1 Rotation of a Vector

v =

ON +

NW +

WV (1.1)

ON = (u n) n (1.2)

ON +

NU = u (1.3)
using (1.2)

NU = u (u n) n (1.4)
Then the unit vector in the direction

NU is given by

NU

unit
=
u (u n) n
|u (u n) n|
(1.5)
and

NW =

NU

unit
|

NV | cos (1.6)
=
(u (u n) n)
|u (u n) n|
|

NV | cos (1.7)
Now

WV = (

WV )
unit
|

NV | sin (1.8)
=
u n
|u||n| sin
|

NV | sin (1.9)
Using (1.2), (1.7) and (1.9) in (1.1) we have
v = (u n) n +
(u (u n) n)
|u (u n) n|
|

NV | cos +
u n
|u||n| sin
|

NV | sin (1.10)
From the gure
|

NV | = |

NU| = |u (u n) n| = |u| sin (1.11)

Also |n| = 1, therefore (1.10) can be written as
v = (u n) n +
(u (u n) n)
|

NV |
|

NV | cos +
u n
|

NV |
|

NV | sin (1.12)
v = (u n) n + (u (u n) n) cos + (u n) sin (1.13)
v = (1 cos ) (u n) n +ucos + (u n) sin (1.14)
1
2 Vector Derivatives
Assume point U is xed in the body frame F
b
F
b
rotatting about s
Recall the rotation formula
v = (1 cos ) (u n) n +ucos + (u n) sin (2.1)
and apply the small angle approximation to get
u + u = u + ( s u) (2.2)
Then divide by small increment of time to get
u
t
=

u
Let limt 0 to get
r

u = s

u =
b/r
u
If point U is also moving in F
b
we have
r

u =
b

u +
b/r
u
This is known as the equation of Coriolis
3 Velocity and Acceleration in Moving Frames
We want to relate the velocities and accelerations in two frames
I
0
k
F
a
F
b
r
Q/O
P
r
P/O
r
P/Q
Q
O
r
P/O
= r
Q/O
+r
P/Q
(3.1)
2
Taking the derivative in the frame F
a
a

r
P/O
=
a

r
Q/O
+
a

r
P/Q
(3.2)
v
P/a
= v
Q/a
+v
P/b
+
b/a
r
P/Q
(3.3)
v
Q/a
and
b/a
determined by onboard navigation system. v
P/b
and r
P/Q
determined by onboard
radar. Now v
P/a
can be computed.
Deriving (3.3) again we have
a

v
P/a
=
a

v
Q/a
+
a

v
P/b
+
a

b/a
r
P/Q
+
b/a

r
P/Q
(3.4)
a
P/a
=a
Q/a
+a
P/b
+
b/a
v
P/b
+
b/a
r
P/Q
+
b/a

v
P/b
+
b/a
r
P/Q

(3.5)
Denition 3.1 (Transport Acceleration/Velocity) Acceleration/Velocity in F
a
of a point
xed in F
b
that is instantaneously coincident with P.
Rearranging (3.3) and (3.5) we have
v
P/a
= v
P/b
+
Transport Velocity
. .. .
v
Q/a
+
b/a
r
P/Q
(3.6)
and
a
P/a
=a
P/b
+
Transport Acceleration
. .. .
a
Q/a
+
b/a
r
P/Q
+
Centripetal Acceleration
. .. .

b/a

b/a
r
P/Q

+
Coriolis Acceleration
. .. .
2
b/a
v
P/b
(3.7)
Note that the non-transport terms vanish if point P is xed in F
b
.
Example 3.1 (Acceleration in Earth Fixed Frame) Let F
a
= F
i
i.e. the ECI Frame
and F
b
= F
e
i.e. the ECEF Frame. Then O and Q represent the centers of these two frames and
we have
a
P/i
=a
P/e
+a
Q/i
+
e/i
r
P/Q
+
e/i

e/i
r
P/Q

+ 2
e/i
v
P/e
(3.8)
Note that
a
Q/i
= 0 since the centers of the two frames coincide

e/i
= 0 since the Earth rotation rate is approximately constant
r
P/Q
is the geocentric position vector
The acceleration in the ECEF frame is thus given by
a
P/e
=a
P/i

e/i

e/i
r
P/Q

2
e/i
v
P/e
(3.9)
3
4 Cross Product Matrix

b
=

P
Q
R

V
b
=

U
V
W

(4.1)

V
b
=

i

j

k
P Q R
U V W

i (QW RV )

j (PW RU) +

k (PV QU) (4.2)

b
=

QW RV
RU PW
PV QU

0 R Q
R 0 P
Q P 0

U
V
W

=
b

V
b
(4.3)

b
is known as the cross product matrix. Note the
b
is skew symmetric i.e.

