MILES DAVIS KIND OF BLUE AND IMPROVISATIONAL PHILOSOPHY: Alternative Methods for Teaching Jazz Improvisation By Brian Dean

One of the most influential jazz albums of all time, Miles Davis Kind of Blue embodies an improvisational character that is both rich with musicality1 and meaningful in spirit. Kind of Blue has dramatically influenced jazz education and improvisation and is universally respected among jazz musicians, pedagogues, critics, and lay-persons. The improvisatory nature and emotional depth of the performances in Kind of Blue are pioneering in content, and in the use of creative devices and compositional elements. Much of the modern pedagogical practices, including improvisation curricula and method books can be traced to approaches employed by performances in Kind of Blue. Through transcription and analysis, a great deal of empirical content contained within performances of Kind of Blue has been reproduced in jazz education. One critic said of Davis in Kind of Blue: Everything Miles played simply sounded so right. The totality of it is rightnot just note choice, not only tempo, not just tone color, everything is right.2 Contemporary pedagogy falls short in tackling creative and emotional components specific to Davis performances in Kind of Blue. Modern improvisation curricula present extremely functional, analytical information to students yet does not educate them on why and how Davis performances are exceptional from a creative perspective. Current jazz education is comfortable functioning within an

MusicalityThe quality or condition of being musical. Musical sensitivity or talent (American Heritage Dictionary). 2 Brubeck, David Baker and the Lenox School of Jazz, 8.

environment emphasizing theory and analysisempirical data that can be easily taught and assessed. Much of what is taught in jazz education directly mirrors the harmonic developmental stages of John Coltrane.3 Studies of Coltranes methodical approaches to improvising have resulted in a highly organized theory-intensive template for the teaching of jazz. Jazz education has adopted this model into curriculum because it is easily assessed throughout a students development. The consequence of placing too much emphasis on harmonic information results in essential components of improvisation being sorely neglected or worse, never discussed. ''For awhile it was just, 'teach them note theory and if they can hear it, they're good, and if they can't, they're lame'.''4 Many highly talented, creative, brilliant people may have been left behind as a result of traditional practices in jazz education. Current jazz pedagogy by and large emphasizes correct answers, through playing the right notes, rhythms, and harmonies for evaluation. Higher education embraces courses in theory and harmony because the material is easily assessed, can be reproduced and taught to large groups, and the courses purpose can justified to the administration. Assessment of specific components of jazz improvisation is important, but to what end? Accountability is essential for all of the choices that students make when improvising. The over-emphasis of modern jazz education on analysis results in teaching students that mistakes are the worst possible occurrence in improvised music. As a result, students engage in less risk-taking behavior, and fall into a pattern of safe playing.

3 4

Squinobal, 50. Chase, Personal Interview, 2004.

If the primary component of jazz is improvisation, isnt it strange that such emphasis would be placed on mistakes? As we mature, the likelihood of risk-taking behavior in adults decreases. For the most part, jazz education assumes that students will actively pursue risk-taking and creative exploration in improvisationwhen in fact the opposite is true. We dont grow into creativity, we grow out of it.5 The result of emphasizing only analytical methods is that we are educating people out of their creative capacities.6 Picasso said that All children are born artists; the problem is to remain an artist as we grow up. As adults, our capacity for creative exploration decreases, and we become terrified of being wrong. Being wrong is not the same as being creative, but if jazz education neglects addressing creative elements, were harming potential innovators in jazz and slowing students artistic development. If youre not prepared to be wrong, youll never come up with anything original!Sir Ken Robinson David Baker states that jazz education has done an exceptional job in producing approximately four creative musicians out of every thousand students7 Baker asserts that others are not reaching their creative potentials perhaps because of neglectful behavior on the part of jazz education and academia. All educators within our current system face extreme opposition in presenting approaches that are not based in empirical or analytical methods. With so much at stake for future jazz artists, we must reevaluate current improv pedagogy. The challenge for jazz education is to balance empirical data

