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Predicting Heat Transfer During Flow Boiling in Minichannels and Microchannels

Satish G. Kandlikar, Ph.D. Mark E. Steinke

ABSTRACT Flow boiling in small passages in mini- and microchannels is receiving increased attention due to very high heat transfer rates possible with such geometries in electronics cooling, fuel cell, and other emerging applications. These geometries offer potential for significant enhancements in refrigerating and air-conditioning systems as well. Since the effect of surface tension becomes more important at smaller passage dimensions, the flow boiling correlations developed for conventional tubes, larger than 3 mm inner diameter, need to be carefully reviewed. The low flow rate employed in such geometries, coupled with the small channel hydraulic diameter, often results in a laminar flow with all flow as liquid. In the present work, a flow boiling correlation for large-diameter tubes is modified for flow boiling in minichannels by using the laminar single-phase correlation for the heat transfer coefficient for all liquid flow. The trends in heat transfer coefficient versus quality are also compared in the laminar region. Excellent agreement is obtained between predicted values and experimental data. A need for additional experimental data in the transition region is recognized. INTRODUCTION As the channel hydraulic diameter becomes smaller, the ratio of heat transfer surface area to the fluid flow volume increases in inverse proportion to the channel hydraulic diameter. For a circular channel, this ratio is given by the following equation.
2 A s V = ( DL ) -- D L = 4 D 4

The heat transfer coefficient also increases for lower channel diameters. For laminar single-phase flow, with a constant value of Nusselt number, the heat transfer coefficient dependence on the diameter is seen through the definition of the Nusselt number.
k h = Nu --D

(2)

The heat transfer rate per unit flow volume is given by

q V = ( ( hA s T ) V ) .

(3)

Combining Equations 1 to 3, we obtain

4k q V = ( hA s T ) V = Nu ------ T . 2 D

(4)

(1)

Assuming a constant value of Nusselt number (such as in laminar single-phase flow) for a given fluid and a given temperature difference, the volumetric heat transfer rate thus depends inversely on the square of the channel diameter. Since the pressure drop increases significantly as the channel diameter becomes smaller, the flow rates are generally smaller. The low flow rate combined with a small hydraulic diameter leads to a low value of Reynolds number, often in the laminar flow range, making the assumption of constant Nusselt number (for all liquid flow) quite reasonable in many small heat exchangers employing minichannels or microchannels. A more detailed parametric analysis is given by Kandlikar (2001b). For implementing small-diameter channels in evaporators, a thermal equipment designer needs good design tools to predict the flow boiling heat transfer coefficient. Currently, there are no specific correlations available for this purpose. In

Satish G. Kandlikar is a professor and Mark E. Steinke is a graduate student in the Mechanical Engineering Department, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, N.Y.

THIS PREPRINT IS FOR DISCUSSION PURPOSES ONLY, FOR INCLUSION IN ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS 2003, V. 109, Pt. 1. Not to be reprinted in whole or in part without written permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 1791 Tullie Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329. Opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ASHRAE. Written questions and comments regarding this paper should be received at ASHRAE no later than February 7, 2003.

FLOW BOILING CORRELATIONS FOR MINICHANNELS Literature Review There are a number of correlations available in the literature for predicting flow boiling heat transfer coefficient inside a channel. The correlations by Chen (1966), Shah (1982), Gungor and Winterton (1987), and Kandlikar (1990, 1991b) are among the widely used ones. An important feature that is often overlooked in comparing the correlations is the trends predicted by these correlations for heat transfer coefficient variation with quality. Kandlikar (1998) developed a flow boiling map, shown in Figure 1, to depict the variation of heat transfer coefficient, h, with quality, x. The liquid to vapor density ratio and the boiling number are used as parameters. For a high density ratio (L/ G), the convective effects dominate as quality increases and lead to an increasing trend in h with increasing x. On the other hand, a high boiling number results in a higher nucleate boiling contribution, which tends to lower h as the vapor fraction increases, resulting in a decreasing trend in h with increasing x. For example, the high-pressure water data exhibit a decreasing trend in h vs. x, while the low-pressure water data display the familiar increasing h vs. x trend. Refrigerants such as R113, R-114, R-11 (with a low value of liquid to vapor density ratio at normal refrigeration operating conditions) exhibit a decreasing trend of heat transfer coefficient with quality. The heat transfer coefficient thus exhibits all three trends depending on the values of density ratio and boiling number. This map is based on the trends seen in conventional channels. In the present work, the correlation and trends are verified for minichannels. Flow Conditions Covered by Conventional Channel Flow Boiling Correlation Flow boiling heat transfer correlations, such as those of Kandlikar (1990, 1991b), utilize the single-phase, all-liquid heat transfer coefficient in predicting the nucleate boiling and convective boiling components as given by the following equations.
h TP, NBD h TP = l arg er o f h TP, CBD h TP, NBD = 0.6683Co
0.2