T
=
b
.
For triple vector product

b
=
b

b
=
b

V
b
=

V
b
(4.4)
5 Coordinate Rotation

...............................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...........................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
x
a
x
b
y
a
y
b
u
u
a
=

x
a
y
a

u
b
=

x
b
y
b

(5.1)
u
b
= C
b/a
u
b
(5.2)
6 Properties of Rotation Matrices

u
b

T
u
b
=

C
b/a
u
a

T
C
b/a
u
a
= (u
a
)
T
C
T
b/a
C
b/a
u
a
(6.1)
4
Since length is preserved

u
b

T
u
b
= (u
a
)
T
u
a
(6.2)
therefore
C
T
b/a
C
b/a
= I (6.3)
or
C
T
b/a
= C
1
b/a
(6.4)
This implies that a rotation matrix is orthogonal i.e the columns of a rotation matrix form an
orthonormal set.
Let
C =

c
1
c
2
c
3

(6.5)
then
C
T
=

c
T
1
c
T
2
c
T
3

(6.6)
and
C
T
C =

c
T
1
c
T
2
c
T
3

c
1
c
2
c
3

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

c
T
i
c
j
=

0 if i = j
1 if i = j
(6.7)
Also since (using column interpretation of matrix multiplication)
c
1
= C

1
0
0

c
2
= C

0
1
0

c
3
= C

0
0
1

(6.8)
the columns of the rotation matrix give us the representation of the unit vectors (standard basis)
of the old basis in the new basis. That is, time varying columns of C represent xed vectors in the
reference frame.
Consider the product of transformation matrices
u
d
=
C
d/a
. .. .
C
d/c
C
c/b
C
b/a
u
a
(6.9)
Then
C
1
d/a
=

C
d/c
C
c/b
C
b/a

1
= C
1
b/a
C
1
c/b
C
1
d/c
= C
T
b/a
C
T
c/b
C
T
d/c
=

C
d/c
C
c/b
C
b/a

T
= C
T
d/a
(6.10)
and so the product of transformation matrices is also an orthogonal matrix. Rotation matrices do
not commute (Matrix multiplication in general does not commute). (Use Duster Example).
Let be an eigen value of C and let v be the corresponding eigen vector, then
Cv = v and v

C
T
= v

(6.11)
therefore
v

C
T
Cv = v

v v

v = v

v v

v = = 1 (6.12)
It follows that
( j) ( + j) = 1
2
+
2
= 1 || = 1 (6.13)
For a 3 3 rotation matrix only one real eigen value with magnitude equal to one.
5
7 Euler Angles
The orientation of one cartesian coordinate system w.r.t another can always be described
by three successive rotations, and the angles of rotation are called euler angles.
Euler angles unique orientation (7.1)
Euler angles do not commute. Euler angle system used in aircraft where 0 < 2,
/2 /2 and 0 2 T
E

i
x
0
x
1 y
0
y
1

O
Consider rst a positive rotation about the z-axis which takes you from F
0
to F
1
ox
1
= cos ox
0
+ sin oy
0
(7.2)
oy
1
= sin ox
0
+ cos oy
0
(7.3)
or

ox
1
oy
1
oz
1

=
C

=C
1/0
. .. .

cos sin 0
sin cos 0
0 0 1

ox
0
oy
0
oz
0

(7.4)
T
E

i
z
1
z
2 x
1
x
2

O
The next rotation is a positive rotation about the y-axis which takes you from F
1
to F
2
ox
2
= cos ox
1
sin oz
1
(7.5)
oz
2
= sin ox
1
+ cos oz
1
(7.6)
or

ox
2
oy
2
oz
2

=
C

=C
2/1
. .. .

cos 0 sin
0 1 0
sin 0 cos

ox
1
oy
1
oz
1

(7.7)
6
T
E

i
y
2
y
3 z
2
z
3

O
The nal rotation is a positive rotation about the x-axis which takes you from F
2
to F
3
oy
3
= cos oy
2
sin oz
2
(7.8)
oz
3
= sin oy
2
+ cos oz
2
(7.9)
or

ox
3
oy
3
oz
3

=
C

=C
3/2
. .. .

1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos

ox
2
oy
2
oz
2

(7.10)
The complete rotation from frame 0 to frame 3 is given by

ox
3
oy
3
oz
3

=
C
b/r
. .. .
C

ox
0
oy
0
oz
0

(7.11)
where
C
b/r
=

cos cos cos sin sin

cos sin + sin sin cos cos cos + sin sin sin sin cos
sin sin + cos sin cos sin cos + cos sin sin cos cos

(7.12)
In short hand notation
C
b/r
=

cc cs s
cs + ssc cc + sss sc
ss + csc sc + css cc

(7.13)
When = /2 it reduces to
C
b/r
=

0 0 1
cs + sc cc + ss 0
ss + cc sc + cs 0

(7.14)
Notice that the lower left 2 2 sub-matrix is symmetric i.e. of diagonal terms are the same. For
the diagonal terms to be the same
cs + sc = sc + cs 2cs = 2sc
s
c
=
s
c
tan = tan (7.15)
the tangent function repeats after 180

e.g. if = 30 then rotation matrix the same for = 30

and = 150.
7
8 Matrix Kinematic Relationships for Rotations
Let the angular Velocity be given by

b
b/r
=

P
Q
R

(8.1)
and let the rate of rotation of the Euler angles be

,

and

then
P =

, Q =

and R =

(8.2)
Consider for example the case where the aircraft is a 90 deg role and has a pitch rate of 45 deg/sec,
then in terms of Euler angles it has a yaw rate of 45 deg/sec.