Robinson, Do Schools Kill Creativity? 2006. Robinson, Why Should You Listen to Him? 7 Squinobal, The Lost Tools of Improvisation, 50.
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and abstract methodology within a system that evaluates students progress and encourages creative development. Miles Davis and Improvisational Philosophy Miles Davis never studied improvisation the way that students do today, but was also an exceptional artist. Few will ever have the kind of opportunities in jazz as Davis, or will ever achieve the same status. Comprehension of repertoire today is limited at best, and with the disappearance of traveling big bands and jam sessions, todays upcoming jazz artists have to gain the bulk of their experience within school settings.8 We can learn from Davis by simply incorporating musical components of Miles Davis performance in Kind of Blue. Artistic improvisers can be nurtured and developed within the environment already in place in most schools. The Practice of Melodicism The Collins English Dictionary defines melody as a succession of notes forming a distinctive sequence; tune. Websters Collegiate Encyclopedia defines melody as a rhythmic succession of single tones organized as an aesthetic whole. Collins, Webster and Grove (Jazz) dictionaries fail to discuss the practice of spontaneous melodic playing in jazz improvisation. Hal Galpers term melodic embellishment is defined as rhythmically-active material (eighth-notes, triplets, and sixteenth notes, etc.) made of non-chord-tones.9 Melodicism is a term coined by jazz scholars and educators that addresses the spontaneous use of melody and embellishment in improvisation. Thomas Hynes defines melodicism as The inclusion of melodic elements in an improvised solo:

8 9

Schuller, Views: School of Jazz, 1973. Galper, Melody and embellishment, 54.

motives from songs, attractive note choices, [and] a lyrical shape.10 A more adequate definition is the inclusion of a sequence of spontaneously organized melodic elements in an improvised solo: rhythm, motives, and attractive note choices that form an aesthetic whole. It is a natural tendency of the ear to hear from simple to complex. The ear of the improviser (as well as that of the listener) desires to hear a simple melody first; to have something clear to fasten on so that any complexity in subsequent melodies can be more easily understood.11 In classical music, this process is referred to as theme and variations, or thematic development. Melodicism is a process in which students improvise within limitations that ultimately result in mastery in execution and development of spontaneous thematic material within improvisation. Melodicism elicits interaction, reaction, careful listening, and sensitivity of other musicians and musical ideas. Melodicism is the characteristic in a solo that lifts the improvisation from being merely a well-played collection of lines, runs, riffs, arpeggios and gestures to a higher state of artistic expression.12 Melodic Interpretation The jazz improvisation course provides an excellent backdrop for the teaching of melodic and thematic improv concepts. Students can be introduced to this practice prior to or concurrently with the teaching of chord- scale concepts. Melodic interpretation is primarily an aural practice and theory is not a necessary component. Aural development

10 11

Hynes, Melody and Melodicism in the Teaching of Jazz Improvisation, 46. Galper, 54. 12 Middleton, Melodic Improvising, http://www.andymiddleton.com/start.php?site=articles.

is one of the most neglected facets of young musicians today. The ear can be cultivated and we can learn to tap into our musical memory.13 Start by teaching the students a popular jazz vocal standard such as Autumn Leaves." Strongly encourage the students to memorize the words to the melody (this can also serve as an important history lesson). Explain that most standards were originally ballads for dancing, and that is why the rhythm of the melody is slow. While providing basic accompaniment on the piano, ask the students to sing the words with the melody in class. Treat the melody as literally as possible, making sure that each student is singing the same rhythms and pitches. During class time, consult several recordings of the song, including vocal arrangements that demonstrate various phrasing examples. Rhythmic terms for discussion of melodic interpretation include back-phrasing and anticipated-phrasing. Back-phrasing is a device used infrequently in melodic interpretation, involving the performance of melody notes/words after their written place within a measuremostly after the beat. Back-phrasing either results in elimination of notes/words, or cramming several notes together, causing a loss of rhythmic momentum and a disruption of melodic flow. Only deliberate use the back-phrasing method in melody playing is recommended. In melodic interpretation, anticipated-phrasing is used frequently and involves performing melody notes/words before their written place within a measureslightly before the beat. When combined with rhythms of the original melody, anticipatedphrasing results in forward momentum and rhythmic energy. Demonstrate each approach, and ask students which sounds better. The anticipated method should be obvious. Without changing the original pitches, these methods teach students various
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Coker, The Jazz Idiom, 15.

