Basic Rad Phy1

Principles of Radiation Protection
Page Phy-1 January 2006 Section 1 - Basic Radiation Physics
Section 1
BASIC RADIATION PHYSICS
UW Environmental Health and Safety
Page Phy-3 January 2006 Section 1 Basic Radiation Physics
The object of this section is to provide the fundamental concepts of physics that are
necessary to understand radioactive decay, radiation, and the interaction of radiation with matter. These concepts will be brought together to allow an understanding of the physical measurement of radioactivity, exposure, and absorbed dose. Some information is also provided to describe the natural background radiation environment.
A. Atomic and Nuclear Structure

1. Basic Atom
The atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the chemical properties of an element. Atoms consist of a nucleus and orbital electrons. The nucleus is a heavy central mass with a positive charge. The nucleus accounts for most of the mass of an atom, but is small in diameter compared to the overall size of the atom. Particles within the nucleus are known as nucleons. Outside the nucleus is a cloud of electrons - small, negatively charged particles that are attracted to the atom by the opposing charge of the nucleus (coulomb forces).
2.
Protons and Neutrons (Nucleons)

The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons. Protons have a positive (+ 1) charge with a mass of about 1.007 atomic mass units (1.673 x 10-24 grams). Neutrons are neutral, or uncharged. Neutrons have a mass slightly larger than the proton, about 1.008 atomic mass units (1.675 x 10-24 grams). Although the coulomb forces between protons in the nucleus tend to push the nucleus apart, the nucleus is held together by the strong nuclear force that operates at extremely short distances. The strong nuclear force is believed to result from attractions between even smaller particles (quarks) that compose the neutrons and protons.
3.
Electrons
The charge of the electron (- 1) is equal in magnitude to the charge of the proton but is negative instead of positive. In an uncharged atom, the number of orbital electrons equals the number of protons within the nucleus. When the number of orbital electrons does not equal the number of protons in the nucleus, an overall imbalance of charge exists for the atom. A charged atom is known as an ion. Ions readily form chemical bonds with other ions of opposing charge. Although electrons exist in a cloud around the nucleus, it is useful to describe this arrangement as a series of energy levels, called shells. Within each shell are subgroups of electrons, called orbits. An atom may have a number of possible energy states, which correspond to different arrangements of electrons in the shells. Electrons normally occupy the lowest energy levels in the atom, with successive shells and orbits filled in a complex manner. If an atom absorbs energy, an electron can move to a higher-energy shell. Electrons occupying higher
energy levels can move back to vacancies in lower energy levels by releasing energy. When the energy release is small (such as for transitions between outer shells of an atom), the release occurs as visible or ultraviolet light. When the difference in energy levels is large (such as when an electron moves to an inner shell), an x-ray is emitted.
4.
Atomic Number, and Atomic Mass Number

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic number, and is represented by the symbol Z. The number of protons in the nucleus determines the arrangement of the electron shells for that atom, which accounts for most chemical characteristics associated with the atom. Therefore, atoms are grouped into elements according to their atomic number. Each element is also represented by a chemical name. The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called the atomic mass number (or, mass number). The symbol A is used to denote the atomic mass number. Since atoms do not have fractions of protons or neutrons, the atomic mass number is an integer. The atomic mass number should not be confused with the atomic mass. Atomic mass describes the relative mass of the atom (including orbital electrons). The scale for atomic mass is fixed so that it equals 12.000 amu for an atom having 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons. This atom (Carbon-12) also has an atomic mass number of 12. For all other atoms, the atomic mass and atomic mass numbers differ slightly in magnitude. The number of neutrons in an atom is called the neutron number and is represented by the symbol N. Table 1 illustrates the relation of A, Z and N for several atoms.
Table 1 Examples of Z, N, and A Atomic No. Z (Protons) Neutron No. N (Neutrons) Mass No. A (Nucleons)
Hydrogen-1 Carbon-12 Iron-56
1 6 26
0 6 30
1 12 56
5.
Nomenclature
Standard nomenclature is used to identify atoms of different types. The chemical
symbol for the element is written with an upper left superscript before the symbol, indicating the mass number (A). A lower left subscript before the symbol indicates the atomic number (Z). This is illustrated by the examples from table 1: Hydrogen-1 Carbon-12 Iron-56
1 1
H C Fe
12 6
56 26
Since both the atomic number and the chemical symbol uniquely identify the element, it is acceptable to omit the atomic number. The designation of an atom is often simply the chemical symbol followed by the atomic mass number, e.g. H-1, C-12, Fe-56.
6.
Nuclides, Isotopes, Isobars

It is convenient to classify atoms by similarities with other atoms. The term nuclide is the most general term that describes an atom. Any atom can be referred to as a nuclide, without making any implications about element groupings or other properties of that atom. As stated earlier, an element is a group of nuclides with the same number of protons. However, there can be different numbers of neutrons present in the nucleus for atoms of the same element. Atoms that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes of that element. This is illustrated for the three isotopes of the element hydrogen: Hydrogen-1 (1 proton, 0 neutrons, A=1) Hydrogen-2 (1 proton, 1 neutron, A=2) Hydrogen-3 (1 proton, 2 neutrons, A=3)
1 1 2 1 3 1
H H H
Isobars are defined as nuclides having the same mass number (A) but different atomic numbers (Z). Example: I-131, Te-131 and Se-131 are isobars. This term is rarely used.
7.
Energy Units
The energies involved for individual reactions at the atomic level are small compared to everyday electrical and mechanical processes requiring huge numbers of atoms. The unit of energy used most frequently in atomic physics is the electron volt, or eV. An electron volt is defined as the amount of energy acquired by an electron when it falls through a difference in potential of 1 volt.
The eV unit is often used with a multiplier, either keV or MeV; 1 keV is equal to 1,000 eV, (1 keV = 103 eV) and 1 MeV is equal to a million eV, (1 MeV = 106 eV). If it were possible to instantly turn on a light bulb, 1 MeV of energy would operate a 100 watt light bulb for a duration of only 1.6 x 10-15 seconds. Most nuclear interactions involve tens of keV up to several MeV of energy.
B. Radioactive Decay
1. General
Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable atom releases matter and/or energy during a transition to a more stable form. It may do so by releasing subatomic particles and energy, or by capturing an orbital electron into the nucleus and releasing energy. Atoms that are unstable are also known as radioactive atoms, or radionuclides. The original, radioactive atom is known as the parent. The new nucleus (after decay) is known as the daughter. Radioactive decay has applications in research, cancer therapy and medical imaging because some of the stable atoms in drugs, reagents, or antibodies can be replaced with radioactive atoms. The resulting labeled form has the same chemical characteristics as the nonradioactive form. Depending upon the application, the outcome of a chemical reaction can be traced, radiation can be delivered to tumors, and structures in the body can be imaged through release of radiation (in a medical setting).
2.
Stability and Instability

The nucleus of an atom exists because the attractive force (strong nuclear force) operating among protons and neutrons balances the coulomb force pushing the nucleus apart. Some combinations of neutrons and protons are very successful in holding the nucleus together. These nuclides remain intact indefinitely and are said to be stable. For other atoms, the numbers of nucleons are less favorable and the atom is unstable (radioactive). To observe the pattern of stability among nuclides, the stable nuclides can be plotted on a graph with the vertical axis indicating the N value (number of neutrons) and the horizontal axis representing the Z value (number of protons). This chart is shown in Appendix 1, Figure 1. These nuclides cluster in a small area of the graph, indicating conditions that are favorable for stability. The rules of stability are complex. Some of the factors influencing stability include: The mass of the atom. The ratio of neutrons to protons.
Even versus odd numbers of nucleons. Magic numbers of nucleons (exceptionally stable combinations).
The optimum ratio of neutrons to protons varies from 1:1 for light nuclei to more than 1.5:1 for heavy nuclei. Atoms lacking these ratios are not stable. If an atom has an even number of protons and neutrons, it is more likely to be stable. Atoms are particularly likely to be stable if the number of protons and/or neutrons corresponds to one of the following integers: 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126. The region of stability ends with Bi-209; all nuclides heavier than bismuth are radioactive. Unstable atoms tend to decay in a manner that shifts the composition of the daughter nucleus towards a more favorable combination of nucleons. The direction of this shift determines the type of radioactive decay (this will be discussed in subsequent sections). Some radionuclides can achieve stability through a single decay (the daughter is stable). For other radionuclides, a series of decays must occur before stability is reached.
3.
Rate of Decay
a. Decay Constant The process of decay is random for individual atoms. Although the exact moment of an individual atomic decay cannot be predicted, the probability of decay during a given time period can be measured (based on observations from a large number of atoms). This quantity is known as the decay constant (). The decay constant is expressed in units of probability per unit time. b. Half-Life (t) The rate of decay can also be described by the half-life of the atom. The halflife (t) is the amount of time required for 50% of the parent atoms to undergo radioactive decay. The half-life and decay constant are related through the simple expressions:
t1 =
2
ln 2
ln 2 t1
2
0.693
0.693 t1
2
Consider the case of a radionuclide with a very short half-life, sodium-25. This radionuclide has a half-life of 60 seconds. The decay constant equals (0.693)/60s, or 0.012s-1. An example of a longer-lived radionuclide is tritium
(H-3). Tritium has a half-life of 12.3 years. The corresponding decay constant is (0.693)/12.3y, or 0.056 y-1. If converted to seconds, the decay constant for tritium is 1.79 x 10-9 s-1. c. Activity It is easy to see that a radionuclide with a short half-life will undergo radioactive decay at a very rapid rate, while a radionuclide with a long halflife will have a much smaller rate of decay. If you have a sample of one billion (109) sodium-25 atoms, you would expect about 11 million of these to decay during the next second. On the other hand, if you have sample of one billion tritium atoms, you would expect only 1 or 2 of these atoms to decay during the next second. For convenience, radioactivity is measured in units of activity, or the number of decays taking place each second. The traditional unit of activity is the curie, named after Marie and Pierre Curie (the discoverers of radium). One curie, abbreviated Ci, is equal to 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second (dps). Since this is an extremely large number of decays per second, the activity is usually expressed in smaller multiples: 1 x 10-6 Ci = 1 microcurie, or 1 x 10-3 Ci = 1 millicurie. The International System of Units (Systme International, or SI) utilizes a different unit of activity, the becquerel. One becquerel, or Bq, is equal to one dps. Since this amount of activity is inconveniently low, the SI units are normally expressed in large multiples of Bq (megabecquerel or gigabecquerel). The SI and traditional units are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2 Units of Activity Number of Disintegrations per Second (dps)
Unit
Abbreviation
Multiple
Type of Unit
curie millicurie microcurie nanocurie becquerel kilobecquerel megabecquerel gigabecquerel
Ci mCi :Ci nCi Bq kBq mBq gBq
1 Ci 10-3 Ci 10-6 Ci 10-9 Ci 1 Bq 103 Bq 106 Bq 109 Bq
Traditional Traditional Traditional Traditional SI SI SI SI
37,000,000,000 37,000,000 37,000 37 1 1000 1,000,000 1,000,000,000
Mathematically, the activity (A) is equal to the number of radioactive atoms (N) times the probability of decay (8):
A =
d.
Exponential Decay If the activity of a particular radionuclide is measured as a function of time, it can be seen that radioactive decay is exponential:
Stated as an equation:
0.693 t t1 2
A(t ) =
Ao e t
Ao e
A(t) is the activity at time t, and A0 is the initial activity. Since the activity is proportional to the number of radioactive atoms, the equation can also be written:
0.693 t t1 2
N (t ) =
N o e t
No e
N(t) is the number of radioactive atoms at time t, and N0 is the initial number of radioactive atoms.
As an example, consider the decay of iodine-131. This radionuclide has a half-life of 8.05 days. If a sample contained 10 mCi on a particular date (as indicated by the supplier), what would the activity be one month later? Initial Activity: Elapsed time: Since the half-life is listed in days, convert elapsed time to days: Calculated decayed activity:
0.693 t t1 2 0.693 30 days 8.05 days
A0 = 10 mCi t = 1 month t = 30 days
A(t ) = Ao e
= (10 mCi ) e
= 0.76 mCi
The simple decay equation applies only when there is one radionuclide present. If there is a mixture of radionuclides present (as for a parent mixed with radioactive daughters), then a sum of exponential functions would apply.
4.
Types of Radiation
a. Subatomic Particles Some forms of ionizing radiation consist of subatomic particles ejected from the nucleus during radioactive decay. Examples of these subatomic particles are shown below in Table 3. It is useful to describe particulate radiation by the Greek letter symbols (alpha, beta) instead of by the particle name (helium nucleus, electron). This distinguishes the particles emitted during radioactive decay (which travel at high velocities) from subatomic particles which are bound within atomic or molecular structures.
Table 3 Examples of Particulate Radiation Type of Radiation Alpha Beta (-) Positron, or Beta (+) Greek Symbol
Description Combination of 2 protons and 2 neutrons Electron Positron (antimatter electron)
Charge +2 -1 +1
Mass at Rest 4.001 amu (6.64 x 10-24 g) 0.000549 amu (9.11 x 10-28 g) 0.000549 amu (9.11 x 10-28 g)
b.
X-rays and Gamma Rays Other types of radiation are electromagnetic. Electromagnetic radiation consists of packets of energy called photons (sometimes symbolized as h ). X-rays and gamma rays are photons having enough energy to produce ionization. The use of two different names (x-rays and gamma rays) allows for a clearer distinction of where the photon was emitted. X-rays come from events occurring outside the nucleus of the atom. Gamma rays are emitted by the nuclei of unstable atoms after radioactive decay. Several kinds of interactions may create x-rays. They are related to the energy balance (conservation of energy) that exists at the atomic level. For example, when an orbital electron moves from an outer (higher energy) shell to an inner (lower energy) shell, an x-ray must be emitted with an energy equal to the difference between energy levels. When an unbound electron traveling outside the atom suddenly slows down and changes direction (due to the presence of an adjacent atom), an x-ray is emitted with an energy equal to the decrease in electron energy.
5.
Types of Radioactive Decay

a. Alpha ( ) Decay Alpha decay tends to occur in heavy radionuclides (massive nuclei). The parent nucleus emits an alpha particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons (Z = 2, A = 4). This is identical to a He-4 nucleus. The identity of the daughter nucleus can be determined by subtracting 2 from the atomic number (Z) of the parent and 4 from the mass number (A) of the parent:
Z daughter = Z parent 2 Adaughter = A parent 4

If the kinetic energy of the alpha particle is less than the energy released by the decay process, the daughter nucleus is left with excess energy. The extra energy is released in the form of one or more gamma rays. This occurs almost simultaneously with the alpha decay. An example of alpha decay is Ra-226:
226 88 (parent)
Ra
222 86 (daughter)
Rn +
4 ++ 2 (alpha particle)
+ 5 .59 MeV
(energy released by decay process)
For Ra-226, the 5.59 MeV decay energy is released entirely to the alpha particle in 94.6% of all instances. In 5.4% of the decays, the decay energy is divided between a 5.40 MeV alpha particle and 0.19 MeV gamma ray.
b.
Beta Decay Beta decay tends to occur when a nucleus has too many neutrons to achieve stability. During beta decay, a neutron within the parent nucleus is converted to a proton, an electron (e-) and a neutrino:
1 0
( )
1 1
e
(electron)
(neutrino)
(neutron)
(proton)
The proton remains in the daughter nucleus. The electron leaves the atom at a high velocity (as a beta particle). Because it is charged, a beta particle can interact and deposit energy in surrounding materials. The neutrino, however, is chargeless and nearly massless. For all practical purposes, the neutrino flies off into space without depositing energy or interacting with other atoms. The conversion of a neutron to a proton within the nucleus has the effect of increasing the atomic number (Z) by one while keeping the same atomic mass number (A). The loss of a slight amount of atomic mass does not change the value of A, since the daughter has the same number of nucleons as the parent.
Z daughter = Z parent + 1 Adaughter = Aparent