P
Q
R

=
aboutx
3
=x
2
. .. .

0
0

+C

abouty
2
=y
1
. .. .

+C

aboutz
1
=z
0
. .. .

0
0

(8.3)
or

P
Q
R

1 0 s
0 c sc
0 s cc

(8.4)
but we are interested in determining the euler angle rates from boy axis angular rates provided by
on board gyros, therefore

=
H()
. .. .

1 ts tc
0 c s
0 s/c c/c

P
Q
R

(8.5)
or

= H()
b
b/r
(8.6)
Note that

is an array of angular rates from dierent frames therefore it is not a vector.
A singularity occurs at = /2
Integration of

may lead to values outside the Euler angle rate as integration is not cyclic.
H() is not a rotation matrix as it is formulated by projecting of angular rates in dierent
frames to the body frame and then taking the inverse of the resulting matrix.
(8.6) is known as the Eulers Kinematic Equation
8
9 Poissons Kinematic Equations
We know that
u
b
= C
b/r
u
r
(9.1)
Deriving the i
th
column of C
b/r
with respect to time we have
r

c
i
=
b

c
i
+
b
b/r
c
i
(9.2)
Now since the time varying columns of C
b/r
represent xed vectors in F
r
r
c
i
= 0 and we have
b

c
1
=
b
b/r
c
1
(9.3)
b

c
2
=
b
b/r
c
2
(9.4)
b

c
3
=
b
b/r
c
3
(9.5)
Arranging these vectors in columns we have

b
c
1
b
c
2
b
c
3

=
b
b/r

c
1
c
2
c
3

(9.6)
or
b

C
b/r
=
b
b/r
C
b/r
(9.7)
Using the cross product matrix of
b
b/r
we may write
b

C
b/r
=
b
b/r
C
b/r
(9.8)
Equation (9.8) is known as Poissonss Kinematical Equations or the Strap Down Equations. Note
that the following about the strap down equations
They are singularity free
There is a large amount of redundancy and the computation burden is larger since nine scalar
equations have to be integrated
They provide us with the rotation matrix directly
The euler angles can also be computed using = sin
1
(C
13
), = arctan 2(C
23
, C
33
) and
= arctan 2(C
12
, C
11
)
10 Quaternions
Because of the non-unique Rotation matrix at = /2, classical Euler angles are not suitable
for vertically launched missiles and high performance aircraft. In these applications quaternions are
used
Quaternions are a four parameter systems motivated by the Eulers Theorem
9
11 Mathematics of Quaternions
Consider the two quaternions
p =

p
0
p

and q =

q
0
q

(11.1)
There product is given by
p q =

p
0
q
0
p q
p
0
q + q
0
p + p q

(11.2)
Non-Commutativity

p q

q p

0
( p q) (q p)

0
2 ( p q)

(11.3)
Quaternion norm
q =
3

i=0
q
i
=

q
2
0
+q q

(11.4)
Norm of a product
p q = pq (11.5)
Quaternion Inverse
q q
1
=

q
0
q

1
q

q
0
q

=
1
q

q
2
0
+q q

(11.6)
Inverse of a product

p q

1
= q
1
p
1
(11.7)
12 Vector Rotation Using Quaternion
A vector is a quaternion with a zero scalar part
u =

0
u

(12.1)
Want to rotate a vector by multiplying it with a quaternion
The result must
Have a zero scalar part
Reversible by inverse quaternion
Preserve Euclidean length
v = q u does not fulll these requirements
10
and therefore
u q =

u q
q
0
u +u q

(12.2)
therefore
v = q
1
u q =
1
q

q
0
q

u q
q
0
u +u q

=
1
q

q
0
(u q) +q (q
0
u +u q)
q
0
(q
0
u +u q) + (u q) q q (q
0
u +u q)

=
1
q

0
q
2
0
u + 2q
0
(u q) +q (u q) q (u q)

(12.3)
Now using the vector identity
a

b c

= (a c)

c (12.4)
we have
v =
1
q

0
q
2
0
u + 2q
0
(u q) +q (u q) (q q) u + (q u) q

=
1
q

0
2q (u q) + (q
2
0
q q) u + 2q
0
(u q)

(12.5)
Dene the quaternion
q

=

cos (/2)
cos sin (/2)
cos sin (/2)
cos sin (/2)

cos (/2)
sin (/2) n

(12.6)
where cos , cos and cos represent the directional cosines i.e.
cos =
q
x
q
cos =
q
y
q
cos =
q
z
q
(12.7)
Then
q = cos
2
(/2) + sin
2
(/2)

cos
2
+ cos
2
+ cos
2

= 1 (12.8)
With this denition of q we have
v = 2 sin
2
(/2) n( n u) +

cos
2
(/2) sin
2
(/2)

u + 2 cos (/2) sin (/2) (u n)