possibilities in for phrasing melodies. Therefore the student can concentrate on one component at a timerhythm. Have students replicate (call and response) several simple aural examples on their instrument and/or vocally. Assign students an ear- transcription14 of all or a portion of a specific recording administered by the instructor that demonstrates melodic interpretation. Frequently evaluate students attempts to personalize (interpret) the melody by assigning them specific sections or phrases of the melody to perform in each class. All the while, students should be encouraged to experiment as much as possible and mistakes should be allowed, but not encouraged. This initial process may take quite some time, depending on the classes skill level. Assess students ability to perform the original melody (as written) in time, as well as their interpretation of the melody based on the discussed approaches. The next step is an aural exercise in prehearing15 and eliminates the rhythmic component of the music. This is not to say that students should pre-plan solo ideas, but rather make spontaneous choices based on exactly what they hear. Ask the students to slowly play only the original rhythms of the melody of a song, but use their own note choices. This can be accomplished by having the students play one-at-a-time (with the instructor providing simple accompaniment) trading with each other or the instructor, and experimentation should be encouraged. Have the students alternate between playing and singing only pitches that they prehear. Play the exercise out of time and ask students to concentrate on pitch, not the written chord changes. Students who have strong backgrounds in theoretical approaches
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Ear-Transcriptionto replicate portions or the entirety of live or recorded music on another instrument Prehearingan aural process used in improvisation by which musicians hear or conceive pitches and/or abstract shapes and/or rhythms immediately before they are played.

may need to be encouraged to slow down and be patient with this approach. At this time students should be evaluated individually on their success in carrying out the exercise, not on theoretically correct pitch choices. Through gradual repeated daily practice and assessment, the performance tempo of the rhythmic-method should steadily increase. Tempo can then be applied to the aural-method as well. For each exercise, students creatively improvise their own rhythm and pitch choices without the necessity for preconceived harmonic material. The next step is to combine both methods, within the context of a written melody. Mix and match both techniques with the original melody, and discuss grounding methods. Grounding methods combine simple rhythms and note choices (often from the original melody) balanced against the syncopated rhythms resulting from back-phrasing and anticipated-phrasing. This third step borders on improvisation, as in fact it should. The next logical step would be to introduce the same concept in regards to the improv section. However, songs are not vehicles for improvisation; but rather improvisations are vehicles for the song. Motives of the melody of a tune profoundly influence jazz improvisations. As jazz pianist Keith Jarrett says, Youre not improvising if you dont use the theme.16 The next step in teaching melodicism carries students into the improv section of the tune. In most instances this is where the melody of the tune and the solo section become separate entities. Jazz theory approaches teach improvisation based on chord progressions, not on the tuneresulting in students not editing themselves. In performance, proficient jazz improvisers spontaneously monitor and edit their solos because they do not have the luxury of time. Teaching students to edit themselves by
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Jarrett, The Virtual Jazz Age, 36.

applying the concept of melodicism develops continuity, structure, and cohesiveness in jazz improvisations. Good writers edit their work, and jazz improvisers should be taught to do the same. If students successfully implement the above steps, more complex issues can be discussed. Musical Elements as Thematic Devices Thematic development17 is a component of melodicism. This compositional device dates back several centuries to European classical music, but is also used by many jazz improvisers. Kind of Blue artist Miles Davis is widely respected for his implementation of thematic development in his jazz improvisations. By committing himself to the concept of melodicism, Davis discovered greater depth in his improvisations. However many critics routinely took Davis to task following the release of Kind of Blue in 1959. Many believe that Miles seems to be limiting himself more and more all the time, that [he] is playing within smaller and smaller limits taking no chances at all.18 Other critics are at odds in explaining the glaring defects in the performances of someone who is indisputably one of the most important musicians in the history of jazz.19 Jazz critic James Collier adds that He [Davis] has never produced the lines of a Parker or a Beiderbecke, or the dramatic structure of Armstrong or Ellington. He has to be seen then, not as an innovator, but as a popularizer of new ideas.20 The failures of Jazz education to adequately explain the emotional character in Davis playing

