Food Safety Research

There are three main categories of hazards:

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by Rukia Khatun

A hazard is anything which may cause harm to your customers through eating your food.

Microbiological Chemical Physical

Hazards
Microbiological Hazards
First, we will consider Microbiological hazards. Microbiological hazards include food poisoning bacteria such as Salmonella, E.coli and Bacillus Cereus. Bacteria are very small, visible only when examined under a microscope. If food poisoning bacteria are present in food, the food may look, smell and taste normal. If such food is eaten it may result in illness, such as sickness and diarrhoea, and even cause death in some situations. These food poisoning bacteria are hazardous because they can :
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Survive inadequate cooking, if already present in food, for example, Salmonella in chicken Multiply to harmful levels in food given the right conditions, for example, poor temperature control during storage, handling or hot holding Spread from raw foods such as meat, poultry and unwashed vegetables to cooked/ready-to-eat foods either directly or via food handlers, work surfaces and equipment - this is known as "cross contamination"

Other microbiological hazards such as certain bacteria, yeasts and moulds may lead to food spoilage or foodborne illness. Chemical and Physical Hazards Chemical Hazards These may already be present on certain foods in the form of pesticides or insecticides. Chemical hazards may also arise from incorrect storage and the misuse of chemicals used in food premises such as :
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Cleaning chemicals Rodent baits

Physical Hazards These include contamination by :

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Materials such as glass, plastic, wood, metal and hair Pests, such as animals, birds or insects that contaminate food either directly or indirectly

Bacteria
Bacteria are very small, visible only when examined under a microscope. If food poisoning bacteria are present in food, the food may look, smell and taste normal. If such food is eaten it may result in illness, such as sickness and diarrhoea, and even cause death in some situations. Sources and Growth Sources of bacteria Bacteria are found everywhere - in the atmosphere, soil, water, plants, animals, birds, and on humans. They vary in size, shape and form. Not all bacteria are harmful. However, some bacteria can cause food poisoning. Some bacteria cause food poisoning if they are present in food but others produce toxins which cause food poisoning. Conditions necessary for the growth of bacteria The four main conditions that bacteria require to grow and multiply are :
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Water Food Temperature Time

Harmful bacteria can be destroyed or their numbers reduced by cooking or reheating. We can control their growth by keeping food hot or cold. When bacteria grow in food they can cause :
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Food Spoilage Food Poisoning Foodborne Diseases

Food Spoilage Other microbiological hazards such as certain bacteria, yeasts and moulds may lead to food spoilage.

Food Poisoning Food poisoning is an illness caused by eating food that has been contaminated by bacteria or toxins. The symptoms of food poisoning can include nausea, abdominal cramp, diarrhoea and vomiting. The severity of the condition is dependent on the amount of bacteria or toxin ingested, the type of food poisoning organism and whether or not the person is in a vulnerable group. In extreme cases, food poisoning can cause severe illness or death. Foodborne Diseases These are illnesses transmitted by food or water, caused by very small numbers of bacteria. Foodborne infection can be severe and in some cases, fatal. Symptoms can include fever, vomiting, headache, abdominal pain and diarrhoea. Examples of microbiological foodborne infections include :
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Typhoid Tuberculosis Dysentery Brucellosis

Cleaning
Cleaning of food premises is vitally important for a number of reasons :
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To prevent food poisoning - proper cleaning and disinfection will reduce harmful bacteria to a safe level on equipment and surfaces and will help to reduce the risk of cross contamination To remove undesirable physical materials such as dirt or debris which may contaminate food

Hazards Premises, equipment and utensils, which have not been effectively cleaned and disinfected, may :
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Be the site of an unseen build-up of harmful bacteria leading to the contamination of food Give rise to an accumulation of dirt, liable to cause physical contamination of food or encourage pests

What needs to be cleaned All equipment and areas within food premises require to be kept clean. Food waste containers, refuse waste bins and all waste storage areas should also be cleaned, as appropriate. What needs to be cleaned and disinfected Clean and disinfect sinks, washbasins, taps and any other items that are liable to come in contact with food either directly or indirectly. Equipment and surfaces which come into contact with food require to be disinfected such as chopping boards, work surfaces, crockery, utensils, food storage containers, pots and cutlery. Methods Methods used to clean and disinfect :
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The twin sink method The dishwasher method Where equipment and surfaces cannot be sink-washed

The twin sink method Using 2 sinks, first one for washing and then one for rinsing. The dishwasher method Dishwashers should heat water to a sufficiently high temperature and be maintained regularly. Where equipment and surfaces cannot be sink-washed

Note: It is essential that dishcloths and scouring pads are kept clean so that they do not become a source of contamination. They should be replaced as necessary.