For any individual decay process, the beta energy may range from zero to the maximum beta decay energy (Emax). This happens because the beta particle randomly shares energy with the neutrino. When a sample contains many atoms of a beta emitting radionuclide, the result is a beta spectrum with a broad energy distribution between zero and Emax (a diagram of a representative beta spectrum is shown below). The average beta energy is about 1/3 of the maximum energy.
For most beta emitters, the decay energy is also shared by one or more gamma rays. However, there are a few instances where no gammas are emitted. These radionuclides are called pure beta emitters. Examples include H-3 (tritium), C-14, P-32, P-33, and S-35. Pure beta emitters are convenient for research applications where highly penetrating radiation is not required, since the external hazard is greatly reduced. Coincidentally, these elements are also components of important organic compounds. This has led to use of these radionuclides in a wide variety of labeling procedures. An example of beta decay is H-3:
3 1
3 2
He +
+ +
(beta) (neutrino)
0 .0186 MeV
(kinetic energy of beta)
Average and maximum beta energies for selected nuclides are listed in Appendix 1, Figure 2. c. Electron Capture (EC) When an atom contains too many protons in the nucleus for stability, one of these protons can combine with an inner-shell electron in the process of electron capture. The result of this reaction is the conversion of a proton and electron into a neutron.
1 1
p + e
(electron)
1 0
(neutrino)
(proton)
(neutron)
Electron capture, therefore, has the effect of reducing the atomic number of the parent by 1, with the parent and daughter having the same atomic mass number. The vacancy left by electron capture must be filled. An electron from a higher-energy shell falls down into the inner-shell, and a x-ray is emitted. This leaves another vacancy, which is filled by an electron from an outer shell. The process is repeated until all lower-energy shells are filled. A cascade of characteristic x-rays accompanies these transitions. Gamma rays may also be emitted by the daughter nucleus if the decay energy is not imparted totally to the neutrino. An example of electron capture decay is Cr-51:
51 24
Cr
51 23
0.752 MeV
(sum of decay energies)
(parent)
(daughter)
(neutrino)
A 0.32 MeV gamma is emitted in 9% of the Cr-51 decay processes. Weaker xrays (up to 0.1 MeV in energy) are also emitted as electrons move to replace inner shell vacancies. d. Positron + Emission When the available decay energy is large and an atom has too many protons in the nucleus, it may decay through positron emission instead of electron capture. Positron emission is sometimes called beta (+) decay. The process is similar to beta (-) decay, except that the type of radiation emitted is an antimatter electron (positron). During positron emission, one of the protons in the nucleus is converted to a neutron, a positron, and a neutrino:
1 1
( )
1 0
e+
(positron)
(neutrino)
(proton)
(neutron)
The neutron remains inside the daughter nucleus. The positron and neutrino escape. This yields a daughter nucleus with one proton less than the parent but with the same atomic mass number as the parent. A positron has the same mass as an electron but is opposite in charge. As it travels, it slows down through interactions with other atoms in the vicinity. After is has slowed down, it combines with any nearby electron in an annihilation (matter-antimatter) reaction. In this annihilation reaction, the destruction of the electron and positron creates two gamma rays, or photons. The photons each have energies of 0.511 MeV and are emitted in opposing directions. Positron emitters are rarely used because they are inconvenient to produce. Most positron emitters decay after only a brief storage time (short half-life). They are ordinarily produced using a particle accelerator (cyclotron). The most common use of positron emitters is for positron emission tomography. This technique takes advantage of the opposing directions of the two annihilation gammas. Positron emission tomography is used to diagnose some types of brain tumors and other brain disorders. An example of positron emission is Na-22:
22 11
Na
22 10
Ne + 00 + + +
(positron) (neutrino)
1.02 MeV +
1.82 MeV
(parent)
(daughter)
(annihilation gammas)
(remainder of decay energy)
The shape of the positron energy spectrum is similar to the beta spectrum.
e.
Internal Conversion In some instances, the decay energy normally released as a gamma ray is imparted to an inner-shell electron. The electron leaves the atom with a kinetic energy that is equal to the original gamma energy minus the binding energy of the electron. This is called internal conversion. Internal conversion competes with gamma emission. It is a significant effect for a few gamma-emitting radionuclides such as Cs-137 and In-113. Internal conversion electrons are monoenergetic, meaning that they are emitted with discrete energies instead of a broad spectrum of energies. Since a vacancy exists in an inner electron shell after internal conversion, xrays are emitted as electrons move successively from outer shells to fill the lower-shell vacancies. This creates a series of characteristic x-rays. Occasionally, another form of internal conversion may result when energy normally released as a characteristic x-ray is imparted to an orbital electron. The electrons emitted in this process are called Auger electrons and tend to have very low energies. This makes them difficult to detect.
f.
Internal Transition When a parent nuclide decays and the decay particles do not carry away all of the energy, the daughter nucleus is left in an excited state (an excess of energy). Normally, the energy is released immediately as a gamma ray or internal conversion electron. However, for some daughter nuclides, the excited state persists for minutes or hours. This is called internal transition. The daughter nuclide is designated with the symbol m after the atomic mass number to indicate a meta-stable state. Eventually, the daughter nuclide releases the excitation energy through gamma emission. The daughter nuclide can be chemically separated from the parent. By itself, the daughter nuclide behaves like a pure gamma emitter. This can be useful for some forms of medical imaging where highly penetrating radiation is needed. When a radionuclide is injected for a nuclear medicine study (such as a bone scan), any short-range alpha or beta radiation present in the decay would be absorbed within the patient. This would cause unnecessary dose to the patient and would not help the imaging process. If a pure gamma emitter is available, the image quality is increased and the patient dose is decreased. This can be achieved through use of an electron capture radionuclide or internal transition radionuclide. One radionuclide frequently used in imaging studies is technicium-99m, the internal transition daughter product of molybdenum-99:
99
Mo
99 m
Tc +
+ 1 .37 MeV
The decay of molybdenum-99 releases a beta particle (maximum energy 1.23 MeV), leaving an excess of 0.14 MeV in the excited state of the technicium-99m daughter. Technicium-99m can be chemically separated from the molybdenum parent for use in Nuclear Medicine procedures. Technicium-99m later releases the energy as a gamma ray (the half-life of Tc-99m is 6 hours).
99 m
Tc
99
Tc + ( 0 .14 MeV
6.
Decay Schemes and Energy Levels

Many radionuclides decay through several possible combinations of particle and gamma ray energies, corresponding to different energy levels of the daughter nucleus. It is convenient to depict these energy levels as decay schemes. Decay schemes for selected nuclides are included in Appendix 1, Figure 3. To help with the interpretation of these diagrams, some examples and explanations are included in the next few sections. a. I-131 Decay Diagram (Beta Decay Example) Iodine-131 is typical of a complex beta decay scheme. There are five different nuclear energy levels that correspond to different values of Emax (maximum beta energy). Each beta (-) emission for I-131 has one or more corresponding gamma emissions.
Table 4 Energy Levels for I-131 Beta (-) Decay, (Q = 0.97 MeV) Beta Energy (Emax) Percentage of Decay Events Associated Gamma Ray Energies (MeV)
0.25 MeV 0.33 MeV 0.47 MeV 0.61 MeV 0.81 MeV
1.6% 6.9% 0.5% 90.4% 0.6%
0.72 0.64 0.50 or (0.33 and 0.17) 0.36 or (0.28 and 0.08) 0.16 (from Xe-131m)
The first two columns in Table 4 show the beta endpoint (maximum energy) and the percentage of events in which this decay occurs. The third column shows the possible gamma emission(s) associated with each beta decay. Gamma rays are emitted either as a single photon, or as several photons (shown in parenthesis). By adding the first and third columns, it is easy to demonstrate that the total beta and gamma energies are always equal to the Q value (total decay energy for I-131).
The corresponding decay scheme for I-131 is shown below:

131 I 53
(8.05d)
0.7229 0.6370
1 1.6% 2 6.9% 3 0.5% Q = 0.970 MeV 4 90.4% 5 0.6%
0.5030
0.3645
4 3 2 1
0.1772 0.1639 0.0801 0.0
131m 54
Xe (11.8 d)
Stable
131 Xe 54
The parent nucleus, I-131, is shown at the top left corner. The half-life of I-131 is equal to 8.05 days, as shown in parenthesis. The energy levels of the Xe-131 daughter are shown as a series of horizontal lines. The daughter nucleus is located to the right of the parent nucleus because it has a higher atomic number (Z). Each line corresponding to the daughter nucleus is shown with the energy level, in MeV, at the right side of the diagram. The ground state (lowest energy state) of the daughter nucleus is indicated by an energy of 0.0 MeV (bottom line of diagram). Since the Xe-131 nucleus does not undergo radioactive decay, no half-life is shown. Beta emissions are indicated by arrows drawn from the parent nucleus (top left corner) to the different energy levels of the daughter. The beta energy, Emax, is obtained by subtracting the nuclear energy level from the decay energy, Q. For example, the energy of the first beta (-1) is 0.970 0.7229, or 0.247 MeV. Gamma rays are depicted as vertical lines traveling from higher energy levels to lower energy levels. They correspond to transitions where the daughter nucleus looses some or all of the remaining decay energy. During the first beta (-1) decay the I-131 nucleus emits a 0.247 MeV beta to the 0.7229 MeV energy level of Xe-131. All of the remaining 0.7229 MeV is emitted as a single gamma ray. An example of multiple gamma emissions following beta decay is found in the (-4) decay to the 0.3645 MeV energy level. Here, the remaining energy may be emitted as a single gamma ray of 0.3645 MeV, or as two gamma rays (0.2845 MeV and 0.0801 MeV). The gamma ray energies are equal to the difference in the nuclear energy levels. The numbering of the beta particles and gamma rays is usually arbitrary; this is done primarily so that additional notes can be included about relative abundance and the probability of internal conversion. The diagrams show
only nuclear energy levels and do not include characteristic x-rays emitted during transitions by electrons outside of the nucleus. b. Zn-65 Decay Diagram (Electron Capture and Positron Emission) Nuclides that decay through electron capture may also decay through positron emission if the Q value (available decay energy) is greater than 1.022 MeV. This amount of energy is necessary for the creation of two, 0.511 annihilation gammas. The decay scheme for Zn-65 is shown as an example of this type of decay. The half-life of Zn-65 is 245 days (as shown in parenthesis).
65 30
Zn (245 d)
1.115
EC1 49% EC2 49% QEC = 1.35 MeV*
1
0.0
+1 1.7%
Stable
65 Cu 29
* Maximum + Energy = Q EC - 1.022 MeV
The daughter, stable Cu-65, is shown below and to the left of the parent. This convention is followed because the atomic number (Z) of the daughter is less than the Z of the parent for electron capture. The energy levels of the Cu-65 daughter nucleus are much simpler than in the preceding example for I-131 decay. There is only one level above ground state. Electron capture transitions are shown as straight arrows from the parent to the daughter. Two electron capture transitions are possible. In the first, occurring 49% of the time, the daughter nucleus is left with an excitation energy of 1.115 MeV. This is released as a 1.115 MeV gamma ray. In the second electron capture transition (also occurring about 49% of the time), the decay proceeds directly to the ground state of Cu-65. No gamma ray is emitted. In both of these transitions, characteristic x-rays are emitted as electrons fall into vacancies in electron shells. This occurs outside the nucleus and is not depicted in the decay diagram. During 1.7% of the decay events, the decay proceeds through positron emission instead of electron capture. Positron emission is depicted by a vertical line connected to a diagonal arrow. The vertical line symbolizes the
energy released as two annihilation gammas when the positron combines with an electron outside the atom. The diagonal arrow represents the positron. The energy of the positron is obtained by subtracting the daughter energy level from the Q value (decay energy), then subtracting the two 0.511 MeV gamma energies.
E positron = Q (energy level of daughter nucleus) 2 ( 0.511 MeV )

In this case, the energy level of the daughter is 0.0 (ground state), and the maximum energy of the positron is equal to (1.35 1.022) MeV, or 0.33 MeV. c. Ra-226 Decay Diagram (Alpha Decay Example) Alpha decay is symbolized by double lines within the decay scheme. The decay energy, Q, tends to be very large. The daughter product is depicted to the left of the parent because the Z of the daughter is less than the Z of the parent. Radium-226 provides a straightforward example of alpha decay:
226 88 Ra
(1602 y)
Q = 4.894 MeV
222 86 Rn
0.1857 0.0
1 5.4% 2 94.6%
(3.82 d)
In 94.6% of all Ra-226 decays, an alpha particle with energy 4.894 MeV is emitted. Since this corresponds to the ground state of Rn-222, no corresponding gamma ray is released. In 5.4% of all decays, an alpha particle with an energy equal to (4.894 0.1857) or 4.708 MeV is emitted. The remaining 0.1857 MeV is emitted as a single gamma ray.
C. Interaction of Radiation with Matter

1. Ionizing and Nonionizing Radiations
The types of radiation described in the preceding sections are ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is distinguished from other types of energy by its ability to produce ionization in materials. Ionization is the removal of orbital electrons from an atom. Radiations that cannot produce ionization are known as nonionizing radiation. Some familiar examples of nonionizing radiation include ultraviolet and visible light, infrared light, radio waves, microwaves, and electromagnetic fields from household wiring. Except where otherwise noted, this discussion will apply only to ionizing radiation.
2.
Consequences of Interactions (Ionization and Excitation)

Ionizing radiation may interact through a variety of processes, depending upon the type and energy of the radiation and material being traversed. Regardless of the mechanism of interaction, the consequences are ionization and excitation of atoms in the material. a. Ionization Ionization is the process of removing one or more orbital electrons from an atom. This produces ion pairs: one or more free electrons along with a positively charged atom (ion). Both the charged atom and the free electrons can react with other atoms in their vicinity to produce chemical changes in the material. During interactions of ionizing radiation with matter, a large amount of kinetic energy can be imparted to the free electrons. This energy is sometimes large enough so that the free electrons behave like beta particles to produce ionization. When the free electrons are capable of producing ionizations, they are called delta rays. These secondary electrons produce a track of damage along the path of the radiation. In a biological system, this damage takes the form of broken molecular bonds and free radicals (atoms that readily form chemical bonds). b. Excitation Excitation occurs when radiation deposits energy, but the energy is not sufficient to produce ion pairs. Small amounts of kinetic energy are transferred to atoms in the material. This increases the energy level of the atom or molecule without actually breaking chemical bonds. The increase in energy takes the form of molecular vibration or rotation. When this happens, the result is a (small) rise in temperature triggered by the excitation process.
Some of the energy deposited by ionizing radiation is lost through excitation processes and an accompanying increase in temperature. However, the increase in temperature is insignificant compared to the damage produced by ionizations. A cell exposed to very large doses of ionizing radiation will die from ionization-produced damage long before a detectable rise in temperature is produced. Nonionizing radiation can only deposit energy through excitation reactions. For most forms of nonionizing radiation (such as radio waves and infrared light), the effect is limited to heat. Ultraviolet light can produce biological damage through photochemical reactions as well as heating.
3.
Charged Particle Interactions