Figure 1 Flow boiling map in the saturated region depicting the trends in flow boiling heat transfer coefficient with quality, Kandlikar (1991a).

his earlier work, Kandlikar (2002a, 2002b) observed that the Kandlikar (1990, 1991b) flow boiling correlation is able to predict flow boiling heat transfer in large diameter tubes quite well at high flow rates, but significant overprediction was seen at lower flow rates in minichannels. He identified the presence of laminar flow conditions as the main reason for the overprediction. In the present work, the low flow rate data are further analyzed, and the range of applicability of the Kandlikar correlation is extended to cover the laminar and laminar-turbulent transition. The classification of small diameter channels is being actively addressed in the literature. According to a new classification proposed by Kandlikar and Grande (2002), the following ranges are employed:
Conventional channels Minichannels Microchannels Transitional Channels Dh > 3 mm 200 m Dh < 3 mm 10 m Dh < 200 m 10 m > Dh > 0.1 m (100 nanometer, nm, or1000 ) Transitional Microchannels Transitional Nanochannels Molecular Nanochannels 10 m Dh > 1 m 1 m Dh > 0.1 m 0.1 m Dh

(5a)

(1 x)

0.8

f 2 ( Fr LO )h LO F Fl h LO

+ 1058.0Bo h TP, CBD = 1.136Co

0.9

0.7

(1 x)
0.8

0.8

(5b)

(1 x)

f 2 ( Fr LO )h LO F Fl h LO

+ 667.2Bo

0.7

(1 x)

0.8

(5c)

The classification is based on the mean free path of molecules in the single-phase flow and surface tension effects and flow patterns in the two-phase flow applications.
2

The single-phase, all-liquid-flow heat transfer coefficient hLO is given by the following correlations by Petukhov and Popov (1963) and Gnielinski (1976), respectively.
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TABLE 1 Table of Recommended FFl (Fluid Surface Parameter) Values in Flow Boiling Correlation by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b)
Fluid Water R-11 R-12 R-13B1 R-22 R-113 R-114 R-134a R-152a R-32/R-132 R-141b R-124 Kerosene FFl 1.00 1.30 1.50 1.31 2.20 1.30 1.24 1.63 1.10 3.30 1.80 1.00 0.488

In minichannels and microchannels, the flow pattern observations made by Kandlikar (2001a) showed that a separated flow pattern does not exist in small diameter channels due to a strong surface tension effect, which draws liquid all around the circumference of the tube. Therefore, the Froude number correction factor, FrLO in Equations 5b and 5c, is taken as 1 for minichannels and microchannels. Froude number correction factor for flow boiling in horizontal minichannels and microchannels, in Equations 5b and 5c, in the entire range of Froude numbers is given by
f 2 ( Fr LO ) = 1.0 .

(8)

Flow Boiling Correlation in Minichannels and Microchannels The flow boiling correlation for minichannels is given by Equations 5a through 5c and Equation 8. The single-phase allliquid-flow correlations given by Equations 6 and 7 are replaced by appropriate laminar single-phase all-liquid-flow correlations as described below. The Reynolds number for all-liquid flow in minichannels and microchannels generally falls in the laminar flow region due to (1) the small hydraulic diameter and (2) lower mass fluxes employed to limit the pressure drop in the flow channel. The single-phase flow heat transfer coefficient in the correlation given by Equations 5a to 5c, therefore, needs to be appropriately adjusted to reflect the laminar flow conditions. For a circular channel, the Nusselt numbers for fully developed flow under constant heat flux and constant temperature boundary conditions are given by the following equations: NuH = 4.36 (9)

Re LO Pr L ( f 2 ) ( k L D ) h LO = ------------------------------------------------------------------23 0.5 1 + 12.7 ( Pr L 1 ) ( f 2 ) for 104 ReLO 5 106, and