Precautions
Precaution for cleaning and disinfection. Chemicals used for cleaning purposes can be harmful to your health. To prevent any incidences of food being contaminated by cleaning chemicals, you should work to safe practices.
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Cleaning chemicals must be stored away from the food preparation areas or in a way that will prevent contamination of food Cleaning chemicals need to be clearly labelled

Handling chemicals can have safety implications too.

Temperature Control
Harmful bacteria are a hazard present in many foods and they tend to multiply rapidly at room temperature. As bacteria cannot be physically removed from food, all we can do is control their numbers. The two main ways in which temperature can be used to achieve this are : 1. Cooking or reheating - destroys harmful bacteria or reduces their numbers to a safe level 2. Keeping food hot or cold - controls the growth of bacteria

Temperature Control
Important Temperatures
There are important temperatures, some legal requirements and some good practice that may be appropriate for your business. You may, however, find that there are other temperatures or methods, which are more suitable for you. The temperatures that you choose must be sufficient to ensure that the food you produce is safe. You need to monitor temperatures by :
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Using a thermometer Without using a thermometer

Important Temperatures
There are important temperatures, some legal requirements and some good practice that may be appropriate for your business. You may, however, find that there are other temperatures or methods, which are more suitable for you. The temperatures that you choose must be sufficient to ensure that the food you produce is safe. You need to monitor temperatures by :
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Using a thermometer Without using a thermometer

Cross Contamination Prevention

Cross Contamination occurs when harmful bacteria are spread from certain types of raw food to cooked/ready-to-eat foods. Food such as raw poultry, raw meat and unwashed root vegetables may be contaminated with harmful bacteria. These bacteria can be spread to cooked/ready-to-eat foods if appropriate food handling practices (Personal protective clothing etc.) are not followed. Types Direct Cross Contamination Contact between raw food and cooked/ready-to-eat food during transport, storage or preparation. Indirect Cross Contamination For example, via equipment, splashing, chefs' cloths or food handlers. Safe handling practices will reduce the chance of transferring harmful bacteria from raw food to cooked/ready-to-eat food. This is known as cross contamination prevention. You should consider :
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Personnel Equipment Utensils Cleaning

In addition to microbiological hazards it is important also to consider ways of controlling hazards associated with food allergies. Personnel Maintain good personal hygiene at all times. Cross contamination from unwashed hands can cause food poisoning. For example :
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Thoroughly wash your hands after handling raw foods and before touching other food or equipment Don't use chefs' cloths for wiping hands and then dishes as they may lead to crosscontamination risks

Equipment Safe practices will help prevent cross contamination. For example :
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Use separate refrigerators for raw and cooked/ready-to-eat foods where possible. Where this is not possible, store raw food in the bottom of a shared refrigerator below the cooked/ready-to-eat foods Raw meat must also be stored separately from raw vegetables Raw food, which is being defrosted, should be stored on the bottom shelf of the refrigerator in a tray/bowl which will catch any "drips" Raw food, stored in freezers, must be adequately wrapped to prevent leakage. If possible, raw foods should be stored in a separate freezer, or part of a freezer, away from cooked/ready-to-eat foods All foods in the process of being cooled require to be kept separate from raw foods Sinks used for washing food require to be adequately cleaned and disinfected after use along with the surrounding areas which may be affected by splashing. Sinks used for washing food should not be used to wash equipment or be used for hand washing Separate equipment should be used for raw and cooked/ready-to-eat foods. If this is not possible, then thorough cleaning and disinfection of equipment between uses is required Probe thermometers require to be thoroughly cleaned and sanitised between uses. Ideally, separate thermometers should be used for raw and cooked/ready-to-eat foods

Utensils and Cleaning Utensils Safe practices will help prevent cross contamination. For example :
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The utensils used for handling raw food should be separate from the utensils used for handling cooked/ready-to-eat foods It is important to reduce the handling of ready-to-eat food. This may be achieved by the use of dedicated tongs and serving spoons

Cleaning When cleaning it is recommended that high risk areas are cleaned before low risk, especially when the same cleaning equipment is being used. Single use drying cloths are recommended.