Charged particles deposit energy primarily through collisions with orbital electrons. The collisions occur when the electric field of the particle interacts with the electric field surrounding the orbital electron. If the particle has a negative charge, it pushes the electron out of its orbit. If the particle is positively charged, it exerts a pull on the electron that removes it from the original orbit. Collisions may impart enough energy to allow ionizations to occur from the newlyreleased secondary electrons. Some of the energy may also be released as x-rays (bremsstrahlung). The type and probability of these interactions is related to the charge and velocity of the incident particle. a. Beta Particles Beta particles (electrons and positrons) travel at very high velocities, comparable to the speed of light. Several examples are provided in Table 5.
Table 5 Beta Particle Velocities Particle Type Maximum Particle Energy (Emax) Velocity Corresponding To Emax (% of speed of light)
Nuclide
H-3 C-14 P-32 O-15
0.0186 0.156 1.710 1.738
26% 64% 97% 97%
Since the particle velocity is initially high, it has little chance to interact with an orbital electron unless it passes very close to that electron. Interactions are widely spaced (in terms of atomic dimensions) because the probability of interaction is so low. However, when the particle does interact with an
orbital electron, a significant fraction of the particles kinetic energy can be transferred to the electron during the collision. As the particle slows, it becomes more likely to interact with other orbital electrons. The net effect is for beta particles to lose their energy in a diffuse manner (compared to alphas) and follow paths that can be marked by sharp changes in direction. A representation of a low-energy beta particle track is shown below:
As shown in the diagram, the net distance traveled by the beta particle is shorter than the path length. This average depth represents the maximum distance of travel in the material and is called the particle range. The range differs according to the energy and charge of the particle. For electrons, the range is approximated by the following equation:
0.412 { 1.265 0.0954 ln E } Range (cm ) E
( for E < 2.5 MeV )
where is the specific gravity of the material and E is the beta particle or electron energy in MeV. Please note that the expression E{1.265-0.0954lnE} is the beta energy (in MeV) raised to the power indicated in the brackets. It is not the exponential function. For tissue and water, = 1.0. A further discussion of beta particle range is provided in section D.3. b. Bremsstrahlung When a beta particle interacts with the electric field of the nucleus (instead of the field surrounding an orbital electron), it looses energy by changing directions and releasing an x-ray. The energy of the x-ray is equal to the energy lost by the beta particle. These x-rays are called bremsstrahlung, or braking radiation.
The probability of bremsstrahlung production is small for low-Z materials such as tissue or plastic. However, the amount of energy released as bremsstrahlung is proportional to the atomic number of the absorber. This principle is the basis for x-ray production. In an x-ray tube, a beam of high energy electrons is directed against a metal target (typically tungsten). The high Z of the metal target increases the yield of x-rays. For the same reason, it is usually desirable to shield high-energy beta emitters with plastic or other low-Z materials. This minimizes unwanted production of bremsstrahlung x-rays. If lead or some other high-Z shielding material is used, it is sometimes necessary to increase the thickness and weight of the shield to account for this x-ray production. c. Annihilation When a positron (+) reaches the end of its range, it combines with a nearby orbital electron in an annihilation reaction (as described previously). The electron (matter) and positron (antimatter) disappear, and two 0.511 MeV gamma rays are released. The annihilation gammas are emitted in opposite directions from each other. d. Alpha Particles Alpha particles are approximately 7300 times more massive than beta particles. Heavy charged particles such as alpha particles travel at velocities much slower than the speed of light and have a high probability for interactions with orbital electrons. They leave a dense path of ion pairs and expend their energy in a short range. In addition to the slow speed, heavy particles are barely deflected by each interaction; therefore their path is short and straight. The range of a 5 MeV alpha particle is approximately 3.5 cm in air, or 0.004 cm in tissue. Alpha particles are not considered to be an external hazard because of their inability to penetrate the outer layer of skin.
4.
Electromagnetic Radiation Interactions

a. Gamma and X-rays, General Gamma and x-rays are photons, or packets of electromagnetic energy. Because of their mechanism of production, x-rays tend to be lower in energy than gamma rays. Other than that, there is no difference in the way x-rays and gamma rays interact with matter. Photons travel at the speed of light and have no charge. They cannot create ion pairs by interacting directly with the electric fields of an orbital electron or nucleus. Instead, photons produce ionization indirectly through reactions that release energetic, charged particles (usually electrons). The reactions that are most prominent for radiation protection issues are the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair production. The probability of each process varies with the photon energy and Z of the material. b. Photoelectric Effect In the photoelectric effect, the incident photon energy is transferred completely to an inner-shell (orbital) electron. The photon disappears, and a photoelectron is released. The energy of the photoelectron is equal to the incident photon energy minus the binding energy of the electron. Photoelectrons are released from x- and gamma ray interactions with enough energy to produce ionization in the surrounding material.
The probability of a photoelectric interaction is proportional to Z4 and inversely proportional to E3. This means that the photoelectric effect is only prevalent for low energy photons and high-Z absorbers. For this reason, lead is an excellent shielding material for most x-ray energies. Photoelectric absorption can occur for very low energy photons as well. However, the resulting photoelectrons are not ionizing. This effect is the basis for many electronic devices that detect light.
c.
Compton Scattering Compton scattering occurs when a photon interacts with an outer-shell (orbital) electron that has a binding energy much lower than the photon energy. Only part of the photon energy is transferred to the orbital electron. The overall result is that the photon changes direction and loses energy. The orbital electron is released from the atom in the process. If the interaction imparts enough energy to the secondary electron, it can produce ionizations in the material. The photon may be scattered in any direction between 0 and 180 degrees. The energy loss of the photon is related to the scattering angle. For high energy photons, the scattering angle is usually low and little energy is imparted in any one Compton event. For low energy photons, the scattering angle can be much larger, and nearly all of the photon energy can be transferred to the electron in a single scattering event.
Compton interactions are the most probable type of interaction for x-rays and gamma rays in tissue. The probability of a Compton interaction decreases slightly with increasing Z of the material. d. Pair Production When a photon has energy in excess of 1.022 MeV, it can interact with the strong forces near the nucleus of an atom in a pair production reaction. The photon disappears and is replaced by one electron and one positron, emitted in opposite directions. The value of 1.022 MeV is the energy equivalent (E = mc2) of the mass of an electron plus a positron. Any remaining kinetic energy (above 1.02 MeV) is shared equally by the electron and positron, minus a very small amount of energy shared with the atomic nucleus. The electron and positron deposit energy as they travel through the surrounding medium, creating ionization and excitation. However when the
(antimatter) positron slows down, it combines with an electron in an annihilation reaction. The mass is converted back to two photons, each having energies of 0.511 MeV. The overall effect of pair production is the conversion of the incident photon into two, 0.511 MeV annihilation photons emitted in opposite directions. The only energy loss from the pair production interaction is the left over energy (above 1.022 MeV) which is imparted to the secondary electron and positron. The two, 0.511 MeV photons may subsequently deposit energy in the material through Compton interactions. Pair production is more prevalent for high Z materials than for low Z materials. For lead, it becomes a significant interaction at photon energies above 2 MeV, and the dominant interaction for photon energies above 10 MeV. For low Z materials such as tissue, it is rarely significant (unless photon energies of tens of MeV are present).
D. Time, Distance and Shielding

The physical principles described in the preceding sections can be put to use in a radiation protection setting. These are expressed as the basic mechanisms of time, distance, and shielding.
1.
Time
This principle is fairly simple. If you enter a radiation area, the amount of occupational exposure will be proportional to the time spent in the area. Although this sounds trivial, it is easily forgotten in the work environment. It is important to work efficiently, without wasting time or making mistakes (which could increase your radiation exposure). Another facet of the time principle is exponential decay (section B.3). If you have a source that is no longer needed, it can be allowed to decay in a wellshielded area prior to disposal. This reduces the amount of radioactive material disposed of as waste, and reduces any radiation exposure involved in the handling of the material.
2.
Distance (Inverse Square Law)

For any point source of radiant energy (including ionizing radiation), the intensity of the radiation increases as you approach the source and decreases as you move away from the source. The difference in intensity can be dramatic. Increasing the distance from the source is an efficient method of reducing occupational dose. Conversely, if you work unnecessarily close to a source of penetrating radiation, it can lead to a great deal of unnecessary exposure.
The Inverse Square Law for a point source of radiation states that the dose rate is inversely proportional to the distance from the source:
I2
d = I1 1 d 2
Here, I is the radiation intensity and d is the distance from the source. As an example, suppose that you measure a thousand counts per minute (cpm) on your radiation detector placed one foot from a radiation source. If you moved back to a distance of two feet, the count rate would be:
I2
d I1 1 d 2
1 foot = (1000 cpm) 2 feet
= 250 cpm
Each time the distance from the source is doubled, the intensity is reduced by a factor of four. Note that the Inverse Square Law works to increase radiation exposure when the distance is decreased. It can also be called the Inverse-r2 Effect. The r2 represents radius squared, which is the same as distance squared, in the equations above. The following is an approximation of the increase in radiation dose as you approach a small-diameter source.
Theoretically, the dose rate increases to infinity as the distance decreases to zero. In reality, this does not happen. At very small distances, the point source approximation no longer applies and the dose remains finite. However, the dose rates can become extremely large at the point of contact with a radiation source.
For this reason, you should be extremely cautious about handling sources of penetrating radiation. Normally, tongs or forceps must be used to provide some distance between you and the source. If the radiation is easily attenuated (particularly if it is a pure low-energy beta emitter), there may be enough shielding around the material to permit holding the container in a gloved hand. Otherwise, the source must not be handled directly.
3.
Shielding
If work must be performed in the vicinity of an intense radiation source, it is often possible to construct a shield. This blocks most of the radiation, allowing the worker to reduce his or her occupational dose. If a facility is placed next to an area where non-radiation workers are present, shielding is used to ensure that the adjacent areas are exposed to less than the dose limits for members of the public. The most common use of shielding is in medical x-ray facilities, nuclear medicine facilities, radiation therapy facilities, and particle accelerators. Shielding takes advantage of the process of attenuation. Attenuation is the reduction in intensity when a beam of radiation passes through a material. The amount of attenuation is a function of the composition of the material, as well as the type and energy of the radiation. a. Charged Particle Attenuation Charged particles are easily shielded because of their limited range in materials (as discussed in section C.3.). Often, the thickness of the outer protective layer of skin is sufficient to stop the radiation. This is the case for alpha particles and low energy betas from tritium. For more penetrating beta energies, the skin still provides some protection. However, the degree of protection varies with the maximum beta energy and the thickness of the outer layer of skin.
For radiation protection purposes, the thickness of the outer, dead layer (stratum corneum) of skin is considered to be 0.007 cm. This value underestimates the protection of the outer layer of skin for the hands. Keep in mind that the shielding of the source container is not included in the above diagram. Almost any added thickness from any container is sufficient to stop beta particles from carbon-14 and sulfur-35 from reaching any proliferating cells within the skin. For this reason, carbon-14 and sulfur-35 are not ordinarily considered to be external hazards. For beta energies greater than 0.2 MeV, the incident betas can produce a dose to the skin. Additional shielding is often beneficial (see section E.9.b. on Beta Dose Rates). Although the standard approach is to provide shielding at least as thick as the range of the maximum beta energy, this is not necessary unless the dose rates near the source are high. Since most of the beta particles have energies that are 1/3 of the maximum beta energy, even a lesser amount of shielding can produce a noticeable benefit. Two physical processes that decrease the effectiveness of beta shielding are scattering and bremsstrahlung. These processes are more significant for high-energy betas than for low-energy betas. In scattering, some of the beta particles change direction and can be reflected back from the shield or to the side of the shield. In extreme cases, multiple scattering can allow some of the
beta particles to bypass the shield, as shown in the diagram. Bremsstrahlung is the production of x-rays in materials by electrons or beta particles (as described in section C.3.). Although it is usually not a safety problem, bremsstrahlung can produce a measurable count rate around high-energy beta sources. When a high-Z material such as lead is used to shield an intense, high-energy beta source, additional lead should be added to reduce the intensity of the bremsstrahlung x-rays. The amount of scattered radiation may not be of concern from a safety standpoint. After all, the purpose of the shield is to reduce the dose rate from the source (not to eliminate it altogether). However, if shielding is required
to maintain doses within occupational limits, then it is always necessary to evaluate the shields effectiveness prior to actual use. b. X-ray and Gamma Ray Attenuation Unlike charged particles, x-rays and gamma rays do not have a fixed range. X-rays and gamma rays interact with materials through photoelectric absorption, Compton scattering, or pair-production (depending upon the photon energy and Z of the material). When a single photon passes through a thickness of material it has a certain probability of interaction. The probability of interaction per unit thickness of material is called the linear attenuation coefficient, :. The attenuation equation for x-rays and gamma rays is similar to the exponential equation for radioactive decay.
= I0 e x
In this equation, I0 is the intensity without the shield, I is the intensity with the shield in place, and x is the thickness of the shield. The attenuation equation is an approximation, since x-rays and gamma rays scatter easily. The contribution of scattered radiation depends upon the size and arrangement of the shield, and is not included in this calculation. As an example, estimate the reduction in intensity for 50 keV x-rays if a lead shield 1.0 mm in thickness is installed. Compare that value to the reduction for 1 MeV gamma rays shielded by the same thickness of lead ( : = 88.7 cm-1 for 50 keV x-rays; : = 0.796 cm-1 for 1 MeV gammas). The reduction in intensity can be calculated from the ratio I/I0. For 50 keV x-rays (1 mm lead),
I I0
e x
e (88.7 cm
) ( 0.1cm )
0.00014
The intensity after shielding is only 0.01% of the original intensity (an almost complete reduction). For 1 MeV gamma rays (1 mm lead),
I I0
e x
e ( 0.796 cm
) ( 0.1 cm )
0.92
Here, the intensity after shielding is 92% of the original intensity (only an 8% reduction). Note that the thickness, 1.0 mm, was converted to 0.1 cm to keep the same units for : and x. This example illustrates the dramatic difference in shielding effectiveness for different energies in high Z materials. It also illustrates why lead shielding is more cost effective for x-rays than for high energy emitters. The attenuation coefficient is often related to a more convenient parameter, the half-value layer (HVL). The half-value layer is the approximate thickness of material required to reduce the radiation intensity by 50% (I/I0 = 0.5).
HVL =
0.693
and
0.693 HVL
Occasionally, tabulations will be provided for tenth-value layer (TVL). The tenth-value layer is the approximate thickness of material required to reduce the radiation intensity to 10% of the original value (I/I0 = 0.1).
TVL =
2.30
and
2.30 TVL
By taking advantage of these definitions, an alternative form of the attenuation equation becomes:
I I0
1 = 2
N HVL
or
I I0
1 = 10
NTVL
where NHVL is the number of half-value layers, and NTVL is the number of tenth value layers. This can be a quick and easy approach to shielding calculations. A graph of HVL vs. energy is shown in Appendix 1, Figure 5. As a final shielding example, suppose you need to place a very intense Cs-137 source (0.67 MeV gamma rays) next to an existing office. It is necessary to reduce the exposure rate so that the administrative personnel in the next office receive less that 100 mrem in a year (based on a 40-hour week). If the measured dose rate on the other side of the wall is 5.0 mrem/hour, what thickness of concrete must be added? For this example, use a half-value layer of 2.5 inches for Cs-137 gammas in concrete.
1)
Find the ratio of I/I0:

I0 I = = 5.0 mrem/hr 100 mrem/yr x (1 year/52 weeks) x (1 week/40 hours) = 0.048 mrem/hr (0.048 mrem/hr)/(5.0 mrem/hr) = 0.0096
I/I0 =
2)
Rewrite the equation to solve for the number of half-value layers required for I/I0 = 0.0096.
I I0
1 = 2
N HVL
N HVL
ln(I I 0 ) ln( 12 )
N HVL
ln(I I 0 ) = ln( 12 )
ln(0.0096 ) = 6.7 half value layers ln(0.5)
3)
Determine the concrete thickness that corresponds to this number of half-value layers. x (thickness) = 6.7 half-value layers x 2.5 inches per HVL = 17 inches of concrete
In this example, an additional 17 inches of concrete would be required to provide the necessary shielding. If this shielding calculation were done for a real workplace, it would be necessary to adjust the calculation for the effects of scattered radiation. It would also be prudent to include an extra margin of safety in the shield thickness to anticipate voids (hollow areas) inside the concrete. The consideration of these details would eliminate the need for installing additional shielding after remodeling was completed (an expensive task). If a strong source of penetrating radiation is involved, shielding may also be required for adjacent floors and exterior (as well as interior) walls. Of course, any design change of this magnitude would require approval from the Radiation Safety Office (and several other agencies) prior to the building modifications. For most uses of radiation at the University of Washington, a precise shielding calculation is not required. When the shield is small and architectural factors are not a concern, the shielding can be deliberately overestimated. Often, it is sufficient to put up a sturdy wall of lead bricks
several times the required thickness. If a detailed shielding calculation is required, personnel from the Radiation Safety Office can provide assistance. In any shield design (highly precise or otherwise), the user must always measure the shields effectiveness under worst-case working conditions. Never assume that the shielding is correct unless it is tested.
E. Basic Dose Quantities and Units

