SUMMARY

Leadership refers to incremental influence and is aid to occur when one individual influences others to do something voluntarily that they otherwise would not do. A need for leadership within organizations stems from the incompleteness of the organization design and the dynamic nature of the internal and external environments. Three basic leadership roles include origination of policy and structure, interpolation, and administration. These studies focused primarily on physical traits, intelligence, and personality. Although some personal characteristics were frequently related to leadership, the results were generally weak and often inconsistent. Many studies concluded that the characteristics of the subordinate and the nature of the task were as important as the characteristics of the leader in determining success. A second approach to studying leadership focused on leader behaviors. One of the earliest studies compared three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire. Although democratic leadership created the greatest satisfaction, autocratic leadership created the highest levels of productivity. The Failure of leadership research to identify leadership traits or universally superior leader behaviors resulted in the development of four basic situational theories of leadership. These theories suggest that the most effective leadership style depends upon situational variables, especially the characteristics of the group and the nature of the task. As the may of the followers increases, the appropriate leadership style is first telling, then selling, then participating, and finally, for highly mature followers, delegating. The most appropriate leadership style was then determined by assessing three situational variables: whether the relationships between the leader and the members were good or poor, whether the task was structured or unstructured, and whether the power position of the leader was strong or weak. When these three situational variables created an extremely favorable or extremely unfavorable situation, the most effective leadership style. However, a leader with a high concern for interpersonal relationships more effective in situations where there were intermediate levels of favorableness. The path goal model is another situational leadership theory. This theory is derived from expectancy theory and suggests that effective leaders must clarify the goal paths and increase the goal attractiveness for followers. decision. Leader has adequate information to make the decision alone, whether the subordinates will accept the goals of the organization, whether subordinates will accept the

Introduction: The word leadership has been used in at least three different ways. Occasionally it refers to a position within an organization. These definitions are very useful in studying organizational behavior, and a better definition is needed to understand why some individuals are at he more effective leaders than others. The most useful definition of leadership, well, and the one we will use in this chapter, is a form of behavior by which one person influences others. Our team won the championship because of the leadership of the quarterback. In other words, leadership is the incremental influence one individual exerts over another, above and beyond mechanical compliance with routine directives. Leadership occurs when one individual MBO-influences others to do something voluntarily rather than because they were the required to do it or because they feared the consequences of noncompliance. It strong is this voluntary aspect of leadership that distinguishes it from other influence processes, such as power and authority. Although leaders may use force or coercion to influence the behavior of followers, leaders by our definition use their ability to induce voluntary committee. By this definition, anyone in the organization can be a leader, whether or not that individual is formally identified as such. Indeed, informal leaders are extremely important to the effectiveness of most organizations. An important distinction is made by some between leadership and management. To manage means to direct, to bring about to accomplish, and to have responsibility for. The functions of management, as described in chapter one, are planning, organizing, directing, and controlling. The successful manager is viewed as someone who achieves results by following the prescribed activities and by maintaining behaviors and products within prescribed limits. To lead, however, is to inspire, to influence, and to motivate. Effective leaders inspire others to pursue excellence, to extend themselves and to go beyond their perform job requirements by generating creative ideas. This distinction is somewhat overstated, since effective leaders do a lot of managing and effective managers need to lead. But it serves to emphasize an important organizational outcome: the creation of an energetic and highly committed work force that is successfully adapting to the demands of a changing environment and competently producing a viable product or service.

Definitions

Good leaders are made not born. If you have the desire and willpower, you can become an effective leader. Good leaders develop through a never ending process of self-study, education, training, and experience. This guide will help you through that process.

Readers are Leaders Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent.

Review of key leadership theories

With leadership such an important fact of successful businesses there has inevitably been much research into what makes an effective leader. More recent day definitions and study have focused on leadership and change, vision building and empowering others. Some of these more recent theories will be highlighted below: Great Man Theory: These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership. Learn more about the great man theory of leadership. Trait Theory: Trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership. Hawthorne Theory: For instance lighting was tested to determine whether increased or decreased lighting effected productivity, but the outcome was that both witnessed an increase, with the outcome suggesting that merely showing an interest in workers and involving them produces increases in productivity. Other researchers have discovered similarly participatory leadership techniques to be effective. The theory was also given innovative usage at Brazilian company..Such an approach does require a high degree of board level interest however as it requires a culture of constant improvement throughout the organisation, which if absent would leave such a leadership approach confined to fad status.