Food Allergies Some people have a sensitivity to certain foods such as nuts, seeds, gluten and shellfish. Some foods may result in a severe allergic reaction, examples of these foods include :
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Peanuts (known also as groundnuts) Tree nuts (almonds, hazelnuts, walnuts, Brazil nuts) Nut products Fish Shellfish Sesame seeds Eggs Milk Soya Coconut products

Some people may be intolerant to certain foods, such as those containing gluten and lactose. Gluten is the protein found in many cereals such as wheat, rye and barley. Lactose is a sugar found in milk. Dealing with Food Allergies The following steps represent good practice when dealing with foods that may cause a reaction :
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Keep foods which can cause reactions separate from other foods and ensure that staff wash their hands after handling these foods Utensils and equipment should be separate or cleaned thoroughly after use with the products previously listed in the food allergies section Store ingredients which may cause a reaction away from other foods and display finished food, which may contain these ingredients, separately from other foods Check that the ingredients have not changed their composition and that your supplier has not substituted one brand or ingredient for another which may contain any of these ingredients Always reflect the presence of these items on your menu to allow customers to make an informed choice Be aware of hidden ingredients, for example, nuts used in bought-in desserts. This will require you to check with your suppliers what is contained within these foods Make sure that all your staff understand that they should never guess whether or not an ingredient is present in a dish - they should check with kitchen staff every time It is a good idea to record the training you have done in allergy awareness

Pest Control
Pest control is important because pests can carry harmful bacteria that can contaminate foods and cause illness. Pests can also cause serious damage to the structure and fabric of food premises. Methods of Pest Control include :
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Pest proofing of the premises Insect screens Electronic fly-killing devices Good Housekeeping Pest Control Contractors Checking and inspection

Methods of Pest Control Pest Proofing of the Premises The building must be in good condition and repair in order to restrict pest access and prevent potential breeding sites. This can be done by :
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Using wire mesh screens over air vents Sealing holes, and other places where pests can gain access Keeping the floors, walls, roof, doors and window openings in a good state of repair with no gaps or spaces Fitting drain covers to prevent pests gaining access

Insect Screens
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Windows opening directly into food preparation areas must be fitted with screens capable of resisting common flying insects (ideally apertures should be of 2mm or less) Screens must be removable to allow for cleaning Kitchen doors which are opened for lengthy periods to the outside air must be suitably screened using a close-fitting insect-proof screen door

Electronic Fly-Killing Devices Flying insects can be destroyed using an electronic fly-killing device. Manufacturers will give advice on the location, cleaning and maintenance of this type of equipment.

Housekeeping
Good Housekeeping Follow good housekeeping practices, such as :
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Inspect stock on delivery to make sure that there are no visible signs of damage by pests Premises and refuse stores must be managed in such a way as to enable them to be kept clean, and protected against access by pests Cover foods which are awaiting preparation, being defrosted or are cooling Food waste should be removed regularly from areas where it is produced or placed in containers with lids Food should be stored off the floor and away from walls Food should, where possible, be stored in rodent-proof containers Vegetation around the outside of the premises should be kept to a minimum

Pest Control Contractors Some businesses may decide to employ a pest control company to monitor the premises on a regular basis. A reputable pest control company should be able to provide advice on housekeeping and storage arrangements to prevent access by pests. The contractor should be able to provide a 24 hour emergency cover and should provide a written report after each visit. Checking and Inspection
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All areas of the food premises should be checked regularly for signs of pests such as rodent droppings, smear marks, insect egg cases and dead insects Staff should be made aware of the signs of pests and what action they must take should they discover pests or signs of pests Management must take immediate and appropriate action to control any infestation of pests identified on their premises Foods should be checked for the presence of pests, for example, insects within cereals/grains

Waste Control
Why is Waste Control Important? Waste control is important as the storage and disposal of waste presents a risk of physical contamination to food and may attract pests. Also food that is damaged, out of date or rotting may present a risk of microbiological cross contamination from harmful bacteria.