1. Historical Overview
During the first few years after the discovery of x-rays, radiologists and scientists struggled with a lack of available means for quantifying the amount of radiation present. Since the hazards associated with high doses of radiation were not recognized prior to the 1920s, the first unit of dose was biological the skin erythema dose. This was the amount of radiation required to turn a persons skin red. Unfortunately, this required the assistance of individuals who received considerably more radiation than modern occupational laws would allow. This tragic method of detection was discontinued when the long-term hazards of such exposures were recognized and other standard techniques for radiation detection became available. Quantities were later developed to describe ionization in air (exposure). The concept was expanded to include energy deposition in any material (dose) and ultimately, the risk of harm to an individual (dose equivalent).
2.
International System (SI) Versus Traditional Units

Radiation quantities were traditionally expressed in units such as the roentgen, rad and rem. In 1960, the International System of Units (abbreviated as SI, for Systme International) was adopted as the scientific basis of units. Just as the traditional unit of length (the foot), now has a SI counterpart (the meter), all of the traditional radiation quantities now have SI units. This can lead to confusion. For clarity, both sets of units are presented here.
3.
Exposure
Exposure is the traditional quantity for radiation measurement. Exposure is the charge (either positive or negative) produced per unit mass of air by x-rays or gamma rays as they traverse a collecting volume. The unit of exposure has historically been the roentgen, R, named after the discoverer of x-rays. For convenience, exposure is sometimes expressed in units of milliroentgen, mR (1/1000th of 1 R).
1 R = 1000 mR
The original definition of the roentgen was the amount of x-ray or low energy gamma radiation producing an ionization of one electrostatic unit (esu) of charge in one cubic centimeter of dry air at standard temperature and pressure. The SI unit for exposure is coulombs of charge per kilogram of air and the conversion between the international system and the traditional system is:
1 R = 2.58 x 10 4 C / kg
Exposure units are defined only for x-rays and low energy gamma rays when measured in air. Exposure should not be used when describing radiation dose in materials other than air, and it should not be used for beta or alpha radiation (or other charged particles).
4.
Absorbed Dose
A more realistic assessment of the potential for radiation damage is provided by the absorbed dose, or energy absorbed per unit mass of material. This is harder to measure than exposure, but is a more meaningful quantity. Absorbed dose is usually measured indirectly, either through measurements of exposure in air or by calibrating the output of a chemical or electronic detector to a known quantity of radiation. The traditional unit of absorbed dose was originally called the radiation absorbed dose. Now the unit is known entirely by the acronym: rad. The rad is defined as an energy deposition of 100 ergs per gram of absorbing material.
1 rad
= 100 erg / g
Smaller amounts of radiation are expressed in millirad (mrad), or 1/1000th of a rad. One rad equals 1000 mrad. The rad has been replaced in the SI system by the gray, Gy, which is defined as one joule of energy departed per kilogram of absorbing material.
1 Gy = 1 J / kg
and
1 Gy = 100 rad
In many low-Z materials, the absorbed dose is fairly close to the measured exposure in air. An amount of radiation producing an exposure of one R in air will produce an absorbed dose of 0.87 rad in air or approximately 0.92 rad in a small volume of tissue.
The absorbed dose in a material varies with the energy and type of radiation as well as the depth of penetration in the material. For this reason, it is necessary to define a set of standard measurement depths. For radiation protection purposes, standard reference depths are 0.007 cm for skin, 0.3 cm for lens of the eye and 1 cm for total body or deep dose. A measurement device, such as an optically stimulated luminescent (OSL) dosimeter or thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD), can be used to detect the dose at these reference depths.
5.
Quality Factor (Q)

Some types of radiation (heavy particles, alphas and neutrons) have a heightened ability to produce biological damage. These particles tend to leave dense trails of ionization rather than diffuse ionization. The concept of quality factor was developed to account for the differing degrees of hazard for various radiations. The quality factor, Q, is defined as the relative effectiveness for producing biological damage from a particular type of radiation. Alphas and heavy particles are approximately 20 times more efficient (per unit dose) in producing biological damage than betas or gammas. So, alphas and heavy particles are assigned a quality factor of 20. Neutrons are approximately 10 times more efficient than betas or gammas in producing biological damage (although this varies with energy). Neutrons are assigned a quality factor of 10 (unless specific corrections are made for energy). Betas and gammas are assigned a quality factor of 1. It must be emphasized that the potential for biological damage varies with both the quality factor and the absorbed dose. For example, alpha particles outside the body have a quality factor of 20 but produce zero dose in tissue (because they cannot penetrate the outer, protective layer of the skin). On the other hand, if an alpha emitter is taken internally, it comes in close contact with various tissues in the body. Then, the high quality factor for alpha emitters is important. For this reason, greater care is taken in handling alpha emitters to prevent ingestion or inhalation of these materials.
6.
Dose Equivalent
The dose equivalent includes both the energy absorbed from a specific type of radiation (i.e., the dose in rad or Gy) and the ability of that radiation to produce biological damage (the quality factor, Q). The relationship between dose equivalent and absorbed dose is as follows:
Dose Equivalent = Absorbed Dose x Quality factor (Q )

The traditional unit of dose equivalent is the rem, originally called roentgen equivalent man. Small dose equivalents are expressed in mrem (1 rem equals 1000 mrem).
Dose Equivalent ( rem) = Absorbed Dose ( rad ) x Q
Dose Equivalent ( mrem) = Absorbed Dose ( mrad ) x Q

The SI unit for dose equivalent is the Sievert, Sv.
Dose Equivalent ( Sv) = Absorbed Dose (Gy ) x Q

Since 100 rad = 1 Gy, it is also true that 100 rem = 1 Sv. As a sample calculation, compare the dose equivalent from a 0.1 rad dose of alpha, beta and gamma radiations:
Table 6 Sample Dose Equivalent Calculations Dose Quality Factor Dose Equivalent
100 mrad of Alpha (0.1 rads) 100 mrad of Beta (0.1 rad) 100 mrad of Gamma (0.1 rad).
Qalpha of 20 Qbeta of 1 Qgamma of 1
2000 mrem (2 rem). 100 mrem (0.1 rem) 100 mrem (0.1 rem)
7.
Rate Units
It is often useful to know the rate at which the exposure to radiation is occurring. Most measurement instruments are calibrated in terms of dose rate, exposure rate or count rate. The most common radiation units of rate are: mR/hr mrad/hr = = exposure per unit time dose per unit time dose equivalent per unit time = counts per unit time
mrem/hr =
cpm (counts per minute)
The accrued dose (mrad), for example, would be the dose rate (mrad/hr) times the total duration of the exposure. Keep in mind that the shorter the exposure time, the lower the total dose:
Table 7 Radiation Rate Examples Rate Time Spent in Area Total Amount Received
100 mR/hr 2 mrad/hr 2 mrad/hr
6 minutes (0.1 hr) 2 working days (8 hr/day) Continual occupancy (40 hrs/week and 52 weeks/yr)
10 mR 32 mrad 4160 mrad
Also keep in mind that a person often moves around in the workplace. The average amount of radiation received may be much lower than what you expect based on measurements close to the source. For example, suppose that you have a source that produces an exposure rate of 30 mR/hr at a distance 3 inches from the source and a rate of 0.2 mR/hr at a distance of 3 feet from the source. If you spend 6 minutes holding the source (using forceps) and 1 hour standing 3 feet from the source, your total exposure would be (30 mR/hr x 0.1 hr) + (0.2 mR/hr x 1 hour), or 3.2 mR. The units of counts per minute, cpm, can be related to the amount of radioactive material present. This usage is appropriate for searching out trace amounts of contamination in a lab or facility. Most detectors that are calibrated in counts per minute are extremely sensitive to radiation. Users of these survey instruments are sometimes deceived into believing that a high dose rate is present because they have a measurable count rate. This is usually not true. If it is necessary to determine an external dose rate, it better to use an ionization chamber (measuring absorbed dose in air) than to try to convert from counts per minute to dose. If you require information about dose rates and do not have an instrument designed for dose measurements, you may contact the Radiation Safety Office to arrange for this type of radiation measurement.
8. Predicting Radiation Levels

It can be extremely useful to anticipate radiation levels around a source before the source is purchased or used. This can be the basis for evaluating shielding requirements and the need for personnel monitors (radiation badges), as well as for planning other safety precautions. a. Estimation of Gamma Exposure: Specific Gamma Ray Constant () The external radiation exposure rate (R/hr) from a gamma emitter can be predicted from the specific gamma ray constant, , for that radionuclide. The specific gamma ray constant is defined as the exposure rate per curie of activity at a fixed distance. The units may include distance-squared instead of distance. At first glance, this may appear to be a misprint but it is actually
a more precise way of specifying the conversion factor. The equation for exposure rate is:
A d2
Here, X is the exposure rate, is the specific gamma ray constant, A is the source activity, and d is the distance from the source. Note that the distance term is squared in the denominator. This reflects inverse-r2, the decrease in intensity with the square of the distance from the source. The specific gamma ray factor, , has been calculated for most commonly used radionuclides. Many of these are provided in Appendix 1, Figure 7. For radionuclides not shown in Figure 7, the specific gamma ray constant can be determined based on the energy and the number of gammas emitted per disintegration. A graph of specific gamma ray constant versus energy is provided in Appendix 1, Figures 8 and 9. As example, suppose that a desk is to be placed 6 feet from a 10 microcurie source of iodine-131. Assume that the source container has enough material to absorb most of the beta particles (only gamma rays are emitted). Predict the exposure rate at the desk. From Appendix 1, Figure 7, = 2.2 R cm2 per hr per mCi. To apply this factor, convert the source activity and distance into the same units used for the specific gamma ray constant.
A (mCi ) =
A( Ci )
1 mCi 1000 Ci 10 Ci or 0.010 mCi 1000 Ci / mCi
here,
A (mCi ) =
D (cm) =
D ( ft )
1 cm 0.0328 ft 6 ft 0.0328 ft / cm =
here, D (cm) =
183 cm
Using consistent units:
A d2
2.2 ( R cm 2 / hr / mCi ) 0.010 mCi (183 cm) 2
= 6.6 x 10 7 R / hr
Note that the source strength would decrease with time as radioactive decay occurs; I-131 has a half-life of 8 days. Even if new source material were added frequently to replace the material lost to radioactive decay, the worker at the desk would only receive 0.011 R in a year. Since the limit for a radiation worker is 5 rem per year to the whole body (roughly the same as 5 R), this would be only 0.2% of the annual limit for radiation exposure. Additional shielding is clearly unnecessary for this purpose. Now, suppose that the worker is handling the 10 Ci I-131 source, which is contained in a thick vial of plastic, 3 mm (0.3 cm) in thickness. This amount of plastic would absorb the incident beta particles but would not stop the gamma emissions. At contact with the vial, what would be the maximum exposure rate to the persons hand (assuming no beta dose)?
A d2
2.2 ( R cm 2 / hr / mCi ) 0.010 mCi (0.3 cm) 2
= 0.24 R / hr
The limit for occupational exposure to the extremities and skin is 50 rem per year (about the same as 50 R per year). In this instance, it is unlikely that the worker would receive a significant fraction of this limit unless the source was a much higher activity or the shielding was thin enough to allow beta particles to reach the hand. However, it is far preferable to use forceps or tongs when holding a source (unless that radiation cannot penetrate the source container). Note that this example would not apply if the source material were spilled directly on bare skin, or if the container were very thin (minimal reduction in beta particle intensity). Calculations of skin dose from beta particles are included in the next section. b. Estimating Beta Dose Rates Beta particles deposit all of their energy in a short distance (compared to gamma rays and x-rays). This has several ramifications. First, beta particles are relatively easy to shield. For very low energy betas (tritium), the particles deposit all of their energy in the outer, dead layer of skin. None of these low energy betas reach layers of living cells and there is no shallow dose (dose at 0.007 cm). For nuclides with maximum beta energies of 0.15 to 0.2 MeV (C-14 and S-35), some of the higher energy betas in the source spectrum can produce a skin dose. However, these betas are attenuated substantially by ordinary laboratory gloves (and completely blocked by many
standard laboratory containers). At energies greater than 0.2 MeV there is a dose to the skin but no potential for a significant deep dose (since beta energies less than 2 MeV are completely attenuated by less than 1 cm of tissue). Unfortunately, those beta particles that are capable of reaching the 0.007 cm depth in skin are very efficient in depositing their energy (thus, producing a dose). This is because the beta energy is deposited over a few millimeters depth of tissue. Compare this situation to x-rays and gamma rays, which deposit their energy in a much more diffuse manner (over many centimeters of tissue depth). Since dose is energy deposited per unit mass of material, it is easy to see that the less concentrated energy deposition produces a lower dose. For unshielded beta-gamma emitters, the skin dose from the gamma component is less than a few percent of the skin dose from the beta component. To illustrate the relative contribution of beta and gamma emissions, some doses are shown below for selected beta and gamma emitters. The skin dose was calculated for a 1 mCi point source at a distance of 10 cm from the source (minimal shielding). The beta dose rates include shielding from air, the outer layer of the skin, and a glove and/or thin plastic test tube. In an actual source, the beta particles are shielded significantly within the liquid carrier or solid matrix holding the radioactive atoms. Therefore, actual dose rates are often much lower than the ones shown in the Table 8.
Table 8 Calculated Dose Rates
(mrad/hr) at a 10 cm Distance from 1 mCi Sources Beta Dose (with Various Shielding) Unshielded Source * Standard Glove (5 mil)* Glove, Plus 1 mm Plastic Container*
Source
Max. Beta Energy (MeV)
Gamma Skin Dose (Shielded by Up to a Few mm Plastic)
I-125 H-3 C-14 S-35 P-33 I-131 P-32 Y-90

*
None 0.0186 0.156 0.167 0.248 0.606 1.71 2.27
None 0 200 360 2300 5300 3300 2600
None 0 3 9 500 3900 3300 2600
None 0 0 0 0 190 2800 2600
7 None None None None 22 None None
This overestimates the dose rates because shielding within the source container and source matrix is ignored.
It should be emphasized that these calculations assume a 1 mCi source, which is a fairly large activity. Most experimenters use much lower quantities of radioactive materials. Since the dose rate is proportional to the source activity, divide these values by 1000 to obtain the dose per microcurie at 10 cm from the source. You can adjust the results for inverse-r2 to estimate the dose at other distances. However, the use of inverse-r2 will overestimate the beta dose rate at distances greater than 10 cm (since air attenuation can provide a significant reduction in beta dose rate). As an example, determine the worst-case skin dose to a person holding a 10 microcurie (0.010 mCi) P-32 source in a test tube. Assume that the test tube diameter is 1 cm (radius of 0.5 cm), and ignore attenuation in the liquid:
10 cm Dose rate (mrad / hr ) (0.010 mCi) (2800 mrad / hr per mCi at 10 cm) 0.5 cm 11,200 mrad / hr
As stated earlier, this is a great overestimate, since it neglects a large amount of shielding provided by the liquid in the test tube. The inverse-R squared calculation will also tend to overestimate the dose near a source. However, this calculation underscores the advantage in using forceps or tongs to hold radioactive materials (where practical) if a high-energy beta emitter is in use. An equally effective approach might be to use some kind of plastic grip pad or holder to shield the fingers from direct contact with the container. If beta emitters are allowed to come in contact with bare skin (from contamination of laboratory surfaces or equipment), high skin doses may be produced. For this reason, the primary means of protection in most laboratory environments is the use of gloves, lab coats, and good contamination control measures (surveys and cleanliness). Appendix 1, Figure 10 shows the skin doses produced by an even distribution of 1 microcurie per cm2 over the surface of the skin. The protection provided by ordinary laboratory gloves is also illustrated in the graph. Additional information concerning contamination on skin and clothing is provided in Appendix 1, Figure 11. Maximum beta particle ranges in selected materials are shown in Appendix 1, Figure 12. A lab coat and gloves are required when working with radioactive materials (along with any additional precautions mandated by the chemical or physical hazards present in the environment). Although it is rare, direct skin contamination can occur through tearing of a glove or transfer of material from a contaminated surface. If a microcurie quantity of a beta (or beta gamma) emitter comes in contact with skin, it should be washed off as soon
as possible. The skin dose will not exceed the allowable limits unless the material is allowed to remain for several hours. Please contact Radiation Safety if you have any questions about potential skin doses. Fortunately, very few laboratories work with large quantities of radioactive materials. While working with millicurie quantities in unsealed form, you should always wear eyewear and two layers of gloves in addition to the precautions outlined in the preceding paragraph. You should also be sure to tape the wrist portion of the inner glove over the sleeve of the lab coat. This will prevent splashes to the skin of the wrist area. Monitor for contamination frequently, and change the outer glove if source material is splashed on the glove. If accidental skin exposure occurs while working with millicurie quantities of material, call Radiation Safety after washing the area and removing contaminated protective clothing. A dose evaluation can be performed to estimate the skin dose from the surface contamination. In summary, beta emitters are much more easily shielded than gamma emitters. Beta particles are not capable of penetrating tissue to reach any internal organs (other than the skin). This makes them safer to work with than gamma emitters in many respects. However, beta emitters greater than 0.2 MeV in energy are very efficient in producing a superficial dose to the skin. Particular care should be taken to avoid contamination of bare skin, since this greatly increases the dose rate. The results of many years of personnel monitoring (ring badge) have demonstrated that an individual is extremely unlikely to receive any measurable skin dose unless they work with activities totaling more than 10mCi per week (of beta emitters greater than 0.2 MeV in energy). However, the examples in this section have shown that caution is necessary when working with radioactive materials. If you have questions about dose rates in your lab, the best approach is to call Radiation Safety for an on-site measurement.
F. Internal Radiation Dose