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Thematic Developmentthe compositional process by which a theme is transformed by modifying its melodic outline, its harmony, or its rhythm 18 B.C., Metronome, 29. 19 Walser, Out of Notes, 165. 20 Collier, The Making of Jazz, 435.

suggests that there are important gaps in the paradigms of musical analysis and interpretation that dominate jazz studies.21 Miles solos are really interesting to look at on music paper, because theres nothing to them. On a Trane solo or a Charlie Parker solo, you can string the notes out and see all these phrases and harmonic ideas, patterns, all kinds of things. Miles doesnt use patterns. He doesnt string notes out. Without the expression, and without the feeling he puts into it, theres nothing there.22Chick Corea, 1991. Davis creatively implemented rhythm and time, articulation and dynamics, as well as abstract devices such as tone color and nuance in addition to harmony. According to Dr. Phillip Strange, the improvisations of jazz pianist Keith Jarrett exhibit thematic structural components. In analyzing Jarretts improvisations of two separate performances of the song Just in Time, Strange discovered that Jarrett connects and develops his own ideas through the use of his own motives and motives of the song-melody.23 Jarretts solos are organized throughout with melodic voiceleading. There is a balance of melodic continuity and variety. There is a balance of melodic simplicity and complexity. There is a balance of tonal clarity and ambiguity. There is a balance of stepwise motion and arpeggiation.24 These improvisational devices incorporated by Davis and Jarrett can be discussed, analyzed and taught with the goal of facilitating creative exploration.

21 22

Walser, 167. Mandel, Sketches of Miles, 18. 23 Strange, Keith Jarretts Up-Tempo Trio Playing, 317. 24 Strange, 323.

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Understanding and Implementing Rhythm Young jazz students today face several obstacles in addressing rhythmic issues in improvisation. Rhythm is an assumed practice in jazz education, rarely taught, and few have a firm command this concept. In general, the jazz ensemble is the only setting in which rhythm (time-keeping) is addressed, but students are left to practice rhythmic issues on their own. Many horn players do not think of themselves as rhythm players and rely on the rhythm section to assist with time-keeping. All students should be taught the rhythmic concepts as applied to jazz. Theses issues can be addressed in the improvisation curriculum and reinforced in small groups. Certain techniques can be employed by teachers to implement these concepts. By requiring students to play and practice consistently with a metronome and by playing numerous examples of jazz musicians that exemplify time-playing, rhythmic concepts can be learned. Musicians that do not interpret time, but rather, play time should be used as examples. Once students can play exactly in time (step-by-step), they can be taught to play out of time, or to lay back. Louis Armstrong, Charlie Parker, Bud Powell, Clifford Brown, Miles Davis, John Coltrane, and Cannonball Adderly are some well respected bebop-era time-players. Explain swing eighth-notes as being triplet-based and that straight-eighths are not. Have students practice with a metronome that appropriately subdivides the beat by assigning students a simple melody consisting of mostly eighth-notes in both swing and straight subdivisions (a bebop-tune is usually good for this exercise). The goal is to play the melody exactly in time, with few rhythmic mistakes, and little focus on note-issues. Each student should be required to perform unaccompanied, with a metronome in various