Contingency Theory: Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation. Contingency theories all argue that the right or best form of leadership is largely dependant upon the context in which the leader and their team are placed. For instance the Blake and Moulton managerial grid (1978) shown below is a popular leadership tool.

The model divides leaders into task or people orientated and outline five leadership types: 1. Country club leader: Someone that is almost solely concerned with the people in their team. 2. Product or perish: Often authoritarian, believing that people are a means to an end. 3. Impoverished leader: Often the least effective as they have neither a regard for people or production. 4. Middle of the road: Whilst appearing to be the ideal compromise this approach sometimes fails due to that compromising nature 5.Team leadership: The pinnacle of leadership. The premise here is that employees are

involved in understanding organizational purpose and determining production needs. Behavioural Theory: Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation. Participative Theory: Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others. Management Theory: Management theories, also known as transactional theories, focus on the role of supervision, organization and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

Relationship Theory: Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.

Other leadership theories Amongst the other principal leadership theories are:
Instrumental

theories: Stress task and person oriented behaviour (e.g. participation,

delegation) by the leader to gain effective performance from others.

Inspirational

theories: Include charismatic leaders, transformational leadership. The

leader appeals to values and vision and enthuses others raising confidence in others and motivating them for change.
Informal

leadership: Looks at behaviours associated with those who are not appointed to

authority but assume leadership in other ways.

Path-goal

theory: Looks at what leaders must do to motivate people to perform well and

to get satisfaction from work. It draws on the expectancy theory of motivation - four leadership styles: supportive, directive, participative and achievement oriented.

Adair's action centred leadership

Action centred leadership model whilst teaching at Sandburs military academy. The model consists of three sections, outlined below.

The model depicts leadership as the balancing of three elements: 1. The Task Needs : The work that needs to be done to ensure the task is completed successfully. 2. The Group Needs : The need to develop and maintain working relationships amongst team members so that the task can be accomplished. 3. The Individual Needs: The individual needs, desires and pressures that each individual has, plus the concerns they may have relating to membership of other groups, such as family, department and profession. In addition to defining the three elements that are key to leadership, Adair sets out the core functions of leadership:
Planning Controlling Supporting Informing Evaluating

These will be emphasised upon in the following chapter where a case study is evaluated using

this criteria. The key to Adair's model is its emphasis on the individual needs of each team member and the importance in realising that each team member will have concerns and priorities outside that of the task at hand. The key to success lies in the leader achieving and maintaining the appropriate balance for the particular group that they are leading, and resisting the urge to focus on those areas that they feel most at home with.

Need for Leadership Most organizations are highly structured and have relatively clear lines of authority, stated objectives, and momentum to carry them forward. Why, then, is there a need for incremental influence beyond the routine directives and formal job requirements. Four reasons have been proposed to explain the need for ongoing leadership.
1.

Incomplete organizational structure:

The first reason why leadership is necessary is because there is a degree of incompleteness in every organization design. Social organizations cannot be designed to be like machines, which are simply turned on and allowed to run untouched. Leaders are needed to structuring the tasks, decide who should do what and work assignments, level. Leaders help the people they lead to accomplish their collective goals. 2. External change: The second reason why leadership is necessary is because the organization exists in a changing environment. As the external environment changes, leaders are needed to identify the strategic mission of the organization and help it adapt to its changing environment. 3. Internal change: The third reason for leadership stems from the dynamics of internal change in the organization. Leadership is needed to coordinate the efforts of diverse organizational units, particularly during

periods of rapid growth or decline. Leadership is necessary to solve internal conflicts and settle differences of opinion.
4.

Motivate and inspire:

Organizations require leadership stems from the need to motivate people and maintain their involvement in the organization. Individuals are not permanent fixtures within the organization. Instead, they come and go, and when they are present, their needs and Intel interests change. Effective leadership provides meaning and purpose by creating a vision of where the organization is going. This ability to inspire and motivate others and transform them into committed contributors to the organization. Patterns of Organizational Leadership The type of influence required for effective leadership is not the same for all leaders. Depending on their level in the organization, different cognitive and affective skills are required of leaders. Three basic 1.Origination. Origination refers to strategic decision making regarding policy formulation or structural change. These critical decisions determine the culture and mission of the organization. 2.Interpolation. Interpolation refers to interpreting strategic decisions and designing a method for implementing them within the organization. Interpolation includes adapting or supplementing the present structure to new policy directives.
3.

Administration. Administration consists of implementing the policies and procedures that have been provided to keep the organization operating efficiently.