( Re LO 1000 ) Pr L ( f 2 ) ( k L D ) h LO = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------23 0.5 1 + 12.7 ( Pr L 1 ) ( f 2 )

(6)

(7)

for 3000 ReLO 104, where f = [1.58ln(ReLO)-3.28]-2, is the friction factor, and FFl is a fluid-surface parameter. FFl for various liquid-surface combinations is given in Table 1. The correlation given by Equations 5a to 5c considers the flow conditions existing in the evaporator. It is applicable to the wetted wall region of the evaporator tube, starting from the saturated flow boiling at near-zero quality to the location of the dryout. The separated flow in conventional tubes causes the liquid to flow along the bottom of a horizontal tube evaporator, while the vapor flows in the upper portion of the tube, separated by a thin liquid film from the wall. The Froude number correction factor (f2 = 25FrLO, with a maximum value limited to f2 = 1.0) predicts the net effect of this flow structure on the flow boiling heat transfer in horizontal tubes. It should not be treated as the identifier for the separated flow regime but should be considered as the multiplier that includes the effect of the separated flow structure on heat transfer. It should be noted that this multiplier is able to predict the heat transfer data in the separated flow regime extremely well; for example, Kandlikar (1990) showed that the data of Chawla (1967) for R11 is predicted accurately, within 10% or less, by the above correlation in various tubes ranging from 3 to 25 mm diameter.

for constant heat flux boundary condition in circular tubes, NuT = 3.66 (10)

for constant temperature boundary condition in circular tube. For a square cross section, the above numbers are NuH = 3.61 and NuT = 2.98. A detailed listing for other geometries is found in Kakac et al. (1987). The laminar to turbulent transition takes place over a range of Reynolds numbers from 1900 to 3500, depending on the flow configuration and inlet conditions. A recent study by Kandlikar and Campbell (2002) confirms this range for the flow of oil in a 25.4 mm inner diameter tube. It was seen that depending on the inlet condition, the flow may exhibit turbulent behavior for Reynolds numbers as low as 1900. Such a study is not available for flow in minichannels and microchannels. The flow boiling correlation given by Equations 5a to 5c is thus modified to include the laminar, single-phase, all-liquid heat transfer coefficient given by Equations 9 and 10 for circular tubes. However, the presence of the two-phase flow is believed to further influence the transition to turbulent flow. The results of comparison with the available experimental data are discussed in the following sections.

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TABLE 2 Selected Flow Boiling Heat Transfer Studies for Minichannels

Author/Year Fluid/Heating Method Channel Specifications Round, D=2.92 mm G, kg/m2s 50 -300 Re 1,933 2,013 217- 626 q kW/m2 8.8 -90.75 x 0 - 0.9 Comments Heat transfer identified with various flow patterns, h decreases with increasing x

Wambsganss, France, R-113, direct elecJendrzejczyk, Tran, tric heating of tube 1993 Ravigururajan, Cuta, McDonald, and Drost, 1996 Yan and Lin, 1998 R-124, electric heater

54 rectangular parallel microchannels, 1mm deep, 0.27 mm wide, 20.52 mm long

35 -300 mL/min

50 - 600

0.01-0.65 Average h over the test section decreases with increasing outlet x Avg., 0.1 - H decreases with increasing x 0.9 for all G except G=200; data compares well with previous large dia. data 0-1 h increases with x at lower q and decreases with x at higher q Quality not reported

R-134a, Resistance Round, D=2 mm, 28 parallel heaters in the contubes tacting copper plates Round, D=1 mm

50 -200

372- 2,030

5 - 20

Lin, Kew, and Corn- R-141b, direct elecwell, 1999 tric heating of tube Kamidis and RaviguR-113, electric rurajan, 1999 heating of the base block Lakshmi-narasimhan et al., 2000 Bao, Fletcher, Haynes, 2000 Kim and Bang, 2001 R-11, electrically heated R-11 and R-123, wrapped band heaters

510

1,591

18 - 72

Round, copper 2.78 mm, 3.97 mm, 4.62 mm, Al. 1.97 mm Rectangular, 120357 mm Copper tube, D=1.95 mm

Re = 1901250 G = 60 4586 50 -1800

190-1250

30 - 100

Subcooled and low x 0 - 0.9

Saturated data well represented by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b) correlation Nucleate boiling dominant in the entire range h increases with increasing x