= (1 cos ) n( n u) + (cos ) u + sin (u n) (12.9)
Which is nothing but the rotation formula
13 Quaternion Kinematic Equations
Consider a body rotating about the unit vector n with angular rate i.e. = n. The
orientation of the body at time t, with respect to the reference frame, is given by the quaternion
q
b/r
(t). Then the orientation at t + t is given by q
b/r
(t) q
b/r
(t)
11
14 Geodesy, Earths Gravitation and Terrestrial Naviga-
tion
Denition 14.1 (Ephemerides) A table of values that gives the positions of astronomical
objects in the sky at a given time or times.
Denition 14.2 (Geoid) The equipotential surface of Earths gravity eld that coincides
with the undisturbed mean sea level, extended continuously under the Earths surface.
Earths irregular mass distribution causes the geoid to be an undulating surface.
15 Rotational Motion
T
a
E
F
i
0
r
m
cm
F
b
v
m/i
= v
CM/i
+
b/i
r (15.1)
Angular momentum is the moment of linear momentum

h = r

v
CM/i
+
b/i
r

m (15.2)
(15.3)
Integrating over all mass elements

h =

V
CM/i

dm +

m
r

b/i
r

dm (15.4)

h =

m
r

b/i
r

dm (15.5)
Using the identity
u (v w) = v ( w u) w(u v) (15.6)
12
we have

h =

b/i
(r r) dm

m
r

r
b/i

dm (15.7)
Let

b
b/i
=

P
Q
R

and r
b
=

x
y
z

(15.8)
Then

h
b
=

P
Q
R

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2

dm

x
y
z

(Px + Qy + Rz) dm
=

(Px
2
+ Py
2
+ Pz
2
) (Px
2
+ Qxy + Rxz)
(Qx
2
+ Qy
2
+ Qz
2
) (Pxy + Qy
2
+ Ryz)
(Rx
2
+ Ry
2
+ Rz
2
) (Pxz + Qyz + Rz
2
)

dm (15.9)
=

m
(y
2
+ z
2
)dmQ

m
xydmR

m
xzdm
P

m
yxdm + Q

m
(x
2
+ z
2
)dmR

m
yzdm
P

m
xzdmQ

m
yzdm + R

m
(x
2
+ y
2
)dm

m
(y
2
+ z
2
)dm

m
xydm

m
xzdm

m
yxdm

m
(x
2
+ z
2
)dm

m
yzdm

m
xzdm

m
yzdm

m
(x
2
+ y
2
)dm

P
Q
R

J
xx
J
xy
J
xz
J
xy
J
yy
J
yz
J
xz
J
yz
J
zz

P
Q
R

= J
b

b
b/i
To represent the eect of the angular momentum of a rotary engine or propeller, we shall also add
a constant vector to the angular momentum vector, so that

h
b
= J
b

b
b/i
+ (15.10)
The moment (could be due to aerodynamic and / or thrust force) acting on the body produces a
rate of change of angular momentum

M
A,T
=
i

h =
b

h +
b
b/i

h
b
(15.11)
= J
b b

b
b/i
+
b
b/i
J
b

b
b/i
+
b
b/i
(15.12)
Therefore
b

b
b/i
=

J
b

M
A,T

b
b/i

J
b

b
b/i
+

(15.13)
16 Product of Inertia
Consider the cross-section C of a rigid body B of mass m in the x-y plane. The product of
inertia I
xy
of B is given by
I
xy
=

m
xy dm (16.1)
13
?
-
a -c
-b
d
Let denote the density of the B then dm = dV and
I
xy
=

V
xy dV =

x
xy dx dy dz (16.2)
where V represents the volume occupied by B. Let the contour of the of C be described the equation
y = f(x). Then
I
xy
=

x
xf(x) dx dy dz (16.3)
=

a
c
xf(x) dx

dy dz (16.4)
=

0
c
xf(x) dx +

a
0
xf(x) dx

dy dz (16.5)
Suppose that C is symmetric about the y-axis (The diagram in Fig ?? is not!). Then f(x) = f(x)
which in turn implies that c = a. Therefore
I
xy
=

0
a
xf(x) dx +

a
0
xf(x) dx

dy dz (16.6)
Consider the change of variables = x. Then
I
xy
=

0
a
()f() (d) +

a
0
xf(x) dx

dy dz (16.7)
=

0
a
f() d +

a
0
xf(x) dx

dy dz (16.8)
=

a
0
f() d +

a
0
xf(x) dx

dy dz (16.9)
= 0
Using similar arguments we can show that I
xy
= 0 if C is symmetric about x. Therefore the product
of inertia is zero if the body is symmetric about any one axis in a plane. An aircraft is symmetric
about the y-axis in the x-y plane and about the z-axis in y-z plane therefore I
xy
= I
yz
= 0.
17 Simplication due to Symmetry

M
A,T
= J
b b

b
b/i
+
b
b/i
J
b

b
b/i
+
b
b/i
(17.1)
14

l
m
n

J
xx
J
xy
J
xz
J
xy
J
yy
J
yz
J
xz
J
yz
J
zz

0 R Q
R 0 P
Q P 0

J
xx
J
xy
J
xz
J
xy
J
yy
J
yz
J
xz
J
yz
J
zz

P
Q
R

0 R Q
R 0 P
Q P 0

h
x
h
y
h
z

(17.2)
Because of aircraft symmetry about z-axis in y-z plane J
yz
= 0. Also an aircraft is symmetric
........................................................................
E
c
c
E
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
z
y
y
x
Top View
Rear View
about the x-axis in x-y plane therefore J
xy
= 0.