These three types of Leadership are typically performed at different levels in the organization and require different abilities and skills. The origination of new programs and policies, which may involve a change in the organizations structure or a reinterpretation of the organizations mission, occurs at the top level of the organization. Individuals at this level must have an understanding of the entire organization and of the ways it interacts with the external environment. Type of Leadership Process Origination: creation, change, and Typical Organizational Cognitive Level Top echelons (Knowledge) System perspective Charisma Affective (Emotion)

elimination of structure

Interpolation: supplementing piecing out of structure

Intermediate and pivotal roles

levels: Subsystem perspective: Integration of primary two-way orientation and secondary relations: human relation skills

Administration: use of Lower levels existing structure

Technical knowledge and understanding of system of rules

Concern with equity in use of rewards and sanctions

. Lower-level supervisors administer the policies and procedures of the organization. Successful supervisors need to possess both technical knowledge and a clear understanding of the

organizations rules. Lower-level supervisors must be concerned with equity and with the administration of rewards and punishments, since they continually deal with these issues in leading others, contingency theories of leadership. Leadership plays an essential role in organizational dynamics and often makes the difference between effective and ineffective organizations. As defined earlier, leadership occurs when one person influences others to do something of their own volition they would not ordinarily do. At the individual level of analysis, leadership studies have focused on the traits of successful leaders, at the group level, leadership studies have focused on leadership behaviors of both formal and informal leaders. The organizational level of analysis has examined how organizational effectiveness is determined by the interaction between the leader, the follower, and the situation. These studies have given rise to situational leadership theories or contingency theories of leadership. Each level will be analyzed separately, beginning with leadership traits. Attributes of Leadership Beliefs Values Ethics Character Knowledge Skills

Leadership Traits Although early writers attempted to describe the characteristics of effective leaders, systematic investigations of leadership traits first began after the turn of the century. The need for selecting and training effective leaders, numerous studies investigated the personal traits of good leaders. These studies are generally referred to as trait studies, since their primary goal was to identify the traits and personal characteristics of effective leaders. A variety of methods was used to study leadership traits, and this variety is probably one reason why the results were so inconsistent. Most studies compared effective leaders with ineffective leaders or leaders with non-leaders. The--studies were inconsistent in the methods used to identify leaders. Others were named by qualified observers such as teachers, and1 some were selected because they occupied a position of leadership such as student-body president or team

captain. The studies were also inconsistent -the way they measured traits. In some studies the traits were measured b psychological tests; other studies relied on observers to identify the traits they saw; and some studies relied on the individuals to report their own character traits. Several traits produced a significant difference in leadership effectiveness, but they did not act alone. Instead, they interacted with other situational variables to influence leader effectiveness, Four major reviews have surveyed the trait studies, and the results can be summarized according to physical traits, intelligence, and personality traits. Physical Traits Trait studies examined such physical factors as height, weight, physique, energy, health, and appearance. To the extent that anything can be concluded regarding the relationship between these factors and leadership, it appears that the leaders tend to be slightly taller and heavier, have better health, a superior physique, a higher rate of energy output, and a more attractive appearance. To illustrate, one of the early studies on the effects of height found that executives in insurance companies were taller than policyholders, that bishops were taller than clergymen, that university presidents were taller than college presidents, that sales managers were taller than sales representatives, and that railway presidents were taller than station agents. Results of this sort, however, have not always been consistent. While one literature review found nine studies showing that leaders tend to be taller, it reported two studies showing that leaders tended to be shorter. Attractiveness and a pleasant appearance found to be highly correlated with leaders among Boy Scouts: but among groups of delinquent youth, leaders were rated as more slovenly and unkempt. In summary, studies of personal characteristics are not particularly interesting or useful. The results are generally too weak and inconsistent to be useful in selecting leaders, nor are they useful for training purposes, since very little can be done to change most of these physical traits. Intelligence Numerous studies have investigated the relationship between leadership and general intelligence, and they generally agree that leaders are more intelligent than non-leaders. The relationship between intelligence and leadership probably stems from the fact that so many leadership functions depend upon careful problem solving. . An interesting conclusion coming from these studies is the suggestion that leaders should be more intelligent than the group but not by too wide a margin. Members who are significantly brighter than other group members are seldom selected as leaders. Because of their superior intellect, other group members tend to reject them; they are too different from and out of touch with the rest of the group. Individuals with high IQ's tend to have different vocabularies, interacts, and goals, which create communication and interpersonal relations problems.