The radiation dose from radionuclides deposited internally due to inhalation, ingestion, absorption through the skin, or from tissue puncture is often quite difficult to determine. Since internal dosimetry involves both the physical factors of radiation dosimetry and physiological parameters, many uncertainties enter the calculation process. For this presentation, only a general overview of internal dosimetry will be given.
1.
Uptake
Radioactive material is taken into a person through inhalation, ingestion, absorption, or injection. The efficiencies of uptake are dependent on the physical and chemical forms of the material and the physiology of the individual. Uptake
or transfer coefficients are estimated from animal studies and some human data. These coefficients have been determined for the hypothetical "standard man," but it must be recognized that in the real situation this will vary from individual to individual. Variation in breathing rates, for example, are very dependent on a person's physical condition and activity level. Eating habits may also provide competing elements for uptake.
2.
Interorgan Transfer
Materials that are taken into the body will move from one organ to another with generally predictable transfer coefficients. This may be as simple as the transfer of insoluble material through the G.I. tract or as complicated as the deposition of radium or calcium in bones. An important interorgan transfer is the concentration of radioiodine in the thyroid. As noted above, parameters for the standard person are available, but actual individual variations may be substantial.
3.
Residence Time
The time that a radioactive material is in the body is dependent on both the physical decay constant of the radionuclide and the biological removal mechanism related to the chemical and physical forms. The combination of biological elimination and physical decay is referred to as the effective decay constant and can be easily converted to an "effective" half-life.
4.
Energy Deposition
The amount of energy deposited in an organ is related to the parameters mentioned above, but includes other factors, as well. One factor of importance is the concentration of material in the organ. Others are the type and energy of the radionuclide decay mode. For particulate radiation (alpha and beta), the radiations created from decay within an organ will be absorbed close to the site of emission. Therefore, essentially all of the particulate radiation energy created in an organ will be absorbed in that organ. However, for most organs and for most radionuclides, not all of the electromagnetic radiation energy (x- and gamma rays) will be absorbed in the organ. The absorbed fraction is related to the size of the organ and the energy of the radiation. The absorbed fractions have been calculated for standard size organs. Fractions are also calculated for energy absorbed in nearby organs. Geometric computer models provide these parameters.
G. Annual Limits on Intake (ALI)

The several parameters discussed above are combined to calculate the annual limits on intake that will result in the allowable annual dose for critical organs. These limits
are expressed in units of Bq or Ci. A list of ALIs is given in Appendix 1, Figure 13 for many radionuclides in common use.
H. Annual Dose Limits

Regulatory agencies have set allowable annual dose limits for individuals receiving radiation from manmade sources which are of no direct benefit to the individual. Due to recent changes in the regulations, these dose limits include both internal and external radiation doses. A discussion of the mechanism for combining internal and external doses is beyond the scope of this presentation, but the combined dosimetry is called total effective dose equivalent.
1.
Occupational Dose Limits for Adult Workers

a. Total Effective Dose Equivalent (Whole Body): The annual limit for whole body dose is 0.05 Sv (5 rem) based on the sum of the external deep dose at 1 centimeter depth plus the effective dose equivalent from any internally deposited radionuclide. For most workers, there is no significant ingestion or inhalation of radionuclides. In these cases, the total effective dose equivalent is equal to the deep dose recorded by the dosimeter. b. Lens of the Eye The annual limit to the lens of the eye is 0.15 Sv (15 rem). c. Skin and Extremity Dose The annual external dose limit at 0.007 cm depth is 0.5 Sv (50 rem) to the skin or to any extremity. d. Other Organs The annual limit for all other organs is 0.5 Sv (50 rem) based on the sum of the external dose at one centimeter depth and the dose to that organ from internally deposited radionuclides (as determined by a bioassay).
2.
Occupational Dose Limits for Minors

The occupational dose limit for minors is 10% of the above limits.
3.
Dose to an Embryo/Fetus of an Occupationally Exposed Person

The dose to an embryo/fetus during the entire pregnancy, due to occupational exposure of a pregnant female that has declared her pregnancy to her employer, must not exceed 5 mSv (0.5 rem).
4.
Dose Limits for Individual Members of the Public

The total effective dose equivalent to individual members of the public must not exceed 1 mSv (0.1 rem) in a year. The dose to any unrestricted area from external sources of radiation must not exceed 0.02 mSv (0.002 rem) in any one hour.
I. Natural Background and Average Population Doses

The dose we all receive continuously from natural background, occasionally from medical practices, and from some common commercial devices are part of our total radiation exposure. Although there are no regulations which require control of these doses, it is important to know about them to allow a proper perspective of what we can and should control.
1.
Cosmic Radiation
Cosmic radiation comes from deep space and from the sun. Before entering our atmosphere it consists mainly of high energy protons and heavier particles. These particles interact in the upper atmosphere and cause "spallation" showers of lighter particles and protons which reach the earth. Cosmic radiation varies with the earth's latitude because of the effect of the earth's magnetic field. Doses are lowest at the equator and increase toward the poles. The atmosphere is a very effective shield, so cosmic doses increase with increasing altitude. Persons who live in the mountains or fly in airplanes receive a significant increase in cosmic radiation. Cosmic radiation increases following solar flare activity. The sea level whole body dose equivalent is about 30 millirem per year and increases to about 40 mrem/yr at 1 kilometer. A jet flight across the country at 12 km altitude will result in a dose equivalent of 2.5 mrem. A polar route flight to Europe would result in nearly 10 mrem. Cosmic radiation also produces radioactivity which becomes part of our food and air. Tritium, carbon-14, beryllium-7, and sodium-22 are the principle cosmogenic radionuclides, but more than twenty others have been identified. The dose equivalent from C-14 is about 1 mrem/year, with the others being rather insignificant.
2.
Terrestrial Radiation
There are many primordial radionuclides in the earth's crust. The most well known are uranium and thorium. These are actually part of a whole family of radionuclides, where one decays to the next. A total of 39 different radionuclides are included in these families.
Uranium and thorium and their daughter products are found in nearly all materials, although in different concentrations. One of the most important daughters is radon, an inert gas which is released to the atmosphere. Radon in soils tends to be drawn into the structures of most buildings. This radon can subsequently pose an exposure problem in the building. Humans receive a natural radiation dose from two processes: a) the external radiation emitted from decay outside of the body, and b) the internal dose from inhalation and ingestion. Because of this, natural background radiation is higher when living in certain structures that are conducive to buildup of radon gas, and in certain areas of the country that have porous soil or high concentrations of primordial radionuclides in the surrounding materials. Terrestrial activity contributes an external whole body dose equivalent of around 30 millirem per year in coastal cities but is as high as 140 mrem/year in some Colorado locations. The additional dose equivalent to the epithelial cells of the lungs resulting from radon daughter inhalation is around 2400 millirem per year.
3.
Internally Deposited Radionuclides

Another important primordial radionuclide is potassium-40. All potassium contains about 0.012% K-40. Because it is so widely spread and is incorporated into the muscle mass, K-40 contributes a major part of man's natural background radiation, about 40 millirem per year.
4.
Natural Background Radiation Dose Equivalent

The average annual natural background radiation exposure in the United States is about 300 millirem per year. This includes cosmic radiation, terrestrial radiation, and naturally occurring radionuclides. The actual effective dose equivalent varies widely from location to location, primarily from fluctuations in radon concentration and building materials. Elevated natural background radiation levels are present in areas where there are naturally high uranium concentrations in the soil (e.g., some areas of Colorado and eastern Washington State).
5.
Medical Radiations
A major component of man's radiation dose comes from medical applications. Medical applications such as x-ray or nuclear medicine procedures are restricted to a certain segment of the population which varies from year to year. Also, the exposure involves only portions of the body, and an x-ray beam is attenuated as it passes through the body. Current medical practice also involves the use of radiation in very high doses to destroy cancer cells. However, this occurs to only a small population and the tissues exposed usually represent a small portion of the body. For these reasons, it is difficult to assign an average effective dose equivalent to the population from medical procedures, but a generally accepted number is 50 millirem per year.
6.
Miscellaneous Dose
Many common materials and equipment emit radiation. These include smoke detectors, luminescent watch dials, mantles for gas lanterns, aircraft exit signs, some tableware, and anti-static devices. This generally accounts for an average population effective dose equivalent of about 10 millirem per year. Appendix 1, Figure 14 lists the radioactivity in many of these devices. Other activities such as the occupational use of radiation, the nuclear fuel cycle, and radioactive fallout account for 1 to 2 millirem per year to the average population.
7.
Total Average Population Doses

The total average effective dose equivalent to the U.S. population resulting for both manmade exposures and natural background radiation is about 360 millirem per year.
Abbreviations and Symbols

