

[20]: (http://www.ccl-coatings.com {Michigan State University})

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[21]: (www.fsis.usda.gov)

[22]: (By Anandi Nagarajan Dr. Rebecca P. Lovingood (Chair) Housing, Interior Design, and Resource Management)

[23]: (Microwave Oven History - Invention of the Microwave Oven.htm)

[24]: (Radiation Emissions From Microwave Ovens.htm)

[25]: (Microwaves - Countertop and Built In Microwave Ovens For Cooking at AbtElectronics.htm)

[26]: (Laboratory microwave ovens - Microwave Research, Applications, and laboratory microwave ovens used for chemical, medical, food and material laboratory applications.htm)

[27]: (www.Overview.htm)

[28]: (http://www.mindfully.org/Food/Irradiate-Microwave-EffectsFoodMay96.htm) & (http://www.vegan.swinternet.co.uk/articles/health/mw_madness.html 7nov02)

[29]: (Parkin, K.L.G, DiDomenico, L.D., and Culick, F.E.C., The Microwave Thermal Thruster Concept in Proc. Second International Symposium on Beamed Energy Propulsion-2003, New York: American Institute of Physics.)

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[30]: (Kevin L.G. Parkin, Fred E.C. Culick Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, 1200 East California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA)

[31]: (Lis, D., CSO Atmospheric Transmission Interactive Plotter, and Pasadena: California Institute of Technology {http://www.submm.caltech.edu/cso/weather/atplot.shtml})

End

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