l
m
n

J
xx
0 J
xz
0 J
yy
0
J
xz
0 J
zz

0 R Q
R 0 P
Q P 0

J
xx
0 J
xz
0 J
yy
0
J
xz
0 J
zz

P
Q
R

0 R Q
R 0 P
Q P 0

h
x
h
y
h
z

(17.3)
It follows that
l = J
xx

P (J
yy
J
zz
) QR J
xz

PQ +

R

Rh
y
+ Qh
z
(17.4)
m = J
yy

Q + (J
xx
J
zz
) PR + J
xz

P
2
R
2

+ Rh
x
+ Ph
z
(17.5)
m = J
zz

R (J
xx
J
yy
) PQ + J
xz

QR

P

Qh
x
+ Ph
y
(17.6)
The angular accelerations are then given by

P =
1
. .. .

J
yy
J
zz
J
xx

QR+
2
. .. .
J
xz
J
xx

R + PQ

+
3
. .. .
(Rh
y
Qh
z
)
J
xx
+
4
....
l
J
xx
(17.7)

Q =

J
zz
J
xx
J
yy

PR +
J
xz
J
yy

R
2
P
2

(Rh
x
+ h
z
)
J
yy
+
m
J
yy
(17.8)

R =

J
xx
J
yy
J
zz

PQ +
J
xz
J
zz

P QR

+
(Qh
x
Ph
y
)
J
zz
+
n
J
zz
(17.9)
15
18 Gravity, Gravitation and Gravitation Constant

F = m

G = G
Mm
r
2
r =

G
M
r
2

m r (18.1)
Therefore

G = G
M
r
2
= (6.6742 10
11
)
5.9736 10
24
(6.37101 10
6
)
2
= 9.822 m s
2
(18.2)
19 Translational Motion
v
CM/i
=
i

P
CM/O
= v
CM/e
+
e/i

P
CM/O
(19.1)
Dierentiating
i

v
CM/i
= (1/m)

F
A,T
+

G =
b

v
CM/e
+
b/i
v
CM/e
+
e/i

P
CM/O
(19.2)
Substituting (19.1) in (19.2) we have
(1/m)

F
A,T
+

G =
b

v
CM/e
+
b/i
v
CM/e
+
e/i

v
CM/e
+
e/i

P
CM/O

(19.3)
It follows that
b

v
CM/e
= (1/m)

F
A,T
+

G
b/i
v
CM/e

e/i

v
CM/e
+
e/i

P
CM/O

= (1/m)

F
A,T
+

G
e/i

e/i

P
CM/O

b/i
+
e/i

v
CM/e
= (1/m)

F
A,T
+g

b/i
+
e/i

v
CM/e
= (1/m)

F
A,T
+g

b/v
+
v/e
+
e/i
+
e/i

v
CM/e
= (1/m)

F
A,T
+g

b/v
+
v/e
+ 2
e/i

v
CM/e
(19.4)
20 Nonlinear Aircraft Model
Oblate Rotating Earth
C
b/i
= f(q
b/i
) (20.1)
q
b/i
=
1
2
q
b/i

b
b/i
(20.2)
i

P
i
CM/O
= C
i/b
v
b
CM/e
+
i
e/i

P
i
CM/O
(20.3)
b

v
CM/e
= (1/m)

F
b
A,T
+ C
b/i
g
i

b
b/i
+
b
e/i

v
b
CM/e
(20.4)
b

b
b/i
=

J
b

M
b
A,T

b
b/i

J
b

b
b/i
+

(20.5)
16
For at (centripetal acceleration zero) non-rotating (
e/i
= 0) earth with orientation described in
terms of euler angles and with = 0
C
b/i
= f() (20.6)

= H()
b
b/e
(20.7)
e

P
n
CM/O
= C
n/b
v
b
CM/e
(20.8)
b

v
CM/e
= (1/m)

F
b
A,T
+ C
b/n
g
n

b
b/e
v
CM/e
(20.9)
b

b
b/i
=

J
b

M
b
A,T

b
b/e
J
b

b
b/i

(20.10)
21 Coordinated Universal Time
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)[1] is a time standard based on International Atomic
Time (TAI) with leap seconds added at irregular intervals to compensate for the Earths slowing
rotation.[2] Leap seconds are used to allow UTC to closely track UT1, which is mean solar time at
the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.
The dierence between UTC and UT1 is not allowed to exceed 0.9 seconds so, if high precision
is not required, the general term Universal Time (UT) may be used.[3]
In casual use, when fractions of a second are not important, Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
can be considered equivalent to UTC or UT1. In fact, saying GMT often implies either UTC or
UT1. For this reason, saying GMT is generally avoided in technical contexts, with an unambigu-
ous terminology of UTC or UT1 preferred instead.[3]
22 Sidereal Angle
Earth Rotation Angle (ERA, which serves as a modern replacement for Greenwich Mean
Sidereal Time). UT1 is required to follow the relationship
ERA = 2(0.7790572732640 + 1.00273781191135448T
u
)radians (22.1)
where
T
u
= (Julian UT1 date 2451545.0) (22.2)
23 Basic Aerodynamics
Theorem 23.1 (Continuity) For an incompressible uid
Q = A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2
(23.1)
In uid dynamics, the continuity equation is a mathematical statement that, in any steady state
process, the rate at which mass enters a system is equal to the rate at which mass leaves the system.
[1] In uid dynamics, the continuity equation is analogous to Kirchhos Current Law in electric
circuits.
17
The dierential form of the continuity equation is:

t
+ (u) = 0 (23.2)
where is uid density, t is time, and u is uid velocity. If density is a constant, as in the
case of incompressible ow, the mass continuity equation simplies to a volume continuity equation:
u = 0 (23.3)
which means that the divergence of velocity eld is zero everywhere. Physically, this is equiv-
alent to saying that the local volume dilation rate is zero.
Theorem 23.2 (Bernoullis)
p
1
+
1
2
v
2
1
+ h
1
g = p
2
+
1
2
v
2
2
+ h
2
g (23.4)
Denition 23.1 (Free Stream Velocity) It is the velocity, relative to the aerofoil, mea-
sured ahead of the Aerofoil at a sucient distance that the ow there is unaected by the presence
of the aerofoil. It is also know as relative wind.
Denition 23.2 (Stagnation Point) A point in a ow eld where the local velocity of the
uid is zero. Stagnation points exist at the surface of objects in the ow eld, where the uid is
brought to rest by the object. The Bernoulli equation shows that the static pressure is highest when
the velocity is zero and hence static.
Denition 23.3 (Chord Line)
Denition 23.4 (Mean Line)
Denition 23.5 (Chamber)
Denition 23.6 (Angle of Attack )
Denition 23.7 (Reynolds Number) In uid mechanics, the Reynolds number Re is a
dimensionless number that gives a measure of the ratio of inertial forces

V
2
l

to viscous forces

V
l
2

and consequently quanties the relative importance of these two types of forces for given ow
conditions.
R
e
=
lV
T

The concept was introduced by George Gabriel Stokes in 1851,[1] but the Reynolds number is named
after Osborne Reynolds (18421912), who popularized its use in 1883.[2][3]
Reynolds numbers frequently arise when performing dimensional analysis of uid dynamics
problems, and as such can be used to determine dynamic similitude between dierent experimental
cases. They are also used to characterize dierent ow regimes, such as laminar or turbulent
ow: laminar ow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are dominant, and is
characterized by smooth, constant uid motion, while turbulent ow occurs at high Reynolds numbers
and is dominated by inertial forces, which tend to produce random eddies, vortices and other ow
instabilities.
18
Denition 23.8 (Laminar Flow) Velocity and Pressure Change gradually in space and
time. Fluid ows in parallel layers. Laminar ow is a ow regime characterized by high momentum
diusion and low momentum convection.
The resultant of pressure force and skin friction force is the resultant aerodynamic force on the
aerofoil.
Thus at low speeds, when the angle of attack is generally large, most of the aerodynamic
force is due to the angle of attack dependent contribution and the cp is nearer to the quarter chord
point. On the other hand, at high speeds, when the angle of attack is generally small, a larger
contribution to the aerodynamic force is due to the camber dependent component and the cp is
nearer to the midpoint of the chord. Thus, in the limit the cp of an aerofoil generally lies between
the quarter chord and mid-chord points.
24 Static and Dynamic Stability
If the airplane is disturbed, for example, by atmospheric turbulence, and noses up slightly
(angle of attack increases), the airplane is no longer in equilibrium. If the new forces and moments,
caused by the angle-of-attack increase, produce a tendency to nose up still further, the airplane
is statically unstable and its motion will diverge from equilibrium. If the initial tendency of the
airplane is to hold the disturbed position, the airplane has neutral static stability. On the other
hand, if restoring forces and moments are generated by the airplane that tend initially to bring it
back to its equilibrium straight and level condition, it is statically stable.
If it is assumed that the airplane is statically stable, it may undergo three forms of motion
with time. (1) It may nose down, overshoot, nose-up, overshoot to a smaller degree, and eventually
return to its former equilibrium condition of straight and level ight. This type of decaying oscilla-
tory motion indicates that the airplane is dynamically stable. (2) It may continue to nose up and
down thereafter at a constant amplitude. The airplane is said to have neutral dynamic stability.
Or, in the worst case, (3) it may nose up and down with increasing magnitude and be dynamically
unstable. A statically stable aircraft can be dynamically stable!
An airplane may be dynamically unstable and still be yable if the pilot uses control by
working the elevators. But, ideally, the pilot should not need to do this. An airplane of this design
has poor ying qualities. An airplane that is statically and dynamically stable can be own hands
o by a pilot with no control necessary except to change the equilibrium ight condition.
Longitudinal stability and control is concerned with an airplanes pitching motion, lateral
stability and control relates to an airplanes rolling motion, and directional stability and control
relates to an airplanes yawing motion. Lateral and directional stability are closely interrelated and,
therefore, the two are sometimes simply referred to as lateral stability.
The horizontal position of the center of gravity has a great eect on the static stability of the
wing, and hence, the entire airplane static stability. If the center of gravity is suciently forward
of the aerodynamic center, then the airplane is statically stable. If the center of gravity of the
airplane is moved toward the tail suciently, there is a pointthe neutral pointwhere the moment
curve becomes horizontal; this airplane is neutrally stable. If the center of gravity is moved farther
back, the moment curve has positive slope, and the airplane is longitudinally unstable. Likewise, if
the center of gravity is moved forward toward the nose too far, the pilot will not be able to generate
enough force on the tail to raise the angle of attack to achieve the maximum lift coecient.
With power o, the usable center-of-gravity range is relatively large. There are, however,
19
additional factors that reduce the usable center-of-gravity range. These include engine-on thrust
eects and ground eects (including landing gear, aps, and other considerations). To ensure that
the actual center of gravity of the airplane falls within the usable range, an airplane is carefully
designed and loaded. For example, there are cases of transport airplanes crashing because the
airplane was loaded or the cargo shifted in ight so that the center of gravity fell outside the range
of usable limits. The airplane then became unstable. The location of the center of gravity is an
important factor in a stable airplane.
The horizontal tail is the main controllable moment contributor to the complete airplane
moment curve. A larger horizontal tail will give a more statically stable airplane than a smaller
tail (assuming, as is the normal case, that the horizontal tail lies behind the center of gravity of
the airplane). Of course, its distance from the center of gravity is important. The farther away
from the center of gravity it is, the more it enhances the static stability of the airplane. The tail
eciency factor depends on the tail location with respect to the airplane wake and slipstream of
the engine, and power eects. By design it is made as close to 100 percent eciency as possible for
most static stability.
Finally, with respect to the tail, the downwash from the wing is of considerable importance.
Air is deected downward when it leaves a wing, and this deection of air results in the wing reaction
force or lift. This deected air ows rearward and hits the horizontal-tail plane. If the airplane is
disturbed, it will change its angle of attack and the downwash angle also changes. The degree to
which it changes directly aects the tails eectiveness. Hence, it will reduce the stability of the
airplane. For this reason, the horizontal tail is often located in a location such that it is exposed to
as little downwash as possible, such as high on the tail assembly.
Upward Pitching Moment is positive. Moment zero when pivot axis through center of pres-
sure.
Positive pitch stiness is associated with a negative slope of the pitching-moment versus
alpha curve. Positive pitch stiness is not sucient to ensure dynamics stability, but the aircraft
dynamic stability will later seen to be dominated by the static stability conditions.
25 Dynamic Derivatives
When an aircraft is maneuvering the ow eld is also changing, causing aerodynamic coe-
cients to dier from their static values
In general requires a dierential equation model of force or coecient
As a rst order approximation we can model aerodynamic forces and moments as being linearly
proportional to the angular rate that produced them
The constant of proportionality is called the aerodynamic derivative
there are two types of aerodynamic derivatives
Damping derivatives
Acceleration derivatives
20
Roll damping derivative
C
l
p