Leadership effectiveness also appears to be related to two other variables closely associated with intelligence: scholarship and knowledge. Leaders generally excel scholastically and receive better than average grades. General information, practical knowledge, and simply knowing how to get things done appears to be important for effective leadership and several studies have shown a positive relationship between general knowledge and leadership ability. Personality Traits Studies of the relationship between leadership and personality traits have examined a lengthy list of factors. Unfortunately, most of the results have been inconsistent and even contradictory. Only a limited number of personality traits appear to be related to leadership, and most of these relationships are not especially strong. A list of the personality traits most frequently associated with leadership. The support was also found for the relationship between leadership and selfconfidence or self-esteem. Indeed, the relationship between self-confidence and leadership generally produced some of the highest correlations of any of the personality traits tested Consequently, it is not correct to conclude that personal characteristics are unrelated to leadership; there are indeed some relationships. After four major reviews of the trait studies, researchers concluded that the effective leadership does not depend solely upon a combination of personality the traits. Situational variables were also important: they frequently determined of whether a personality characteristic was positively or negatively associated with effective leadership. Each review concluded that leadership must be examined as an interaction of three variables: characteristics of the leader, characteristics of the subordinate, and the nature of the task. Capacity Intelligence Alertness Verbal facility Originality Judgment Achievements Scholarship Knowledge Athletic accomplishment Personality adjustment Responsibility Dependability Initiative Persistence Aggressiveness Self-Confidence Desire to Excel Participation Activity Sociability Cooperation Adaptability Humor Status Socioeconomic position Popularity

Various styles of leadership were defined as a result of these studies of leader behaviors. One of the earlier studies compared three leadership styles: authoritarian democratic and laissez-faire. Perhaps the best research on styles of leadership, however, occurred simultaneously at The Ohio State University and the University of Michigan. At each university, researchers identified two leader behaviors that were essentially similar, even though both investigations were conducted

independently. These two dimensions of leadership have been to form an instrument, that has been used for research and training.

Factors of leadership There are four major factors in leadership:

Follower Different people require different styles of leadership. For example, a new hire requires more supervision than an experienced employee. A person who lacks motivation requires a different approach than one with a high degree of motivation. You must know your people! The fundamental starting point is having a good understanding of human nature, such as needs, emotions, and motivation. You must come to know your employees. Leader You must have a honest understanding of who you are, what you know, and what you can do. Also, note that it is the followers, not the leader who determines if a leader is successful. If they do not trust or lack confidence in their leader, then they will be uninspired. To be successful you have to convince your followers, not yourself or your superiors, that you are worthy of being followed.

Communication You lead through two-way communication. Much of it is nonverbal. For instance, when you "set the example," that communicates to your people that you would not ask them to perform anything that you would not be willing to do. What and how you communicate either builds or harms the relationship between you and your employees. Situation All are different. What you do in one situation will not always work in another. You must use your judgment to decide the best course of action and the leadership style needed for each situation. For example, you may need to confront an employee for inappropriate behavior, but if the confrontation is too late or too early, too harsh or too weak, then the results may prove ineffective. Various forces will affect these factors. Examples of forces are your relationship with your seniors, the skill of your people, the informal leaders within your organization, and how your company is organized. Types of leadership styles: Bureaucratic leader The bureaucratic leader is very structured and follows the procedures as they have been established. This type of leadership has no space to explore new ways to solve problems and is usually slow paced to ensure adherence to the ladders stated by the company. Leaders ensure that all the steps have been followed prior to sending it to the next level of authority. Universities, hospitals, banks and government usually require this type of leader in their organizations to ensure quality, increase security and decrease corruption. Leaders that try to speed up the process will experience frustration and anxiety. Charismatic leader The charismatic leader leads by infusing energy and eagerness into their team members. This type of leader has to be committed to the organization for the long run. If the success of the

division or project is attributed to the leader and not the team, charismatic leaders may become a risk for the company by deciding to resign for advanced opportunities. It takes the company time and hard work to gain the employees' confidence back with other type of leadership after they have committed themselves to the magnetism of a charismatic leader. Autocratic leader The autocratic leader is given the power to make decisions alone, having total authority. This leadership style is good for employees that need close supervision to perform certain tasks. Creative employees and team players resent this type of leadership, since they are unable to enhance processes or decision making, resulting in job dissatisfaction. Democratic leader The democratic leader listens to the team's ideas and studies them, but will make the final decision. Team players contribute to the final decision thus increasing employee satisfaction and ownership, feeling their input was considered when the final decision was taken. When changes arises, this type of leadership helps the team assimilate the changes better and more rapidly than other styles, knowing they were consulted and contributed to the decision making process, minimizing resistance and intolerance. A shortcoming of this leadership style is that it has difficulty when decisions are needed in a short period of time or at the moment. Laiss ez-faire The laiss ez-faire ("let do") leader gives no continuous feedback or supervision because the employees are highly experienced and need little supervision to obtain the expected outcome. On the other hand, this type of style is also associated with leaders that dont lead at all, failing in supervising team members, resulting in lack of control and higher costs, bad service or failure to meet deadlines. People-oriented leader