A A ALI amu Bq c Ci E EC esu eV GBq GeLi Gy h HVL I.C. keV kCi LET MBq MeV Ci mCi activity of a group of atoms mass number (nucleons) annual limits on intake atomic mass unit becquerel = 2.7 x 10-11 Ci or 1 disintegration per second velocity of light curie energy electron capture electrostatic unit electron volt Gigabecquerel germanium lithium crystal gray = 100 rad (rad unit of radiation absorbed dose) Plancks constant half-value layer internal conversion kiloelectron volt kilocurie linear energy transfer = keV per micron Megabecquerel million electron volt microcurie (10-6 curie) millicurie (10-3 curie)
nCi pCi P.E. N Q Q value R rad rem SI Sv t TLD TVL v Z
nanocurie (10-9 curie) picocurie (10-12 curie) photoelectric effect neutron number (number of neutrons) quality factor total decay energy roentgen radiation absorbed dose traditional unit of dose equivalent = absorbed dose (rad) times a quality factor (Q) international system of units sievert = 100 rem (rem - unit of dose equivalent) half-life thermoluminescent dosimeter tenth-value layer velocity atomic number (number of protons) specific gamma ray constant wavelength
Glossary
absorbed dose: The amount of energy absorbed per unit mass of material at the place of interest. The unit of absorbed dose is the rad. One rad equals 100 ergs per gram. activity: The rate of decay; the number of atoms that decay per unit of time. alpha particle: A charged particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons (same as a helium nucleus). annihilation radiation: Radiation produced when a particle unites with its antimatter equivalent, such as an electron and a positron. The particles disappear and two gamma rays are emitted (in opposing directions). atom: The smallest subdivision of matter which retains the chemical properties of an element. atomic mass: The mass of an uncharged atom of a nuclide, usually expressed in terms of atomic mass units. The atomic mass unit is one-twelfth the mass of one neutral atom of carbon-12; equivalent to 1.66 x 10-24 gram. atomic mass number (A): The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. atomic number: The number of protons in an atom. Represented by the symbol Z. attenuation: The reduction in intensity when a beam of radiation passes through a material. becquerel: The international system of unit for activity, equal to one disintegration per second. beta particle: An energetic electron which has been emitted from the nucleus of an atom, during radioactive decay. bremsstrahlung: Secondary photon radiation produced in the form of x-rays by deceleration of charged particles passing through matter. Compton scattering: Scattering of a photon by a loosely bound electron. Part (or all) of the energy and momentum of the incident photon is transferred to the electron and the remaining part is carried away by the scattered photon. contamination (radioactive): Deposition of radioactive material in any place where it is not desired.
coulomb: A quantity of charge equaling one ampere per second. One coulomb is equivalent to the charge of 1.60 x 1019 electrons. cosmic rays: High-energy particulate and electromagnetic radiations which originate outside the earths atmosphere. counter - Geiger-Mueller: Highly sensitive, gas-filled radiation-measuring device. Operating at voltages sufficient to produce avalanche ionizations. Each count corresponds to one particle interacting in the detector. counter - proportional: Gas-filled radiation detection device. The pulse produced is proportional to the number of ions formed in the gas by the primary ionizing particle. counter - scintillation: An extremely sensitive measuring device which operates through the detection of light emissions produced in phosphors. curie (Ci): The traditional unit of activity. One curie equals 3.700 x 1010 disintegrations per second. Several fractions of the curie are in common usage. millicurie mCi = microcurie -Ci = 3.7 x 107 disintegrations per second 3.7 x 104 disintegrations per second = = 3.7 x 10-2 disintegrations per second 2.22 disintegrations per minute.
picocurie pCi (or micro micro curie - Ci)
decay (radioactive): Disintegration of the nucleus of an unstable nuclide by spontaneous emission of charged particles and/or photons. decay constant: The probability of decay per unit time for a given radionuclide. dose equivalent: Includes both the energy absorbed from a specific type of radiation and the general effectiveness of that radiation to cause biological damage. dose rate: Absorbed dose delivered per unit time. dosimeter: A small device used to detect and measure accumulated radiation exposure. electron: A negatively charged particle with a mass of 9.1 x 10-28 grams. electron capture (EC): A mode of radioactive decay involving the capture of an orbital electron by the nucleus followed by the emission of characteristic x-rays. electron volt (eV): A unit of energy equivalent to the energy gained by an electron in passing through a potential difference of one volt. Larger multiple units of the electron volt are frequently used: keV for thousand or kilo electron volts; MeV for million or mega electron volts. One electron volt equals 1.6 x 10-12 erg. erg: Unit of energy equal to 10-7 joules or 2.4 x 10-8 thermal calories. excitation: The addition of energy to a system, resulting in an increase in the atomic or molecular energy level (without the removal of orbital electron).
gamma ray: Short wavelength electromagnetic emitted from the nucleus during radioactive decay; a photon. gray: The international system of units for absorbed dose defined as one joule of energy absorbed per kilogram of material. half-life (biological): The time required for the body to eliminate one-half of an administered dosage of any substance by regular processes of excretion. It is approximately the same for both stable and radioactive isotopes of a particular element. half-life (effective): Time required for a radioactive element in an animal body to be diminished 50 percent as a result of the combined action of radioactive decay and biological elimination. half-life (radioactive): Time required for 50% of the atoms to undergo radioactive decay within a sample of a given radionuclide. half-value layer (HVL): The thickness of a specified substance which, when introduced into the path of a given beam of radiation, reduces the gamma ray intensity by 50%. internal conversion: A form of radioactive decay where the decay energy normally seen as a gamma ray is imparted directly to an orbital electron. The electron is emitted with a discreet kinetic energy equal to the decay energy minus the binding energy of the electron. inverse square law: For a point source of radiation, the dose rate is inversely proportional to square of the distance from the source. ion chamber: Gas-filled radiation detection device with a relatively low voltage, which can be calibrated to measure dose or dose rate directly. ion pair: An electron and positively charged ion created by the interaction of ionizing radiation with the atom. ionization: The formation of one or more ions by the addition of electrons to or the removal of electrons from electrically neutral atoms. Ionization may be produced by radiation or through other physical and chemical interactions. ionizing radiation: Electromagnetic or particulate radiation with sufficient energy to create ionization (produce ion pairs) in a material. isobar: Nuclides having the same mass number but different atomic numbers, such as I-131 and Xe-131. isometric transition: Radionuclide decay to a daughter which remains in an excited state for some time, perhaps minutes to hours. The excitation energy is later released as a gamma ray.
isotopes: Atoms having the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Isotopes always share the same element name and atomic number. linear absorption coefficient (): A factor expressing the fraction of a beam of x or gamma radiation absorbed in unit thickness of material. mass absorption coefficient (/): The linear absorption coefficient divided by the density of the material. It is frequently expressed in cm2 per gram. monitoring: Periodic or continuous determination of the amount of ionizing radiation or radioactive contamination present in an occupied region. neutrino: An electrically neutral particle of very small (probably zero) mass emitted during beta decay. neutron: An electrically neutral or uncharged particle of matter in the nucleus with a mass of 1.67 x 10-24 grams (1.009 amu). neutron number: The number of neutrons in an atom. Represented by the symbol N. nucleon: Major categories of particles (protons and neutrons) within the nucleus of an atom. nucleus: The dense, positively charged core of an atom, which accounts for most of the mass in an atom. nuclide: A term used to denote any species of atom without reference to a particular element or grouping. photoelectron: An electron ejected from an atom when all the energy of a photon is deposited in an inner shell electron. photon: The basic packet of electromagnetic energy, generally regarded as having the properties of a wave as well as a particle. It has a discrete frequency but no charge or rest mass. positron: A particle of the same mass (Me) as an electron, but has a positive (+1) charge. It is an antimatter electron. proton: Elementary nuclear particle with a positive electric charge equal numerically to the charge of the electron and a mass of 1.67 x 10-24 grams (1.007 amu). quality factor (Q): A factor expressing the relative effectiveness of a particular kind of radiation in producing biological damage. rad: An energy deposition of 100 ergs per gram (or 0.01 joule per kilogram) of absorbing material radionuclide: An atom having a combination of neutrons and protons which cause the nucleus to be unstable. rem: Unit of dose equivalent equal to the number of rads (absorbed dose) times the quality factor (Q).
roentgen (R): A radiation unit, expressing ionization in air by x-rays or gamma rays. It is equal to the charge per unit mass produced in air. One roentgen equals 2.58 x 154 coulombs per kilogram of dry air. shield: Material used to reduce the intensity from a source of radiation. sievert (Sv): Unit of dose equivalent equal to the number of gray (absorbed dose) times the quality factor (Q). One sievert is equal to 100 rem. specific gamma ray constant (): The external radiation exposure rate per unit of activity at a fixed distance. It is often expressed in R/hr per mCi at one centimeter or in R/hr per Ci at one meter. wavelength (): Distance between any two similar points of two consecutive waves. For electromagnetic radiation, the wavelength is equal to the velocity of light (c) divided by the frequency of the wave (), = c/v. work function (W): The average energy required to produce an ion pair in a material. For air, it is about 33.7 eV. x-rays: Photons similar to gamma rays which are produced by interactions outside the nucleis of atoms. These may be produced by transitions between orbital electron shells or by angular deceleration of electrons in a material.
Energy Units
Multiply # of To obtain # of by by to obtain # of divide # of
eV eV eV eV ergs ergs ergs ergs ergs ergs ergs ergs gm-calories gm-calories joules (abs) joules (abs) joules (abs) g-cal/g kg-cal kg-cal ft-lb ft-lb kw-hr kw-hr MeV eV eV erg proton masses neutron masses electron masses amu (on 12C scale)
1.6021 x 10-12 1.6021 x 10-19 10-3 10-6 10-7 6.2419 x 105 6.2419 x 1011 1.0 9.480 x 10-11 7.376 x 10-8 2.390 x 10-8 1.020 x 10-3 3.968 x 10-3 4.184 x 107 107 0.7376 9.480 x 10-4 1.8 3.968 3.086 x 103 1.356 3.240 x 10-4 2.247 x 1019 3.60 x 1013 1.6021 x 10-6 1.78253 x 10-33 1.07356 x 10-9 1.11265 x 10-21 938.256 939.550 511.006 931.478
ergs joules (abs) keV MeV joules (abs) MeV eV dyne-cm Btu ft-lb g-cal g-cm Btu ergs ergs ft-lb Btu Btu/lb Btu ft-lb joules (abs) kg-cal MeV ergs ergs grams of matter (equivalent) amu (equivalent) grams of matter (equivalent) MeV of energy (equivalent) MeV of energy (equivalent) keV of energy (equivalent) MeV of energy (equivalent)
Radiological Units
Multiply # of To obtain # of by by to obtain # of divide # of
curies curies curies curies curies curies curies disintegrations per minute disintegrations per minute disintegrations per second (Bq) disintegrations per second (Bq) kilocuries microcuries microcuries millicuries millicuries R R R R R (33.7 eV per ion pair) R (33.7 eV per ion pair) R (33.7 eV per ion pair) R (33.7 eV per ion pair) R (33.7 eV per ion pair) rads rads rads rads rads rad (33.7 eV per ion pair) Ci per cm3 (Ci per ml) Ci per cm3
3.700 x 1010 2.220 x 1012 103 106 109 1012 10-3 4.505 x 10-10 4.505 x 10-7 2.703 x 10-8 2.703 x 10-5 103 3.700 x 104 2.220 x 106 3.700 x 107 2.220 x 109 2.58 x 10-4 1.0 2.082 x 109 1.610 x 1012 7.02 x 104 5.43 x 107 86.9 2.08 x 10-6 98 0.01 100 8.071 x 104 6.242 d 107 10-5 2.39 x 109 2.22 x 1012 2.22 x 109
disintegrations per second (Bq) disintegrations per minute millicuries microcuries nanocuries picocuries kilocuries millicuries microcuries millicuries microcuries curies disintegrations per second (Bq) disintegrations per minute disintegrations per second (Bq) disintegrations per minute C/kg of air esu/cm3 of air (s.t.p.) ion pairs per cm3 of air (s.t.p.) ion pairs per gram of air MeV per cm3 of air (s.t.p.) MeV per gram of air ergs per gram of air g-cal per gram of air ergs per gram of soft tissue Joule per kilogram ergs per gram MeV per cm3 of air (s.t.p.) MeV per gram watt-second per gram ion pairs per cm3 of air (s.t.p.) dpm per m3 dpm per liter
Hazard Information for Common Radionuclides

Hydrogen-3 (Tritium):
External Concerns Half-life Emission Maximum beta energy Average beta energy Beta range in tissue Fraction transmitted through dead layer of skin (0.007 cm) Dose rate to basal cells of epidermis from 1 Ci/cm2 in contact with skin Method of detection Note: Not an external hazard. Internal Concerns Physical half-life Biological half-life Effective half-life Critical organ ALI Increased clearance 12.3 years 10 days 9.98 days Body water (all organs) 80 mCi Increased water intake 12.3 years Beta (-) 0.019 MeV 0.006 MeV 0.0006 cm 0% 0.0 mrad/hr Liquid scintillation counter
Note: Many tritium compounds are volatile or can penetrate the skin. Tritiated DNA precursors are considered more toxic than tritiated water, however, they are less volatile.
Carbon-14:
External Concerns Half-life Emission Maximum beta energy Average beta energy Beta range in tissue Fraction transmitted through dead layer of skin (0.007 cm) Dose rate to basal cells of epidermis from 1 Ci/cm2 in contact with skin Method of detection 5730 years Beta (-) 0.156 MeV 0.049 MeV 0.028 cm 11% 1.4 rad/hr Liquid scintillation counter (GM has poor efficiency)
Note: Millicurie quantities of C-14 should not present a significant external exposure if gloves are worn, since the low-energy betas barely penetrate the combined thickness of the glove and the outer layer of skin. Internal Concerns Physical half-life Biological half-life Effective half-life Critical organ ALI 5730 years few minutes to 35 days 10 days used as a conservative value bone or fat 2 mCi
Note: Many C-14 compounds are rapidly metabolized and exhaled as CO2. Some compounds are eliminated via the urine.
Sulfur-35:
External Concerns Half-life Emission Maximum beta energy Average beta energy Beta range in tissue Fraction transmitted through dead layer of skin (0.007) Dose rate to basal cells of epidermis from 1 Ci/cm in contact with skin Method of Detection 88 days Beta (-) 0.167 MeV 0.048 MeV 0.034 cm 12% 1.4 rad/hr Liquid scintillation counter (GM has poor efficiency)
Note: Millicurie quantities of S-35 should not present a significant external exposure hazard if gloves are worn, since the low-energy betas barely penetrate the combined thickness of the glove and the outer layer of skin. Internal Concerns Physical half-life Biological and effective half-lives 88 days Depends on chemical form. Some excreted rapidly; some remains for more than 2000 days. Soft tissues 10 mCi
Critical organ ALI
Phosphorus-32:
External Concerns Half-life Emission Maximum beta energy Average beta energy Beta range in tissue Fraction transmitted through dead layer of skin (0.007 cm) Dose rate to basal cells of epidermis from 1 Ci/cm2 in contact with skin Method of detection 14.3 days Beta (-) 1.71 MeV 0.70 MeV 0.8 cm 95% 9.2 rad/hr GM counter or liquid scintillation counter
Note: High energy betas can produce a substantial skin dose. Large quantities of P-32 can present a significant bremsstrahlung hazard. Internal Concerns Physical half-life Biological and effective half-lives Critical organs 14.3 days Complex. Some excreted rapidly; some retained permanently in bone. Bones for soluble P-32, and lungs or intestines for inhaled or ingested non-soluble compounds. 0.6 mCi
ALI
Phosphorus-33:
External Concerns Half-life Emission Maximum beta energy Average beta energy Beta range in tissue Fraction transmitted through dead layer of skin (0.007 cm) Dose rate to basal cells of epidermis from 1 Ci/cm2 in contact with skin Method of detection 25.4 days Beta (-) 0.249 MeV 0.075 MeV 0.06 cm 40% 4 rad/hr GM counter or liquid scintillation counter
Note: Betas penetration can be significant. Moderate external hazard. Internal Concerns Physical half-life Biological and effective half-lives Critical organs 25.4 days Complex. Some excreted rapidly; some retained permanently in bone. Bones for soluble P-33, and lungs or intestines for inhaled or ingested non-soluble compounds. 6 mCi (ingestion)
ALI
Iodine-125:
External Concerns Half-life Emission Average electron energy Gamma X-rays R/hr per mCi at 1 cm (gamma) Half-value layer (lead) Method of detection 60 days Electrons, gammas, x-rays 0.020 MeV 0.035 MeV (6.5%) 0.027 MeV (112%); 0.031 MeV (25.4%) ~ 0.7 < 0.04 mm Thin NaI (TI) crystal detector or liquid scintillation counter. GM counter has poor efficiency.
Internal Concerns Physical half-life Biological half-life Effective half-life Critical organ ALI 60 days 120 days in thyroid; 12 days other body tissues 40 days in thyroid Thyroid 0.04 mCi
Note: Elemental iodine and some iodine compounds are volatile. 25% to 30% of ingested or inhaled iodine is taken up by thyroid.
Iodine-131:
External Concerns Half-life Emission Maximum beta energy Average beta energy Gammas R/hr per mCi at 1 cm Dose rate to basal cells of epidermis from 1 Ci/cm2 in contact with skin Half-value layer (lead) Method of detection 8.05 days Beta (-), gamma 0.606 MeV (89%) 0.118 MeV 0.364 MeV (81%); others: 0.03 to 0.72 MeV (22%) 2.2 7.2 rad/hr 3 mm GM, NaI (TI) detectors or liquid scintillation counter.
Internal Concerns Physical half-life Biological half-life Effective half-life Critical organ ALI 8.05 days 120 days in thyroid; 12 days other body tissues 7.5 days in thyroid Thyroid 0.03 mCi
Note: Elemental iodine and some iodine compounds are volatile. 25% to 30% of ingested or inhaled iodine is taken up by the thyroid.
Appendix 1
Figure 1
Figure 2
Average and Maximum Beta Energy by Radionuclide

Nuclide Energy in MeV
Average Maximum
Nuclide
Energy in MeV
Average Maximum
Nuclide
Energy in MeV
Average Maximum
N -1 H -3 He-6 Be-10 C -14 C -15 O -19 O -20 F -20 F -21 Ne-23 Ne-24 Na-24 Na-25 Na-26 Mg-27 Mg-28 A1-28 A1-29 A1-30 Si-31 Si-32 P -32 P -33 P -34 S -35 Cl-36 S -37 S -38 C1-38
0.301 0.005 1.571 0.229 0.049 2.871 1.708 1.242 2.486 2.624 1.903 0.794 0.553 1.510 3.124 0.689 0.155 1.244 1.034 2.307 0.588 0.028 0.694 0.076 2.075 0.048 0.252 0.795 0.463 1.515
--0.018 3.515 0.555 0.158 9.775 4.601 2.850 5.403 5.683 4.372 1.980 4.170 3.801 6.700 1.763 0.457 2.868 2.500 5.050 1.476 0.100 1.709 0.248 5.100 0.167 0.714 4.750 3.000 4.924
C1-39 Ar-39 K -40 Ar-41 K -42 K -43 Ca-45 Sc-46 Ca-47 Sc-47 Sc-48 Ca-49 Sc-49 Sc-50 Ti-51 V -52 V -53 V -54 Cr-55 Cr-56 Mn-56 Mn-57 Fe-59 Fe-60 Co-60 Co-60A Fe-61 Co-61 Co-62 Co-63
0.847 0.219 0.541 0.479 1.446 0.301 0.076 0.112 0.341 0.160 0.220 0.758 0.826 1.538 0.870 1.069 1.068 1.438 1.220 0.587 0.860 1.099 0.116 0.069 0.094 0.604 1.193 0.463 0.983 1.577
3.450 0.565 1.322 2.515 3.559 1.838 0.254 1.465 2.000 0.601 0.643 1.984 2.011 3.500 2.142 2.532 2.530 3.300 2.850 1.500 2.850 2.600 1.560 0.240 1.478 1.545 2.800 1.231 2.831 3.600
Ni-63 Cu-64 Ni-65 Ni-66 Cu-66 Cu-67 Cu-68 Zn-69 Ga-70 Zn-71 Zn-71A Zn-72 Ga-72 Ga-73 Ga-74 As-74 Ga-75 Ge-75 Ga-76 As-76 Ge-77 Ge-77A As-77 Ge-78 As-78 As-79 Se-79 Br-80 As-81 Se-81
0.017 0.188 0.667 0.064 1.062 0.146 1.284 0.324 0.644 0.921 0.580 0.116 0.429 0.433 1.021 0.405 1.425 0.404 2.741 1.085 0.637 1.198 0.221 0.317 1.471 0.945 0.058 0.748 1.663 0.531
0.066 0.573 2.100 0.224 2.630 0.577 3.000 0.913 1.650 2.240 1.500 1.600 3.166 1.480 4.300 1.355 3.300 1.137 6.000 2.970 2.270 2.880 0.684 0.900 4.270 2.300 0.158 2.000 3.800 1.400
A = First excited state
Figure 2 continued