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styles and tempos throughout the term. The goal is to experience precise time-playing in a non-improvised setting. Involve the entire class discussion that allows for feedback between performers, classmates and the instructor. Ask the class What do you hear? Discussing performance successes and areas that need improvement engages the class, verbalizes musical concepts, and creates accountability for musical decisions. The next step involves the same process but incorporates improvised material. As this is a time-playing exercise, and not a pitch-based exercise, students may tend to overplay. As in the melody exercise, encourage the students to execute simple rhythms in time, and then attempt faster shorter note-values. Students should be persuaded to take risks in rhythmic-phrasing with mistakes being pointed out, but not emphasized. Each student should be evaluated on their ability to perform a rhythmically-precise improvised solo. Used by many jazz improvisers, another valuable rhythmic technique is called rhythmic displacement. This device alters the length, placement, or syncopation of a rhythmic motif. Classical theory describes it as augmentation, diminution, metric modulation, truncation, etc. A motive is considered rhythmically displaced if it maintains the same general motivic structure as the original. Rhythmic displacement can elicit interaction between musicians in improvisation. Miles Davis, Bill Evans, John Coltrane, Sonny Rollins and Keith Jarrett all utilize rhythmic displacement as a component of their soloing. Provide students with a simple 2-4 note motif. Ask the first student to play the motive in time, and the second to alter only the rhythm, not the notes. The instructor may wish to demonstrate the concept first, or play in-between each student. Each student

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should successively alter the motive rhythmically first. After this step has been completed, students can then be encouraged to alter the pitches of the original motif. Through this creative process, a new motive or variation of the original is created. Melodic Devices Several methods currently address harmonic pitch-content in jazz improvisation. Chords, chord-scale relationships, and harmonic analysis are issues frequently discussed in jazz theory and improv curricula. Techniques for various pitch-based devices such as intervallic playing, ornamentation, sequencing, and phrase-linking are rarely discussed in jazz improvisation curricula. Students should be presented with both methods. Melody playing involves analysis and interpretation of a written melody of motif. Melodicism also utilizes various components of melodies within the context of improvisation. Intervallic playing is widely incorporated into compositional practices as well as melodicism, and involves the implementation of intervals for the purpose of thematic development. Methods can include the application of single intervals, groups of intervals, transposition and/or rhythmic displacement of intervals. Generally speaking, this concept can be utilized as infinitely or as slightly as musician chooses. One approach uses intervals from the melody of a tune, and creates motifs based off those intervals. Another is to develop one specific interval into a motif. Autumn Leaves for example, begins with a whole-step from G to A. Students can create an improvisation based off of this single step-wise motive. They can develop variations and new motifs by inverting intervals, or by using the actual pitches of the melody. Or they can use their own pitches entirely.

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One example is found in So What from Kind of Blue. Miles Davis first eightbar phrase emphasizes intervals from a D minor triad. His motif also puts emphasis on the repetition of the pitch D, as well the descending minor interval from F to D. His variation presented in the 2nd A-section begins with a repetition of D, followed by an ascending minor interval from D to F. A simple d-minor triad that is organized through intervallic playing is all that needed to establish one of the most well-known jazz solos of all time. Intervallic playing can be limited to the intervals themselves, or the manner in which intervals are applied within a phrase. Providing students with simple examples for intervallic construction will aid in clarifying this concept. Encourage experimentation with intervallic playing. This is a fun experience for students because their improvisational tendencies will be immediately altered. Evaluate students in their use of intervals based on their success in isolating the intervallic practice. The most well known device used in melodicism is ornamentation. Bebop melodies of the 1940s and 50s widely implemented ornamentation. Jazz musicians learned to ornament the original melody of tunes, and then began to apply the concept to improvisational practices. One of the easier devices to utilize within improvisation, ornamentation embellishes or decorates a single tone with an additional tone, or group of tones in a melodic line. Ornamentation also provides rhythmic subdivision to notes that have extended note-values. Implementing this practice into a familiar written motif or melody, and have the students only ornament the long tones of the melody. Play examples of musicians that decorate song-melodies such as Louis Armstrong, Coleman Hawkins, Lester Young,