Waste can be regarded as any item of food, ingredients, packaging materials or even soiled cleaning cloths which are not suitable for further use and which are intended to be discarded. Waste includes:
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Food Waste Packaging Sanitary waste

Types of Waste Food Waste Food waste should be placed in containers with suitably fitted lids and removed frequently from food handling areas where it is produced. Refuse containers used for the storage of waste awaiting collection should have a suitably fitted lid. They should also be kept in a sound condition and be made of durable material so they are easy to clean and disinfect. Packaging Other waste such as cardboard and paper need not be placed in a sealed container but must be kept separate from food and must be stored in such a way as to not pose a risk of contamination to food. Sanitary waste Sanitary waste and waste disposal units need to be dealt with by competent personnel who are responsible for their correct disposal. All disposal units should be regularly cleaned to prevent offensive odours.

Waste Awaiting Collection Refuse stores must be:

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Kept clean, and protected against access by pests. Ideally, be located away from food storage and handling areas and must not give rise to the risk of contamination of food or drinking water Outdoor storage should preferably be sited away from the main delivery entrance

Why is Maintenance Important? Maintenance is important because lack of adequate maintenance of the structure of the premises, equipment and utensils can result in the following :
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Pests entering the premises through such things as holes in walls and defective drains

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Cleaning can become more difficult and may result in a build up of food debris Crockery, cutlery and containers may become badly worn, broken or unable to be effectively cleaned and disinfected Some utensils and equipment such as glassware may present a risk of physical contamination when cracked or broken Defective and poorly maintained equipment, fixtures and fittings can result in the physical contamination of food Defective or poorly maintained equipment, such as refrigerators, freezers and cooking equipment could result in inadequate temperature control, which could, for example, in the case of cooking equipment, cause the failure to cook or reheat food to the correct temperature

Premises Structure
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All internal surfaces must be smooth, impervious, easy to clean and in a good state of repair To prevent the entry of pests, the floors, walls, roof, doors and window openings must be kept in a good state of repair with no unnecessary gaps or spaces Maintaining the structure in good repair makes it easier to effectively clean the premises Ceilings in food preparation areas must be constructed and maintained to keep them free from the accumulation of dirt and loose particles Drains should be kept free of leaks and blockages

Equipment/Utensils These should be kept in a good state of repair as defective and poorly maintained equipment, fixtures and fittings can result in the physical contamination of food.
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Utensils eg. crockery, cutlery, glassware and containers must be repaired or replaced as appropriate when badly worn, broken or unable to be effectively cleaned and disinfected All food contact surfaces and equipment must be maintained in good condition to enable effective cleaning and disinfection

Certain equipment may require to be serviced at regular intervals, eg. cooking equipment, refrigerators, freezers, dishwashers, ventilation systems/ducting. Defective or poorly maintained equipment, such as refrigerators, freezers and cooking equipment could result in inadequate temperature control.

Stock Control
Why is Stock Control Important? If high risk food is kept too long, even under favourable conditions, harmful bacteria may multiply. Stored food may become contaminated by food handlers, pests and the catering environment. Longer shelf life foods, whether dried, canned or frozen, may deteriorate if kept for too long. Stock Control Measures Incoming food : Should not be accepted if :
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Its packaging is seriously damaged exposing the product to the risk of contamination The food is obviously contaminated The 'use by' date has expired

In terms of good practice, you may also wish to consider rejecting stock beyond its 'best before' date. Stored Food :
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Stored food must not be used if its 'use by' date has expired Use stock on a first-in-first-out basis Remove damaged stock Store dried food in waterproof containers Dont top up with new stock - ensure that the existing food is used first Keep food that can cause allergic reaction separate from other foods

Re-label with appropriate 'use by' date :

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High risk food which has been removed from its original packaging High risk foods prepared on the premises and then stored for later use

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) , is an internationally recognised and recommended system of food safety management. It focuses on identifying the 'critical points' in a process where food safety problems (or 'hazards') could arise and putting steps in place to prevent things going wrong. This is sometimes referred to as 'controlling hazards'. Keeping records is also an important part of HACCP systems.

Five key principles

The five key principles of food hygiene, according to WHO, are: 1. Prevent contaminating food with pathogens spreading from people, pets, and pests. 2. Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked foods. 3. Cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature to kill pathogens. 4. Store food at the proper temperature. 5. Use safe water and raw materials