5 - 200

R-22, electrical Round and square, Dh=1.66 wire heating around mm test section FC-84/water heated Rectangular, Dh=0.75 mm

384 -570

2,8495,873 536- 2,955

2 - 10

0 - 0.8

Warrier, Pan, and Dhir, 2001

557 -1600 93 - 570

0 - 59.9 18 - 72

0 - 0.55 -0.02 - 1.0

h decreases with increasing x h increases with x at lower q and decreases with x at higher q

Lin, Kew, and Corn- R-141b, direct elec- Round, D=1.1 mm, 1.8 mm, well, 2001 tric heating of tube 2 mm 2 mm

TABLE 3 Absolute Mean Deviation (AMD) with Predicted Values for Reported Data Sets in Selected Papers
Absolute Mean Deviation (percent), Single-Phase Correlation Used 16.0, transition and turbulent flow

Details of the Experimental Data Analyzed The refrigerants used in the present study include R-11, R-12, R-113, R-123, R-124, R-134a, and R-141b. The mass flux range is between 50 and 1600 kg/m2s, and the heat flux range is between 5 and 600 kW/m2. Only those channel hydraulic diameters falling within the minichannel diameter range were investigated; the actual range of hydraulic diameters considered is from 400 m to 2.97 mm. Currently there are no complete sets of reported experimental data available for microchannels. In the present work, only those sets that reported complete data needed for analysis are included. Table 2 shows the details of the data sets considered. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Eight data sets from available literature are used in the present analysis since the detailed data tabulations for all sets reported in Table 2 were not available. The results of comparison with the present correlations given by Equations 5a-5c and Equations 9 are shown in Table 3. In the following paraCH-03-13-1

Selected Paper Bao et al. (2000)

Kamidis and Ravigururajan 21.1, all turbulent flow (1999) Kim and Bang (2001) Lin et al. (1999) Lin et al. (2001) 27.9, all transition flow 12.3, laminar and transition flow 21.9, laminar and turbulent flow 19.7,* all turbulent flow 15.5, laminar and turbulent flow

Ravigururajan et al. (1996) 16.3, all laminar flow Wambsganss et al. (1993) Yan and Lin (1998)

* as calculated by Wambsganss et al. (1993) with original correlation by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b)

Figure 2 Wambsganss et al. (1993) R-113 data (points) compared to the present correlation (lines) using turbulent (Dittus-Boelter) single-phase correlation. Psat = 150 kPa; Re = 1,995, 2,013, and 1,934. graphs, only a few representative plots are displayed due to space constraints. Figure 2 shows a comparison of Wambsganss et al. (1993) data with the present correlation. The tube diameter is 2.92 mm with R-113 as the working fluid. Since the Reynolds number is around 2000, the use of Gnielinski or Dittus-Boelter correlations is not appropriate. Although not applicable, they are used to represent the turbulent behavior in the single-phase region. The Wambsganss et al. (1993) data falls close to the predictions using the Dittus-Boelter single-phase correlation, while using laminar flow equation results in significant underprediction. The flow structure is thus seen to be turbulent in character with Re around 2000. Although the use of the DittusBoelter correlation results in a very good agreement, its use is not justified as the Reynolds number of 2000 is well below the range of applicability of the Dittus-Boelter correlation. Figure 3 shows a comparison of the present correlation with Ravigururajan et al. (1996) data for R-124 in parallel rectanuglar channels with a hydraulic diameter of 0.425 mm. The Reynolds number range is between 217 and 626. The present correlation scheme results in a mean absolute deviation of 16.3% using the single-phase laminar flow correlation. Another data set by Yan and Lin (1998) is shown in Figure 4 for a Reynolds number of 525. Here the agreement for R134a in a 2-mm-diameter tube with the Kandlikar correlation using the laminar all-liquid-flow single-phase correlation is seen to be very good. An exhaustive data set obtained by Lin et al. (2001) covers a Reynolds number range of 535-2955 for R-141b. The low Reynolds number data are well represented by the laminar flow equation, while the higher Reynolds number data fall in the transition region. Details of the comparison with the
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Figure 3 Revigururajan et al. (1996) R-124 data (points) compared to the present correlation using laminar single-phase equation in rectangular channels. q = 50-600 W/m2; Re = 217-626.