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Dizzy Gillespie, and Charlie Parker. Dont allow the student to become overly complex with melodic embellishments until the concept has been successfully put into practice. Once the student is able to ornament pitches of the melody, encourage them to try to do the same in the context of an improvisation, where they will ornament their own melodic ideas. Sequencing is another melodic device used for thematic development. Common in classical compositional practices, sequencing in jazz improvisation can be defined as a direct repetition of all or part of a motive using the same and/or different pitches. A rhythmic component can be included, but is not essential. Students can be taught the concept of sequencing through examples involving listening, and demonstrations, both in a musical and grammatical. The main motive from Beethovens 5th symphony and riffbased jazz melodies, provide an easy way to demonstrate the concept of sequencing. In a grammatical context, sequencing can be described through the use of a simple phrase. I am goingmotive. I am going, going.emphasize motive Going, going, I am goingsequence. This simple statement clearly demonstrates the topic, and development of the topic. In order to successfully attempt this device, students should be provided with a simple melody or motive. Phrase-linking is a tool for combining and developing different motives by linking the last part of a phrase to a new idea that begins with the last part played. Phrase-linking cohesively combines different ideas to help create new ones. By having the student focus on and develop one motive-at-a-time, each idea can be developed and

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linked to the next. In a grammatical context, the same simple phrase can be used to clarify the concept. I am goingmotive I am going to the storedevelopment I am going to the store to buy groceriesmotive linked to new idea The store is closednew motive Methods for Evaluating Melodic Devices As students improvise, utilizing all of the methods previously discussed, comprehensive evaluation is essential to their success. Subjective evaluation of the students performance of a melody statement and improvisation should include both successes areas that need improvement. Students should record themselves and transcribe their solos for analysis, notating all of the thematic devices utilized throughout the performance. The class should evaluate each student verbally by discussing the successes or areas needing improvement. By holding students accountable for their musical decisions, this environment should encourage risk-taking while providing a safe space for experimentation. Articulations and Dynamics Rhythmic and melodic devices are essential to the concept of melodicism, and deserve further consideration in the jazz improvisation curriculum. Even more neglected in the jazz curriculum are subtle components such as articulations and dynamics. By developing methods for the practice of these devices, students can begin to explore how to correctly implement them into jazz improvisation.

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The use of articulations and dynamics in improvisation is as rare as the practice of melodicism. Glossing over the use of these devices in improvisation, many teachers do not take the time to isolate the practice. These concepts are articulated in big band ensembles, but not in an improvised setting. Students should be taught to deliberately incorporate these ideas into the fabric of their solos. By simply emphasizing articulations in a melodic line, it will have more forward motion, a sense of excitement, and expressive depth. Lines void of articulation sound flat and rhythmically uninteresting. The same phrase can again be used in a grammatical example to clarify the use of articulation. I am goingmotive has no emphasis

Flat with unclear intention

I am goingemphasis on I

Who is going? I am going?

I am goingemphasis on am

Dont tell me what to do I am going!

I am goingemphasis on going

Nothing is going to stop me from going!

While the first phrase is void of specific emphasis, each additional phrase clearly emphasizes a different intention on part of the author. The same philosophy applies to the use of dynamics. A dynamic line is simply thatdynamic and interesting, adding a great deal of energy to a solo. Instructors should hold students accountable for their dynamic decisions within a musical line, avoiding the louder, higher, faster mentality so prevalent today. A simple phrase articulated differently each repetition can provide a good classroom exercise. Students should

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analyze how various ensembles such as big bands, symphonies, solo instrumentalists, etc. incorporate articulations into their performances. It is up to educators to encourage experimentation in regards to both articulations and dynamics. Teachers should encourage the students to think like a composer while making careful, deliberate improvisational decisions. Divergent Philosophies? While several devices have been discussed thus far, it is important to emphasize that these are only devices, and by no means the only methods in approaching jazz improvisation. These are simply suggestions for improvisers to draw from that will add depth and meaning to a solo. The average jazz musician today (1962) is just as trained as a classical musician.25 While that may have been true at one time, musicians such as Miles Davis had backgrounds in music that few ever will today. Jazz improvisation cannot rely on harmonic information to the extent that is now common place in jazz education. For the betterment of jazz as a musical style, educators need to rethink improvisational methods and practices. Music is a science, but it is the spontaneous creative process that is unique to jazz improvisers. Educator David Baker says that the problem of jazz education is how we teach it. You cant say, You hear it; I just do it. You cant say that. You have to say why.26 Besides valid and necessary pedagogical practices already in place, we must present students with specific alternative pedagogy that encourages experimentation and creative exploration within carefully guided tutelage.