=
C
l
p
Change in coecient of rolling moment due to roll damping derivative
C
l
=
C
l
p

b
2V
T
p
pb/2V
T
is the dimensionless roll rate
In general
C
()
= C
()

k
2V
T
rate
k is a reference length with b being used for roll and yaw rates and c for pitch rate
Examples C
l
p
, C
m
q
, C
n
r
, C
l
r
, C
n
p
, C
L
q
, C
Y
p
and C
Y
r
When the aircraft has translational acceleration, the aerodynamic angles have non-zero rst deriva-
tives
tan =
W

Therefore

sec
2

=
U

(U

)
2
=

2
+

(U

)
2
W

(U

)
2
+ (W

)
2

T
T
T
T
c
c
c
c
M > 0, p > 0
Port Wing
Starboard Wing
21
E
T
E
E
E
E
E
Free Stream
Lift
Drag
Chord

E
T
q
q
q
q
q
Free Stream
Lift
Drag

Chord
26 Longitudinal Static Stability Analysis

M
CM
=

M
R,wb
+

M
c/4,t
+r
R

F
wb
+r
t

F
t
+

M
p
=

M
R,wb
+

M
c/4,t
+r
R

F
wb
+

r
R
+r
t/R

F
t
+

M
p
=

M
R,wb
+

M
c/4,t
+r
R

F
wb
+

F
t

+r
t/R

F
t
+

M
p
=

M
R,wb
+

M
c/4,t
+r
R

F
R
+r
t/R

F
t
+

M
p
=

M
R,wb
+

M
c/4,t
+x
R

F
N
+z
R

F
X
+x
t/R

F
t,N
+z
t/R

F
t,X
+

M
p
Assuming aircraft aerodynamic center, tail quarter chord and aircraft CG are at the same height
M
CM
= M
R,wb
+ M
c/4,t
+ x
R
F
N
+ x
t/R
F
t,N
+ M
p
= M
R,wb
+ M
c/4,t
+ x
R
F
N
+ (x
t
x
R
) F
t,N
+ M
p
= M
R,wb
+ M
c/4,t
+ x
R
(Lcos + Dsin )
+ (x
t
x
R
) [L
t
cos ( + i
t
) + D
t
sin ( + i
t
)] + M
p
Divide by qcS and introduce tail eciency
C
mCM
= C
mR,wb
+
c
t
S
t
C
mc/4,t
cS
+
x
R
c
[C
L
cos() + C
D
sin()]
+
S
t
(x
t
x
R
)
cS
[C
L
t
cos( + i
t
) + C
D
t
sin( + i
t
)] + C
m
p
where
C
mc/4,t
=
M
c/4,t
q
t
c
t
S
t
, C
L
t
=
L
t
q
t
S
t
, C
D
t
=
D
t
q
t
S
t
and =
q
t
q
Now dene
C