Figure 4 Yan and Lin (1996) data (points) for R-134a compared to the correlation by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b) using laminar single-phase equation. G = 50kg/m2s, Re = 506. present correlation are shown in Figures 5 to 11 and discussed in the following paragraphs. Figure 5 shows a comparison of a series of data sets obtained by Lin et al. (2001) at a constant mass flux corresponding to Re = 1160. Using the laminar flow equation for fully developed flow, the Kandlikar correlation is seen to accurately predict the heat transfer coefficient as well the trends over the entire range of heat fluxes. Use of the turbulent flow correlation (Dittus-Boelter) results in a significant overprediction, although, as explained earlier, the Dittus-Boelter correlation is used simply to capture the turbulent flow characteristics.
5

Figure 5 Flow boiling data of Lin et al. (2001), Figure 3a, compared to the correlation by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b) using laminar single-phase correlation. Fluid = R-141b, dc = 1.1 mm, Ffl = 1.8, q = 11.3 - 53.3 kW/m2; ReLo = 1,156. Figures 6 to 8 show comparisons of specific data sets by Lin et al. (2001) with the present correlation using laminar and turbulent flow single-phase correlations. Effect of a systematic increase in Reynolds number on the correlation comparison is illustrated in these figures. Figure 6 shows the data for Re = 1089 for R-141b using the laminar (solid line) and turbulent (dashed line) correlations. The experimental data fall close to the prediction using the laminar single-phase correlation. The predicted trend in h vs. x also closely matches with the data. Figure 7 shows similar results for Re =1156. Figures 8, 9, and 10 show comparisons similar to those in Figures 6 and 7 but at increasing Re of 1600, 1970, and 2955, respectively. As Reynolds number increases, the agreement of data shifts from predictions using the laminar single-phase correlation toward the ones using the turbulent single-phase correlation. Although the Dittus-Boelter and Gnielinski correlations are employed here at such low values of Re, their use is intended to indicate the trends with the turbulent flow correlation. One could surmise from Figures 8 to 10 that the flow enters the transition region for Re above 1600. Figure 11 shows a plot for the same conditions as those in Figure 10 but for a higher value of heat flux. It is seen that the higher value of heat flux causes a shift toward the turbulent region. This indicates that the increased bubble nucleation, caused by higher heat flux, causes a shift toward the turbulent region. The transition in the single-phase all-liquid-flow correlation from laminar to turbulent is seen to depend on the channel hydraulic diameter and Reynolds number. A secondary effect due to heat flux is seen through Figures 10 and 11; however, further experimental data are needed to validate this effect. Figure 12 is a plot depicting the correlationlaminar, Dittus-Boelter, or Gnielinski for hLOthat results in the best agreement with the flow boiling data. For this plot, all data sets
6

Figure 6 Flow boiling data of Lin et al. (2001), Figure 4a, compared to the correlation by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b) using laminar and turbulent single-phase correlations; dc = 1.8 mm, q = 53.3 kW/m2, ReLO = 1089.

Figure 7 Flow boiling data of Lin et al. (2001), Figure 3a, compared to the correlation by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b) using laminar and turbulent single-phase correlations; dc = 1.1 mm, q = 34.6 kW/m2, ReLO = 1156. listed in Table 3 are included. It is seen that for ReLO below 1600, the use of the laminar flow correlation for hLO in Equations 5a to 5c predicts the data well in all cases except for one. For ReLO > 3000, the use of Gnielinski correlation provides the best results. In the intermediate region, between 1600 and 3000, the picture is not clear. Providing more accurate transition criteria is not possible at this stage since, in general, the transition region is very difficult to model. The additional complexity introduced by nucleation and two-phase flow makes it even more difficult to develop predictive techniques for flow boiling in the transition region of Re from about 1600 to 3000. The particular flow geometry leading to the test section, such as location of a bend,
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Figure 8 Flow boiling data of Lin et al. (2001), Figure 3b, compared to the correlation by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b) using laminar and turbulent single-phase correlations: dc = 1.1 mm, q = 36.2 kW/m2, ReLO = 1600. projections, or distributors, etc., also influences the transition from laminar to turbulent flow. As a recommendation, for ReLO > 3000, use of Gnielinski correlation is suggested, while the laminar single-phase correlation is recommended for ReLO < 1600. Further work is being done by the authors for developing an appropriate interpolation scheme in the region of 1600 < ReLO < 3000. CONCLUSIONS 1. The single-phase all-liquid flow in minichannels and microchannels is generally in the laminar region. The present work extends the range of the correlation by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b) by introducing the use of fully developed laminar flow equations, such as Equation 8, for the allliquid-flow heat transfer coefficient in Equations 5a through 5c. The transition between the laminar and turbulent flow, as seen through the single-phase all-liquid-flow correlation is not well defined. In general, the flow with ReLO < 1600 may be treated as fully developed laminar flow, while the flow may be considered in the transition region for 1600 < ReLO < 3000. The Gnielinski correlation is applicable for ReLO > 3000. An appropriate interpolation scheme needs to be developed in the region of 1600 < ReLO < 3000. The singlephase correlations are used in conjunction with the flow boiling correlation by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b) given by Equations 5a to 5c. The laminar to turbulent transition in the flow boiling depends on the all-liquid-flow Reynolds number, the channel hydraulic diameter, and, to a lesser extent, on the heat flux. Presence of two-phase flow and the nucleating bubbles appear to introduce additional complexity in the transition conditions.