The people-oriented leader is the one that, in order to comply with effectiveness and efficiency, supports, trains and develops his personnel, increasing job satisfaction and genuine interest to do a good job. Task-oriented leader The task-oriented leader focuses on the job, and concentrates on the specific tasks assigned to each employee to reach goal accomplishment. This leader ship style suffers the same motivation issues as autocratic leadership, showing no involvement in the teams needs. It requires close supervision and control to achieve expected results. Another name for this is deal maker and is linked to a first phase in managing Change, enhance, according to the Organize with Chaos approach. Servant leader The servant leader facilitates goal accomplishment by giving its team members what they need in order to be productive. This leader is an instrument employees use to reach the goal rather than an commanding voice that moves to change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic leadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower time frame than other styles, although employee engagement is higher. Transaction leader The transaction leader is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached. Transformation leader The transformation leader motivates its team to be effective and efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group in the final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and uses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational

leaders focus on the big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details. The leader is always looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the companys vision. Environment leader The environment leader is the one who nurtures group or organizational environment to affect the emotional and psychological perception of individuals place in that group or organization. An understanding and application of group psychology and dynamics is essential for this style to be effective. The leader uses or causational culture to inspire individuals and develop leaders at all levels. This leadership style relies on creating an education matrix where groups interactively learn the fundamental psychology of group dynamics and culture from each other. The leaderuses this psychology, and complementary language, to influence direction through the members of the inspired group to do what is required for the benefit of all. Leadership associated with positions of authority DETERMINANTS OF LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS Although deciding what makes an effective leader seems as if it should be a simple decision, the theories and research reviewed earlier illustrate the complexity of the issue. In spite of the complexity, however, individuals who are in positions of leadership are still faced with the practical question of deciding which leadership pattern to adopt.

Choosing a Leadership Style This model describes a variety of leadership styles along a continuum from highly autocratic have one end to highly participative at the other. Seven different leadership styles along this continuum are identified in the exhibit. At one extreme the manager uses his/her authority to simply make the decision and announce it. At the other extreme, the manager provides an area of freedom for subordinates and permits them to function within these limits to make decisions and direct their own activities. The appropriate

leadership style is determined by (1) forces in the manager, (2) forces in the subordinates, and (3) forces in the situation. Some of the important forces in the manager include the manager's value system and the value the manager places on participation and involvement by subordinates. also relevant. The forces in a subordinate include such things as whether subordinates have high needs for independence, whether they are ready to assume responsibility for decision making, whether they are interested in the problems, and whether they possess the necessary experience to deal with them. As subordinates gain greater skill and competence in managing themselves, leaders ought to provide more autonomy for them. The forces in the situation include the culture of the organization and its history of allowing subordinates to exercise autonomy, cohesiveness in the group and the degree to which the members work together as a unit, the nature of the problem itself and the question of whether subordinates have the knowledge and experience needed to solve it, and the pressures of time, since group decision making is time-consuming and ineffective in a crisis situation. The framework provides a useful way to analyze a leadership situation and choose a successful leadership pattern. The successful leader is one who is aware of the situational forces and responds appropriately to them. Effective leaders need to understand themselves, the members of the group, the company, and the broader social environment in which they operate. As a longterm strategy. Principles of Leadership Leadership guide expand on these principles and provide tools for implementing them:
1.

The amounts of

confidence managers have in their subordinates and the manager's ability to handle uncertainty is

Know yourself and seek self-improvement: In order to know yourself, you have to understand. Seeking self-improvement means continually strengthening your attributes.

This can be accomplished through self-study, formal classes, reflection, and interacting with others.
2.

Be technically proficient: As a leader, you must know your job and have a solid familiarity with your employees' tasks. Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions: Search for ways to guide your organization to new heights. And when things go wrong, they always do sooner or later. Analyze the situation, take corrective action, and move on to the next challenge.