25 26

Davis, Miles D. Playboy Interview: Miles Davis, 58. Brubeck, 7.

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The great jazz improvisers had a thorough understanding and command of music theory. Nevertheless, courses in jazz theory didnt exist during the most of the careers of Louis Armstrong, Charlie Parker and Miles Davis. The questions we must ask ourselves are: How do we teach jazz theory as a component of jazz improvisation, while addressing the application of this material in producing artistic, structured, meaningful jazz improvisations? And how do we address these issues at the beginning of a jazz students college career as opposed to the end? The problem of jazz education therefore is not one of material or substance, but structure and direction.

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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Baker, David N. David Baker and the Lenox School of Jazz. Interview by Darius Brubeck. Jazz Education Journal 35 (Sept.-Oct. 2002): 48-55. Chase, Allan. Personal Interview by Jason Squinobal. Boston, Aug. 12, 2004. Coker, Jerry. The Jazz Idiom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1975. Collier, James L. The Making of Jazz. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1978. Galper, Hal. Melody and Embellishment: Part 1. Downbeat 58 (March 1991): 54. Gate, Henry Louis Jr. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Giddens, Gary. The Evolution of Jazz. New Perspectives on Jazz, ed. David Baker, 33-44. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990. Hynes, Tom. Melody and Melodicism in the Teaching of Jazz Improvisation. Jazz Educators Journal 32 (May 2000): 46-9. James, Burnett. Essays on Jazz. New York: Da Capo Press, 1990. Jarrett, Keith. The Virtual Jazz Age. Musician 208 (March 1996): 35-6, 102. Keller, Gary. The Jazz Chord Scale Handbook. Rottenburg: Advance Music, 2002. Leclare, Shannon. Personal Interview by Jason Squinobal. Boston: August 23, 2004. Maggio, Vincent L. Interview by Brian Dean, September 2003, Miami. Notetaking. University of Miami Piano Lesson, Miami. Mandel, Howard. Sketches of Miles. Downbeat (De. 1991): 16-20. Middleton, Andy. Melodic Improvising. Rottenburg: Advance Music, 2004. Morgenstern, Dan. The Evolution of Jazz. New Perspectives in Jazz, ed. David Baker, 45-54. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990. Review of Kind of Blue, by Miles Davis. Metronome (August 1959): 29. Robinson, Sir Ken. Do Schools Kill Creativity? 20 min. http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/view/id/66, T.E.D. Productions, 2006. Online Video. Robinson, Sir Ken. Why Should You Listen to Him. T.E.D. Conferences LLC, http://www.ted.com/index.php/speakers/view/id/69, 2003. Schuller, Gunther. The Influence of Jazz on the History and Development of Concert Music. New Perspectives on Jazz, ed. David Baker, 9-24. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990. Schuller, Gunther. Views: School of Jazz. The Jazz Review (Vol. 3-4). New York: Kaus Reprint Co., 1973.

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Schuller, Gunther. Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development, vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. Squinobal, Jason. The Lost Tools of Jazz Improvisation. Jazz Education Journal 38 (December 2005): 49-51. Strange, Phillip M. Keith Jarretts Up-Tempo Jazz Trio Playing: Transcription and Analysis of Performances of Just in Time, D.M.A. diss., University of Miami, 2003. Walser, Robert. Out of Notes: Signification, Interpretation, and the Problem of Miles Davis. Jazz Among the Discourses, ed. Krin Gabbard, 165-188. Durhan, NC: Duke University Press, 1995.

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