Figure 9 Flow boiling data of Lin et al. (2001), Figure 7b, compared to the correlation by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b) using laminar and turbulent single-phase correlations: dc = 2 mm, q = 40.2 kW/m2, ReLO = 1970.

2.

Figure 10 Flow boiling data of Lin et al. (2001), Figure 4b, compared to the correlation by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b) using laminar and turbulent single-phase correlations: dc = 1.8 mm, q = 36.2 kW/m2, ReLO = 2995. 4. Based on the data analyzed in this work, it is seen that the trends in h versus x exhibited in minichannels are similar to those observed in conventional channels. The use of the laminar flow equation results in excellent agreement of the available experimental data with a correlation by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b). More accurate predictive methodology needs to be developed for predicting hLO in the transition region. Additional systematic experiments are recommended in the transition region before any refinements in the correlation can be made at this stage.
7

3.

5.

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Figure 11 Flow boiling data of Lin et al. (2001), Figure 4b, compared to the correlation by Kandlikar (1990, 1991b) using laminar and turbulent single-phase correlations: dc = 1.8 mm, q = 72.6 kW/m2, ReLO = 2995. 6. It is expected that additional changes may have to be incorporated in the correlation for very low Reynolds number flow in smaller diameter channels as the data become available in literature.

Figure 12 Flow boiling correlation map. Plot of hydraulic diameter versus Reynolds number showing which Nusselt Number correlation is used to predict hLO. T x V = temperature, C = quality = flow volume, m3

Greek letters = viscosity, kg/m-s = density, kg/m3

NOMENCLATURE As Bo Co D dc f FFl Fr hLO hTP iLG kL L Nu NuH NuT q, q ReLO = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = heat transfer surface area, m2 boiling number, = q/(GiLG) convection number, = (G/L)0.5((1-x)/x)0.8 tube diameter, m channel hydraulic diameter, m friction factor fluid-surface parameter recommended by Kandlikar (1990, 1991a) Froude number all-liquid-flow single-phase heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 C two-phase heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 C latent heat of vaporization, J/kg thermal conductivity of liquid, W/mC length of tube, m Nusselt number Nusselt number for constant heat flux boundary condition Nusselt number for constant temperature boundary condition heat flux, W/m2 all liquid flow Reynolds number

REFERENCES Bao, Z.Y., et al. 2000. Flow boiling heat transfer of Freon R11 and HCFC123 in narrow passages. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 43: 3347-3358. Chawla, J.M. 1967. Warmeubergang und Druckabfall in waagrechten Rohren bei der Stromung von verdampfenden Kaltemitteln. VDI-Forschungsheft, No. 523. Chen, J.C. 1966. A correlation for boiling heat transfer to saturated fluids in convective flow, industrial and engineering chemistry. Process Design and Development 5(3): 322-329. Gnielinski, V. 1976. New equations for heat and mass transfer in turbulent pipe and channel Flow. International Chemical Engineer 16: 359-368. Gungor, K.E., and R.H.S. Winterton. 1987. Simplified general correlation for saturated flow boiling and comparisons of correlations with data. Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering 65(1): 148-156. Kakac, S., R.K. Shah, and W. Aung. 1987. Handbook of Single-Phase Convective Heat Transfer, Chapter 3, Laminar convective heat transfer in ducts. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Kamidis, D.E., and T.S. Ravigururajan. 1999. Single and two-phase refrigerant flow in mini-channels. Proceed-