3.

4.

Make sound and timely decisions: Use good problem solving, decision making, and planning tools. Set the example: Be a good role model for your employees. They must not only hear what they are expected to do, but also see. We must become the change we want to see Mahatma Gandhi

5.

6.

Know your people and look out for their well-being: Know human nature and the importance of sincerely caring for your workers. Keep your workers informed: Know how to communicate with not only them, but also seniors and other key people. Develop a sense of responsibility in your workers : Help to develop good character traits that will help them carry out their professional responsibilities. Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished: Communication is the key to this responsibility. Train as a team - Although many so called leaders call their organization, department, section, etc. a team; they are not really teams...they are just a group of people doing their jobs.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Use the full capabilities of your organization: By developing a team spirit, you will be able to employ your organization

Strategies for Improving Leadership: With thousands of books and articles written about leadership, it is surprising the followers. When we acknowledge the leaders capacity to reward the behavior of followers, we should not overlook the capacity of the followers to reward the leader by the ways they perform. For

example, organizations reward managers according to the performance of their group. Consequently, the managers of high-performing groups are highly rewarded by the organization. One study has demonstrated the reciprocal nature of influence between leaders and subordinates. In this study, data were collected from first-line managers and two of the supervisors who reported to them. Leaders who were more considerate created greater satisfaction among their subordinates; but, at the same time, the performance of the subordinates caused changes in the behavior of the leaders. Employees who performed well caused their supervisor is to reward them and treat them with greater consideration. Although research on the reciprocal influence between leaders and followers is still rather limited, it is important to remember that leadership may be significantly constrained by the followers. Leaders do not have unlimited opportunities to influence others. Leadership effectiveness is constrained by a variety of factors, such as the extent to which managerial decisions are preprogrammed due to precedent, structure, technological specifications, laws, and the absence of available alternatives. Leadership can also be constrained by a variety of organizational factors limiting the leaders ability to either communicate with or to reinforce the behavior of subordinates. The constraints imposed on leaders include external factors organizational policies, group factors, and individual skills and abilities.
1.

External factors. Leaders are constrained in what they can do because of various economic realities and a

host of state and federal laws. For example, leaders are required to pay at least the minimum wage and they are required to enforce safety standards. Leaders who have unskilled followers will have difficulty leading regardless of their leadership style, and the availability of skilled followers is influenced by the external labor market. Some geographical areas have a much better supply of skilled employees than others.
2.

Organizational policies.

The organization may constrain a leaders effectiveness by limiting the amount of interaction between leaders and followers and by restricting the leaders ability to reward or punish followers. 3. Group factors. Group norms are created by the dynamics of the group. If the group is highly cohesive and very determined, it can limit the leaders ability to influence the group. 4. Individual skills and abilities. The leaders own skills and abilities may act as constraints since leaders can only possess so much expertise, energy, and power. Some situations may simply require greater skills and abilities than the leader may possibly hope to possess. Criteria for selecting a leadership style: Two criteria are used for assessing the effectiveness of a leadership style: quality and acceptance. The quality of the decision refers to its accuracy and the extent to which it will achieve some objective, such as increase profitability, raise productivity, lower costs, reduce turnover, or increase sales. Decision quality depends on gathering accurate and which tree relevant information, identifying good alternatives, and evaluating them carefully to select the best solution. Consulting other group members often provides additional information, but when there are severe time constraints or styles vested interests on the part of the members, participative decision making would be inappropriate. For example, participative decision making is quite quality inappropriate during a commando raid, in the middle of a police rescue action, style is autocratic or during the twenty-second huddle of a football team. Decision acceptance refers to the degree to which the subordinates or might group members are willing to implement the decision. There are two questions that leaders should consider in order to determine whether acceptance is an issue: (1) Subordinates feel strongly about the decision. (2) Is individual initiative and judgment on the part of members required to implement the decision.

If the answer is yes, then the acceptability of the decision is important. Regardless of the technical quality of the solution, the decision may be a failure if the members are not willing to accept it. The Process of Great Leadership The road to great that is common to successful leaders:

Challenge the process - First, find a process that you believe needs to be improved the most. Inspire a shared vision - Next, share you vision in words that can be understood by your followers. Enable others to act - Give them the tools and methods to solve the problem. Model the way - When the process gets tough, get your hands dirty. A boss tells others what to do...a leader shows that it can be done. Encourage the hearts - Share the glory with your followers' heart, while keeping the pains within your own.