Average Maximum
Nuclide
Energy in MeV
Average Maximum
Nuclide
Energy in MeV
Average Maximum
Br-82 Se-83A Br-83 Br-84 Br-84A Rb-84 Br-85 Kr-85 Kr-85A Rb-86 Br-87 Kr-87 Rb-87 Kr-88 Rb-88 Kr-89 Rb-89 Sr-89 Sr-90 Y -90 Kr-91 Rb-91 Rb-91A Sr-91 Y -91 Sr-92 Y -92 Y -93 Zr-93 Y -94
0.137 1.379 0.335 1.221 0.709 0.582 1.037 0.249 0.284 0.622 1.872 1.334 0.079 0.367 2.084 1.395 0.596 0.583 0.200 0.931 1.561 1.849 1.271 0.624 0.615 0.213 1.454 1.185 0.015 2.368
0.444 3.400 0.960 4.680 3.200 1.648 2.500 0.672 0.826 1.777 8.000 3.800 0.274 2.600 5.177 3.920 3.920 1.470 0.544 2.245 3.600 4.200 3.000 2.665 1.548 1.500 3.600 2.890 0.063 5.320
Nb-94 Nb-94A Zr-95 Nb-95 Y -96 Nb-96 Zr-97 Nb-97 Tc-98 Nb-99 Mo-99 Tc-YY Nb-l00A Mo-101 Tc-101 Mo-102 Tc-102 Tc-102A Rh-102 Tc-103 Ru-103 Tc-104 Rh-104 Rh-104A Ru-105 Rh-105 Ru-106 Rh-106 Rh-106A Ru-107
0.156 0.480 0.115 0.046 1.507 0.244 0.713 0.464 0.086 1.359 0.398 0.085 1.450 0.419 0.478 0.436 1.835 0.792 0.144 1.025 0.062 0.978 0.988 0.451 0.415 0.167 0.009 1.415 0.345 1.637
0.500 1.300 1.130 0.930 3.500 0.707 1.910 1.267 0.300 3.200 1.215 0.295 4.200 2.230 1.320 1.200 4.200 2.000 0.470 2.500 0.710 2.400 2.441 1.240 1.870 0.563 0.039 3.541 1.620 4.008
Rh-107 Pd-107 Ru-108 Rh-108 Ag-108 Pd-109 Ag-110 Ag-ll0A Pd-111 Ag-111 Pd-112 Ag-112 In-112 Pd-113 Ag-113A Cd-113A Pd-114 Ag-114 In-114 Ag-115 Cd-115 Cd-115A In-115 In-115A Ag-116 In-116 In-116A Cd-117A In-117 In-117A
0.425 0.013 0.466 1.821 0.624 0.359 1.176 0.070 0.848 0.360 0.078 1.438 0.211 1.397 0.787 0.181 0.519 2.018 0.776 1.249 0.318 0.605 0.201 0.281 2.211 1.387 0.294 0.348 0.245 0.641
1.201 0.035 1.320 4.500 1.650 1.025 2.869 0.530 2.130 1.050 0.277 4.040 0.656 3.300 2.000 0.575 1.400 4.600 1.984 2.900 1.110 1.631 0.630 0.838 5.000 3.290 1.000 1.000 0.745 1.764
Figure 2 continued

Average Maximum
Nuclide
Energy in MeV
Average Maximum
Nuclide
Energy in MeV
Average Maximum
Cd-118 In-118 In-118A In-119 In-119A In-120 In-121 In-121A Sn-121 Sn-121A Sb-122 In-123 In-123A Sn-123 Sn-123A Sb-124 Sb-124A Sb-124B Sn-125 Sn-125A Sb-125 Sb-126 St-126A I -126 Sb-127 Te-127 Te-127A Sb-128
0.267 1.754 0.560 0.605 1.061 0.876 1.202 1.582 0.111 0.150 0.527 1.391 2.013 0.455 0.540 0.385 1.340 1.012 0.914 0.788 0.084 0.737 0.737 0.298 0.375 0.223 0.263 0.199
0.800 4.250 1.500 1.600 2.650 2.200 2.900 3.700 0.383 0.420 1.971 3.300 4.600 1.260 1.420 2.313 3.200 2.500 2.330 2.040 0.612 1.900 1.900 1.250 1.500 0.695 0.730 2.900
Sb-128A I -128 Sb-129 Te-129 I -129 I -130 Cs-130 Te-131 Te-131A I -131 Te-132 I -132 Te-133 Te-133A I -133 Xe-133 I -134 Cs-134 Cs-134A I -135 Xe-135 Cs-135 Cs-136 Xe-137 Cs-137 Xe-138 Cs-138 La-138
0.346 0.791 0.729 0.498 0.040 0.276 0.132 0.723 0.183 0.180 0.047 0.512 0.964 0.567 0.418 0.099 0.663 0.152 0.170 0.319 0.307 0.057 0.108 1.522 0.195 0.961 1.095 0.056
1.000 2.120 1.870 1.590 0.150 1.020 0.442 2.141 2.457 0.810 0.220 2.920 2.400 2.400 1.540 0.343 2.410 1.453 0.550 1.433 0.919 0.210 0.657 3.600 1.167 2.400 3.400 0.205
Cs-139 Ba-139 Ba-140 La-140 Ba-141 La-141 Ce-141 La-142 Pr-142 La-143 Ce-143 Pr-143 Ce-144 Pr-144 Ce-145 Pr-145 Ce-146 Pr-146 Pm-146 Nd-147 Pm-147 Pm-148 Pm-148A Nd-149 Pm-149 Pm-150 Eu-150 Nd-151
1.600 0.910 0.282 0.490 1.158 0.958 0.144 1.823 0.829 1.374 0.371 0.314 0.081 1.208 0.773 0.682 0.224 1.292 0.233 0.227 0.062 0.682 0.150 0.428 0.364 0.762 0.309 0.617
4.000 2.340 1.010 2.200 2.833 2.430 0.580 4.250 2.153 3.300 1.380 0.933 0.320 2.984 2.000 1.799 0.700 3.780 0.725 0.810 0.225 2.450 0.680 1.500 1.071 3.122 1.070 1.995
Figure 2 continued

Average Maximum
Nuclide
Energy in MeV
Average Maximum
Nuclide
Energy in MeV
Averag e Maximum
Pm-151 Sm-151 Pm-152 Eu-152 Eu-152A Pm-153 Sm-153 Pm-154 Eu-154 Sm-155 Eu-155 Sm-156 Eu-156 Tb-156A Eu-157 Eu-158 Tb-158 Eu-159 Gd-159 Eu-160 Tb-160 Gd-161 Tb-161 Ho-164 Dy-165 Dy-165A Dy-166 Ho-166 Ho-166A Ho-168
0.312 0.019 0.858 0.288 0.696 0.614 0.233 0.995 0.228 0.558 0.044 0.175 0.425 0.037 0.366 0.060 0.271 0.855 0.294 1.499 0.189 0.584 0.155 0.319 0.440 0.275 0.060 0.610 0.088 0.716
1.200 0.077 2.200 1.840 1.876 1.650 0.804 2.500 1.850 1.530 0.247 0.730 2.447 0.140 1.270 2.650 0.845 2.200 0.948 3.600 1.700 1.599 0.577 0.990 1.280 0.840 0.400 1.852 1.100 1.900
Er-169 Ho-170 Tm-170 Er-171 Tm-171 Tm-172 Tm-173 Tm-174 Tm-175 Yb-175 Tm-176 Lu-176 Yb-177 Lu-177 Lu-178 Lu-178A Lu-179 Lu-180 Ta-180A Hf-181 Hf-182 Ta-182 Hf-183 Ta-183 Ta-184 Ta-185 W -185 Ta-186 Re-186 W -187
0.096 1.257 0.315 0.355 0.025 0.511 0.296 0.980 0.757 0.125 1.761 0.104 0.465 0.140 0.886 0.539 0.476 1.339 0.201 0.119 0.149 0.094 0.496 0.191 0.419 0.624 0.124 0.838 0.941 0.236
0.340 3.100 0.967 1.490 0.098 1.830 0.900 2.500 2.000 0.467 4.200 0.362 1.380 0.497 2.300 1.500 1.350 3.300 0.705 1.050 0.500 0.524 1.400 0.776 1.360 1.718 0.427 2.200 1.066 1.307
W -188 Re-188 Re-189 Re-190 Re-191 Os-191 Ir-192 Ir-192A Os-193 Ir-194 Os-195 Ir-195 Au-196 Ir-197 Pt-197 Ir-198 Au-198 Au-199 Au-200 Au-201 Au-203 Hg-203 Tl-204 Hg-205 Tl-206 Tl-207 Tl-208 Tl-209 Pb-209 Pb-210
0.256 0.776 0.237 0.556 0.661 0.036 0.175 0.431 0.350 0.775 0.746 0.297 0.071 0.642 0.303 1.457 0.315 0.084 0.669 0.519 0.698 0.057 0.267 0.590 0.557 0.503 0.562 0.733 0.195 0.005
0.800 2.116 0.750 1.700 1.800 0.139 0.670 1.500 1.127 2.233 2.000 1.000 0.259 2.000 0.670 3.600 1.371 0.460 2.210 1.500 1.900 0.212 0.765 1.650 1.571 1.441 2.380 1.990 0.637 0.161
Figure 2 continued

Average Maximum
Nuclide
Energy in MeV
Averag e Maximum
Nuclide
Energy in MeV
Average Maximum
Bi-210 Pb-211 Bi-211 Pb-212 Bi-212 Pb-214 Fr-223 Ra-225 Ac-226 Ra-227 Ac-227 Ra-228 Ra-230 Ac-230 Pa-230
0.390 0.443 0.181 0.106 0.783 0.214 0.382 0.089 0.400 0.444 0.010 0.014 0.401 0.807 0.117
1.161 1.390 0.600 0.586 2.255 0.980 1.150 0.320 1.200 1.310 0.043 0.055 1.200 2.200 0.410
Ac-231 Th-231 Th-233 Pa-233 Th-234 Pa-234 Pa-234A Np-236 Np-236A U -237 Np-238 U -239 Np-239 U -240 Np-240
0.765 0.059 0.410 0.063 0.046 0.146 0.515 0.476 0.149 0.067 0.206 0.401 0.135 0.101 0.280
2.100 0.305 1.230 0.568 0.193 0.500 1.500 1.400 0.518 0.248 1.240 1.210 0.723 0.360 0.890
Np-240A Np-241 Pu-241 Am-242 Am-244 Am-244A Am-245 Pu-246 Bk-248 Cm-249 Bk-249 Cf-253 Es-254A
0.662 0.458 0.005 0.188 0.510 0.107 0.287 0.053 0.194 0.282 0.026 0.073 0.331
2.156 1.360 0.021 0.630 1.500 0.380 0.910 0.330 0.650 0.900 0.102 0.270 1.040
Source: O.H. Hogan, P. E. Zigman, and J. L. Mackin, II. Spectra of Individual Negatron Emitters (Beta Spectra, USNRDL-TR-802 [San Francisco: U.S. Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, Dec. 16, 1964]).
Figure 3
Decay Schemes
Hydogen-3
3 1H
(12.3 y)
Q = 0.0186 MeV
100%
0.0
Stable
3 He 2
Carbon-14
14 C 6
(5730y)
Q = 0.1561 MeV
100%
0.0
Stable
14 N 7
Oxygen-15
15 8O
(124 s)
QEC = 2.76 MeV *
+ 100%
0.0
Stable
15 N 7
* Maximum + Energy = QEC - 1.022 MeV
Figure 3 continued Fluorine-18

18 9
F (109.7 m)
EC 3%
QEC = 1.655 MeV *
+ 97%
0.0
Stable
18 8
Sodium-24
24 11 Na
(15.0 h)
- 99+%
4.122
Q = 5.51 MeV
1.37
1
0.0
Stable
24 12 Mg
Figure 3 continued
Phosphorus-32
32 15
P (14.3 d)
Q = 1.710 MeV
100%
0.0
Stable
32 S 16
Phosphorus-33
33 15
P (25.4d) 100% Stable
Q = 0.248 MeV
0.0
33 S 16
Sulfur-35
35 S 16
(88 d)
Q = 0.167 MeV
100%
0.0
Stable
35 Cl 17
Figure 3 continued
Calcium-45
45 Ca 20
(165 d)
Q = 0.252 MeV
100%
0.0
Stable
45 Sc 21
Chromium-51
51 Cr 24
(27.8 d)
0.3198
EC1 9% QEC = 0.752 MeV EC2 91%
1
0.0
Stable
51
23 V
Iron-55
55 26
Fe (2.6 y)
0.0
QEC = 0.232 MeV

EC 100%
Stable
55 25 Mn
Figure 3 continued
Cobalt-60
60 27
Co (5.26y)
2.5057
99+%
1
Q = 2.819 MeV
1.3325 0.1%
0.0
Stable
60 28 Ni
Copper-64
EC1 0.5% 1.34 EC2 43%
64 29 Cu
(12.8 h)
- 38%
Q = 0.573 MeV
QEC = 1.678 MeV *
Stable
64 Zn 30
1
0.0
+ 19%
Stable
64 28 Ni
Figure 3 continued
Zinc-65
65 30
Zn (245 d)
1.115
EC1 49% EC2 49% QEC = 1.35 MeV*
1
0.0
+ 1.7% 1
Stable
65 Cu 29
Strontium-90
90 38
Sr (28.8 y)
Q = 0.546 MeV
100%
0.0
90 39
Y (64 h)
(subsequent decay from Y-90 to Zr-90)
Yttrium-90
90 39 Y
(64 h)
Q = 2.27 MeV
1 99+%
0.0
Stable
90 40 Zr
Figure 3 continued
Molybdenum-99 and Technicium-99m

99 42 Mo
(67h)
1 0.3% 17% 2
Q = 1.37 MeV
1.11
11 10 9 8 7
0.922
3 1.0% 4 82% 6 5 4 3 2
99 43
0.513
IT
0.1811 0.1427 0.1405
99m Tc (6.04h) 43
0.0
Tc
(2.12x105 y)
Indium-111
111 49
In (2.81 d)
0.419
EC 99+%
QEC = 1.1 MeV
1 2
0.247
0.0
Stable
111
48 Cd
Figure 3 continued
Iodine-125
0.0355 0.0
125 53 I
(60 d)
EC 100%
QEC = 0.149 MeV
Stable
125 52Te
Iodine-131
131 I 53
(8.05d)
0.7229 0.6370
1 1.6% 2 6.9% 3 0.5% Q = 0.970 MeV 4 90.4% 5 0.6%
0.5030
0.3645
4 3 2 1
0.1772 0.1639 0.0801 0.0
131m 54
Xe (11.8 d)
Stable
131 Xe 54
Cesium-137
137 55 Cs
(30.0y)
1 93.5% Q = 1.176 MeV 2 6.5% 0.6616

137m Ba 56
(2.55 m)
0.0
Stable
137 Ba 56
Figure 3 continued
Thallium-201
201 81 Tl
(73 h)
5 4 3 2 1
0.1674 0.0321 0.0016 0.0
EC1 34% EC2 8.0% EC3 58% QEC = 0.41 MeV
Stable
201 80 Hg
Radium-226
226 88 Ra
(1602 y)
Q = 4.894 MeV
222 86 Rn
0.1857 0.0
1 5.4% 2 94.6%
(3.82 d)
Figure 4
Radioactive Decay, Semi-Log Plot