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ings of 33rd National Heat Transfer Conference, Albuquerque, NM, Aug 15-17. Kandlikar, S.G. 1990. A general correlation for saturated two-phase flow boiling heat transfer inside horizontal and vertical tubes. ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 112: 219-228. Kandlikar, S.G. 1991a. Development of a flow boiling map for subcooled and saturated flow boiling of different fluids in circular tubes. Journal of Heat Transfer 113; 190200. Kandlikar, S.G. 1991b. A model for predicting the two-phase flow boiling heat transfer coefficient in augmented tube and compact heat exchanger geometries. Journal of Heat Transfer 113: 966-972. Kandlikar, S.G. 1998. Heat transfer and flow characteristics in partial boiling, fully developed boiling, and significant void flow regions of subcooled flow boiling. Journal of Heat Transfer 120: 395-401. Kandlikar, S.G. 2001a. High speed photographic observation of flow boiling in parallel minichannels. Paper No. NHTC01-11262, presented at the ASME National Heat Transfer Coneference, Anaheim, CA, June 10-12. Kandlikar, S.G. 2001b. Heat transfer, pressure drop and flow patterns during flow boiling in parallel channel compact heat exchangers of small hydraulic diameters. Keynote Lecture, Engineering Foundation Conference on Compact Heat Exchangers, Davos, Switzerland, July 1-5, 2001, also published in Heat Transfer Engineering 23(5): 5-23. Kandlikar, S.G. 2002a. Fundamental issues related to flow boiling in minichannels and microchannels. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26(2-4): 389-407. Kandlikar, S.G. 2002b. Flow boiling heat transfer coefficient in minichannels Correlation and trends. Paper to be publsihed in the Proceedings of the International Heat Transfer Conference, 12, held at Grenoble, France. Kandlikar, S.G., and L. Campbell. 2002. Effect of entrance condition on frictional losses and transition to turbulence. Paper # IMECE2002-34573, 5 p., Paper presented at the IMECE 2002, New Orleans, Nov. 17-22. Kandlikar, S.G., and W.J. Grande. 2002. Evolution of microchannel flow passages Thermohydraulic performance

and fabrication. Paper # IMECE2002-32043, 13 p., Paper presented at the IMECE 2002, New Orleans, Nov. 17-22. Kim, J., and K. Bang. 2001. Evaporation heat transfer of refrigerant R-22 in small hydraulic-diameter tubes. Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Multiphase Flow, May 27- June 1. Lakshminarasimhan, M.S., D.K. Hollingsworth, and L.C. Witte. 2000. Boiling incipience in narrow channels. HTD-Vol. 366-4, Proceedings of the ASME Heat Transfer Division 2000, ASME IMECE 2000, Vol. 4, pp. 5563. Lin, S., P.A. Kew, and K. Cornwell. 1999. Two-phase evaporation in a 1mm diameter tube. Proceedings of 6th UK Heat Transfer Conference. Lin, S., P.A. Kew, and K. Cornwell. 2001. Flow boiling of refrigerant R141B in small tubes. Trans IChemE 79, part A (2001): 417-424. Petukhov, B.S., and V.N. Popov. 1963. Theoretical calculation of heat exchanger in turbulent flow in tubes of an incompressible fluid with variable physical properties. High Temp. 1(1): 69-83. Ravigururajan, T.S., J. Cuta, C.E. McDonald, and M.K. Drost. 1996. Effects of heat flux on two-phase flow characteristics of refrigerant flows in a micro-channel heat exchanger. Proceedings of National Heat Transfer Conference HTD-329, pp. 167-178. Shah, M.M. 1982. Chart correlation for saturated boiling heat transfer: Equations and further study. ASHRAE Transactions 88(1): 185-196. Wambsganss, M.W., D.M. France, J.A. Jendrzejczyk, and T.N. Tran. 1993. Boiling heat transfer in a horizontal small-diameter tube. Journal of Heat Transfer 115: 963972. Warrier, G.R., T. Pan, and V.K. Dhir. 2001. Heat transfer and pressure drop in narrow rectangular channels. Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Multiphase Flow, May 27- June 1. Yan, Y., and T. Lin. 1998. Evaporation heat transfer and pressure drop of refrigerant R-134a in a small pipe. International Journal of heat and Mass Transfer 41: 41834194.

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