0 to 7 Half-Lives
Figure 4 continued
Radioactive Decay, Semi-Log Plot

6 to 13 Half-Lives
Figure 5
Principles of Radiation Protection UW Environmental Health and Safety
Figure 5 continued
Figure 6
Figure 6 continued
Figure 7 Gamma Radiation Levels for One Curie of Some Radionuclides* Nuclide Actinium-227 Antimony-122 Antimony-124 Antimony-125 Arsenic-72 Arsenic-74 Arsenic-76 Barium-131 Barium-133 Barium-140 Beryllium-7 Bromine-82 Cadmium-115m Calcium-47 Carbon-11 Cerium-141 Cerium-144 Cesium-134 Cesium-137 Chlorine-38 Chromium-51 Cobalt-56 Cobalt-57 Cobalt-58 Cobalt-60 Copper-64 Europium-152 Europium-154 Europium-155 Gallium-67 Gallium-72 * ~2.2 2.4 9.8 ~2.7 10.1 4.4 2.4 ~3.0 ~2.4 12.4 ~0.3 14.6 ~0.2 5.7 5.9 0.35 ~0.4 8.7 3.3 8.8 0.16 17.6 0.9 5.5 13.2 1.2 5.8 ~6.2 ~0.3 ~1.1 11.6 Nuclide Gold-198 Gold-199 Hafnium-175 Hafnium-181 Indium-114m Iodine-124 Iodine-125 Iodine-126 Iodine-130 Iodine-131 Iodine-132 Iridium-192 Iridium-194 Iron-59 Krypton-85 Lanthanum-140 Lutecium-177 Magnesium-28 Manganese-52 Manganese-54 Manganese-56 Mercury-197 Mercury-203 Molydenum-99 Neodymium-147 Nickel-65 Niobium-95 Osmium-191 Palladium-109 Platinum-197 Potassium-42 2.3 ~0.9 ~2.1 ~3.1 ~0.2 7.2 ~0.7 2.5 12.2 2.2 11.8 4.8 1.5 6.4 ~0.04 11.3 0.09 15.7 18.6 4.7 8.3 ~0.4 1.3 ~1.8 0.8 ~3.1 4.2 ~0.6 0.03 ~0.5 1.4 Nuclide Potassium-43 Radium-226 Radium-228 Rhenium-186 Rubidium-86 Ruthenium-106 Scandium-46 Scandium-47 Selenium-75 Silver-110m Silver-111 Sodium-22 Sodium-24 Strontium-85 Tantalum-182 Tellurium-121 Tellurium-132 Thulium-170 Tin-113 Tungsten-185 Tungsten-187 Uranium-234 Vanadium-48 Xenon-133 Ytterbium-175 Yttrium-88 Yttrium-91 Zinc-65 Zirconium-95 5.6 8.25 ~5.1 ~0.2 0.5 1.7 10.9 0.56 2.0 14.3 ~0.2 12.0 18.4 3.0 6.8 3.3 2.2 0.025 ~1.7 ~0.5 3.0 ~0.1 15.6 0.1 0.4 14.1 0.01 2.7 4.1
Jaeger, R. G., et al., Engineering Compendium on Radiation Shielding, Vol. 1, (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1968), pp. 21-30. = R-cm2/hr-mCi or /10 = R/hr at 1 m/Ci A Manual of Radioactivity Procedures (National Bureau of Standards Handbook No. 80 [Washington, D.C.: Supt. Of Docs., U.S. Government Printing Office, Nov. 1961], Appendix A, pp. 137-140.
Figure 8
Specific Gamma Ray Constants for Monoenergetic Photons
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Beta Emitters
Column 2: The contamination level maintained on the skin for a 24 hour day to deliver 0.5 rem/year to the basal layer. Multiply by 17.52 to get level which gives 1 mrem/hour. For a single event during the year, the initial level required to deliver 0.5 rem in the following year can be higher by a factor of 17 [1 + (15/T1/2)] where T1/2 is the radioactive half-life of the radionuclide in days. Column 3: The contamination distributed through a clothing thickness of 23 mg/cm2 to deliver an annual dose of 0.5 rems to the basal layer of the skin if the clothing is worn continuously.
Radionuclide (2) (3) Skin Clothing Dose Dose nCi / cm2 Beta Emitters C-14 Na-22 P-32 S-35 Cl-36 Ca-45 Ca-47 Sc-46 Sc-47 Sc-48 V-48 Mn-52 Fe-59 Co-58 Co-60 Ni-65 As-74 As-76 As-77 Br-82 Rb-86 0.040 0.007 0.007 0.040 0.007 0.020 0.007 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.010 0.020 0.008 0.040 0.010 0.007 0.010 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.007 0.400 0.010 0.007 0.400 0.010 0.070 0.010 0.020 0.010 0.010 0.020 0.020 0.010 0.080 0.030 0.008 0.010 0.009 0.010 0.020 0.009 Radionuclide Rb-87 Sr-89 Sr-90 Y-90 Y-91 Zr-95 Nb-95 Mo-99 Tc-99 Ru-103 Ru-106 Rh-105 Ag-110m Ag-111 Cd-115m Cd-115 In-114m In-115 Sn-125 Sb-122 Sb-124 Sb-125 (2) (3) Skin Clothing Dose Dose nCi / cm2 0.010 0.007 0.008 0.007 0.007 0.009 0.030 0.007 0.010 0.020 0.007 0.008 0.020 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.060 0.009 0.020 0.009 0.009 0.020 0.200 0.009 0.050 0.100 0.010 0.020 0.300 0.010 0.009 0.010 0.009 0.020 0.009 0.008 0.008 0.010
Figure 11 continued
Radionuclide
(2) (3) Skin Clothing Dose Dose nCi / cm2
Radionuclide
(2) (3) Skin Clothing Dose Dose nCi / cm2
Beta Emitters continued Te-127m Te-129m Te-131m Te-132 I-126 I-129 I-131 Cs-134 Cs-135 Cs-136 Cs-137 Ba-140 La-140 Ce-141 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.007 0.008 0.020 0.010 0.008 0.007 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.008 0.007 0.020 0.100 0.010 0.020 0.100 0.030 0.020 0.010 0.010 0.020
Electron Capture and Internal Transition Decay Cr-51 1.000 Mn-54 0.200 Fe-55 1.000 Co-57 0.600 Ni-59 0.400 Zn-65 0.200 Ge-71 0.900 As-73 0.900 Se-75 0.300 Sr-85 0.300 Tc-96 0.070 Tc-97 1.000 Ru-97 0.500 Pd-103 1.000 Ag-105 0.400 Cd-109 0.700 Sn-113 0.500 Cs-131 1.000 Ba-131 0.400 Gd-153 1.000 W-181 2.000
Figure 12
Figure 13
Annual Limits on Intake (ALI) for Occupational Exposures

Lung Clearance Class: D (days)
Nuclide (Half-life) H [tritium] (12.35 y) C (5730 y)
14 3
W (weeks)
Y (years)
Lung Class -Ingestion Limit Ci (MBq) 80,000 (3000)
Inhalation Limit Ci (MBq) 80,000 (3000)
Form Water vapor
Form All forms
2000 2 x 10 400 900 3000 8000 20,000 2000 10,000 800 20,000 20,000 50,000 500 300 20,000 20,000 30,000
5
(90) (60,000) (8,000) (10) (30) (100) (300) (600) (80) (500) (30) (700) (900) (2000) (20) (10) (800) (900) (1000) (10) (400)
Organic forms Monoxides Dioxides Phosphates All others Phosphates All others Sulfates & Sulfides Elemental Vapor (gases) All forms Oxide & hydroxide Halides & nitrates All others Oxide, hydroxide & halides All others
--
2000
(90)
Organic forms
2 x 106 P (14.29 d) P (25.4 d) S (87.44 d)

35 33 32
W D W D D W -W Y W D W D Y W D Y W
600 6000 10,000 6000 2000 40,000 40,000 800
(20) (200) (400) (200) (60) (1000) (1000) (30)
All forms All forms Inorganic forms Elemental All forms Trivalent state Hexavalent state All forms
Ca (163 d) Cr (27.7 d)
51
45
Fe (44.53 d)
59
Cu (12.7 h)
64
Oxide & hydroxide Sufites, halides &nitrates All others All forms Oxide, hydroxide, carbides, halides, nitrates All others SrTiO3 All others
10,000
(400)
All forms
Zn (243.9 d) Ga (78.26 h)
67
65
300 10,000
400 7000
(10) (300)
All forms All forms
10,000 Sr (64.84 d)
85
(500) (60) (100)
D Y D 3000 4000 (90) (100) Soluble salts SrTiO3
2000 3000
Figure 13 continued
Nuclide (Half-life) Tc (6.02 h) Mo (66 h) Cd (464 d)

109 99 99m
Inhalation Limit Ci (MBq) 2 x 105 2 x 10 1000 3000 100 100 40

5
Form Oxide, hydroxide, halides & nitrates All others Oxide, hydroxide & MoS2 All others Oxide & hydroxide Sulfates, halides & nitrates All others Oxide, hydroxide, halides & nitrates All others Oxide & hydroxide Sulfates, halides & nitrates All others All forms All forms All forms Oxide & hydroxide Halides, nitrates & metallic form All others
Lung Class W D Y D Y W D W D Y W D D D D Y W D
Ingestion Limit Ci (MBq) 80,000 (3000)
Form All forms
(9000) (6000) (50) (100) (4) (4) (1) (200) (200) (5) (5) (2) (200) (2) (2) (8) (10) (10)
1000 2000 300
(40) (60) (10)
MoS2 All others All inorganic forms
In (2.83 d) Cd (44.6 d)
115m
111
6000 6000 100 100 50
4000
(200)
All forms
300
(10)
All inorganic forms
I (13.2 h) I (60.14 d) I (8.04 d) Ir (74.02 d)

192 131 125
123
6000 60 50 200 400 300
3000 40 30 900
(100) (1) (1) (40)
All forms All forms All forms All forms
Radiation Exposure from Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources

Average Annual Dose Equivalent to the Exposed Population Average Annual Population Dose Equivalent
Source Unwanted Byproduct X Rays Television Receivers
No. of People Exposed in the United States 100,000,000
Remarks
Remarks
0.7-1.5 mrem (male) 0.2-0.4 mrem (female) < 1 mrem 50 mrem Primarily high school students Ranges from 50-200 mrem/y Whole-body dose equivalent Gonadal dose equivalent Pelvic exposure
0.5 mrem
Gonadal dose equivalent
Cold Cathode Gas Discharge Tubes Electron Microscopes Intentional X Rays
< 500,000 4,400
< 2.5 urem 2-10 urem
Gonadal dose equivalent Whole-body dose equivalent Gonadal dose equivalent
Figure 14
Airport Inspection Systems 10,000,000 Personnel Scanning Systems Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscopes Processed Radioactive Materials Radioluminous Products Luminous Wristwatches 10,000,000 16,000,000 2,000,000 Pocket Watches Clocks 20,000 20,000,000 10,000,000 Unknown Unknown Very small
22 :rem 30-170 mrem per exposure
1 u:rem Unknown Unknown
0.25-800 mrem Gonadal dose equivalent
3 mrem 0.6 mrem < 1 mrem 6 mrem < 1 mrem < 7-9 mrem 1-5 rem
226Ra 3H
gonadal dose equivalent whole-body dose equivalent 147Pm gonadal dose equivalent
226Ra 3H
150 :rem 50 :rem < 10 urem ~ 0.5 urem < 100 urem ~ 0.3-0.5 mrem Unknown
226Ra
gonadal dose equivalent
Aircraft Instruments
or 147Pm whole-body dose equivalent 226 Ra whole-body dose equivalent dials from World War II aircraft, whole-body
gonadal dose equivalent 3H whole-body dose equivalent 147Pm gonadal dose equivalent Gonadal dose equivalent Whole-body dose equivalent Whole-body dose equivalent
226Ra
Figure 14
Source
No. of People Exposed in the United States
Average Annual Dose Equivalent to the Exposed Population
Remarks
Avg Annual Population Dose Equivalent
Remarks
Processed Radioactive Materials Check Sources Static Eliminators Spark GapIrradiators Gas and Aerosol Detectors Personnel Dosimeters Containing Thorium: Dosimeter Distributors and Handlers Dosimeter Wearers Detector Replacers Radiator Disposers Identification Cards Natural Radioactive Materials Tobacco Products
800,000 100,000 Very small 10,000,000
1-100 mrem 1 rem < 0.1 mrem 0.03-1.5 mrem
Whole-body dose equivalent Whole-body dose equivalent Gonadal and whole-body dose equivalent to user Whole-body dose equivalent
4-400 rem <<< 1 rem < 10 rem 1-45 rem
Whole-body dose equivalent Whole-body dose equivalent Whole-body dose equivalent Whole-body dose equivalent
continued
375 150,000 375 Several None
0.2 mrem 1.3 mrem 0.1 mrem 0.0002 mrem 0-25 urem
Whole-body dose equivalent for 20 year old thorium

Presently used outside U.S.A. Whole-body dose equivalent
0.1 mrem
Whole-body dose equivalent
22 u:rem 0 u:rem
50,000,000
8 rem
Building Materials
100,000,000
7 mrem
Highway and Road Construction Materials
5,000,000
4 mrem
Maximum estimated dose equivalent to small areas of the bronchial epithelium at segmental bifurcations Whole-body dose equivalent; does not include lung irradiation from 222Rn daughters Gonadal dose equivalent
2 rem
Bronchial epithelial dose equivalent Whole-body dose equivalent

3.5 mrem
0.1 mrem
Natural Radioactive Materials

Combustible Fuels Coal Oil
50,000,000 18,000,000
0.25-4 mrem 2-40 :rem
Lung dose equivalent Lung dose equivalent to people exposed within a radius of 10 miles of an oil-burning plant
0.5-1 mrem < 4 :rem
Lung dose equivalent Lung dose equivalent
Source
Average No. of People Annual Dose Equivalent to Exposed in the Exposed the United Population States
Remarks
Avg Annual Population Dose Equivalent
Remarks
Natural Radioactive Materials

Natural Gas Cooking Ranges Unvented Heaters 125,000,000 16,000,000 6-9 mrem 22 mrem Bronchial epithelial dose equivalent Bronchial epithelial dose equivalent 5 mrem Bronchial epithelial dose equivalent Bronchial epithelial dose equivalent Whole-body dose equivalent
2 mrem
Natural Gas (Nuclear Stimulated)
None
< 1 mrem (projected)
This whole-body dose equivalent is 0 mrem in addition to that received from non-nuclear stimulated natural gas Delivered to the superficial layers of tissue in contact with these teeth and subject to alpha radiation Delivered from the uranium beta radiation Delivered from the potassium-40 beta radiation Delivered to germinal cells of the cornea, assuming glass is in compliance with federal regulations 10-15 rem
Figure 14 continued
Glass and Ceramics
Uranium in Dental Porcelain 45,000,000 (Dentures and Crowns)
60 rem
Basal mucosal dose equivalent
<< 1 rem ~ 0.1 rem Unknown 1-4 rem
<<0.25 rem Basal mucosal dose equivalent ~ 0.02 rem Unknown Basal mucosal dose equivalent
Ophthalmic Glass (Eyeglasses)
Miscellaneous Exposure Sources

High Voltage Vacuum Switches 40,000 < 30 mrem Gonadal dose equivalent. Higher doses are predicted for those who test these devices; see text Dose is highly localized 6 :rem Whole-body dose equivalent
Contaminated Raw Materials
Very small
Up to thousands of rem 0.2 mrem
Unknown Whole-body dose equivalent
Aircraft Transport of Radioactive Materials
6,000,000
Whole-body dose equivalent
7 :rem

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Principles of Radiation Protection

Page Phy-1 January 2006 Section 1 - Basic Radiation Physics

BASIC RADIATION PHYSICS

UW Environmental Health and Safety

Principles of Radiation Protection

Page Phy-3 January 2006 Section 1 Basic Radiation Physics

A. Atomic and Nuclear Structure

Protons and Neutrons (Nucleons)

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Atomic Number, and Atomic Mass Number

Hydrogen-1 Carbon-12 Iron-56

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Nuclides, Isotopes, Isobars

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Stability and Instability

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curie millicurie microcurie nanocurie becquerel kilobecquerel megabecquerel gigabecquerel

Ci mCi :Ci nCi Bq kBq mBq gBq

1 Ci 10-3 Ci 10-6 Ci 10-9 Ci 1 Bq 103 Bq 106 Bq 109 Bq

Traditional Traditional Traditional Traditional SI SI SI SI

37,000,000,000 37,000,000 37,000 37 1 1000 1,000,000 1,000,000,000

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Principles of Radiation Protection

A0 = 10 mCi t = 1 month t = 30 days

Description Combination of 2 protons and 2 neutrons Electron Positron (antimatter electron)

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Types of Radioactive Decay

Z daughter = Z parent 2 Adaughter = A parent 4

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Principles of Radiation Protection

Z daughter = Z parent + 1 Adaughter = Aparent

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Principles of Radiation Protection

(remainder of decay energy)

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Decay Schemes and Energy Levels