mR
= C
mR,wb
+
c
t
S
t
C
mc/4,t
cS
and V
H
=
S
t
(x
t
x
R
)
cS
22
Then
C
mCM
= C

mR
+
x
R
c
[C
L
cos + C
D
sin ]
V
H
[C
L
t
cos( + i
t
) + C
D
t
sin( + i
t
)] + C
m
p
(26.1)
Deriving with respect to alpha we have
C
m

=
C

mR

+
x
R
c
[C
L

cos C
L
sin + C
D

sin + C
D
cos ]
V
H

C
L
t
cos( + i
t
) + C
L
,t
cos( + i
t
) C
L
t
sin( + i
t
)

C
D
t
sin( + i
t
) + C
D
,t
sin( + i
t
) + C
D
t
cos( + i
t
)

+
C
m
p

Use small angle approximation and get rid of the sin terms.
C
m

=
C

mR

+
x
R
c
[C
L

cos + C
D
cos ]
V
H

C
L
t
cos( + i
t
) + C
L
,t
cos( + i
t
)
+C
D
t
cos( + i
t
)

+
C
m
p

Now use the approximations C

D
C
L

and C
D,t
C
L
,t
to get
C
m

=
C

mR

+
x
R
c
C
L

cos V
H

C
L
,t
+

C
L
t

cos( + i
t
) +
C
m
p

(26.2)
Also applying small angle approximation to (26.1) we get
C
mCM
= C

mR
+
x
R
c
C
L
cos V
H
C
L
t
cos( + i
t
) + C
m
p
= C
mR,wb
+
c
t
S
t
C
mc/4,t
cS
+
x
R
c
C
L
cos V
H
C
L
t
cos( + i
t
) + C
m
p
(26.3)
Consider rst (26.3). For equilibrium we require C
mCM
= 0.
1. The rst two terms on the right hand side of (26.3) are both negative. (Recall that C
mR
is
the moment about aerodynamic center due to camber forces)
2. In the third term C
L
, c and cos are all positive. The sign of this term depends on sign of x
R
,
which is negative (x
R
< 0) when wing body AC behind CG (C
m

< 0)and positive (x

R
> 0)
when wing body AC aft (ahead) of CG (C
m

> 0).
3. The last term will be small as long as thrust line is kept close to the CG
4. In the fourth term all terms are positive except for C
L
t
which depends on the camber of the
horizontal dail and is also adjustable through the trim tab as in conventional aircraft or an
all moving tail plane in y by ire aircraft such as the F-16.
Now consider (26.2). For static stability we require C
m

< 0.
1. The rst two terms on the right hand side small as aerodynamic center close to reference
point.
23
2. The sign of the third term will depend on the sign of C
L
t
(wether a positively or negatively
cambered aerofoil is used), since V
H
> 0 and > 0
3. The last term will be small as long as thrust line is kept close to the CG
4. The the fourth term / 2. C
L
t
in the fourth term is used to nullify the eect of the
second term and make C
m

< 0. If x
R
> 0 (ACCG) then require C
L
t
> 0. If x
R
< 0
(CGAC) then require C
L
t
< 0.
27 Neutral Point
Neutral point is the (hypothetical) cm position for which C
m

= 0. Since since there is no

change in moment with angle of attack, can be considered as the ac of the aircraft.
Consider the dimensionless pitching moment equation
C
m
CM
= C
m
R
+
x
R
c
C
N
+
z
R
c
C
X
+ C
m
p
(27.1)
Deriving w.r.t
C
m

=
C
m
R

+
x
R
c
C

N
() +
z
R
c
C

X
() + C

m
p
(27.2)
Let x
R/np
and z
R/np
be coordinates of the reference point when the coordinate system has its origin
at the neutral point then
0 = C
m
R
+
x
R/np
c
C
N
+
z
R/np
c
C
X
+ C
m
p
(27.3)
or
C
m
R
+ C
m
p
=
x
R/np
c
C
N

z
R/np
c
C
X
(27.4)
and therefore (27.2) can be written as
C
m

x
R
x
R/np

c
C

N
() +

z
R
z
R/np

c
C

X
() (27.5)
Since
C
N
= C
L
cos + C
D
sin (27.6)
C

N
= C
L

cos C
L
sin + C
D

sin + C
D
cos (27.7)
Using the approximation
C
L
sin
C
D
cos
C
D

sin

C
L

cos (27.8)
we have
C

N
= C
L

cos (27.9)
24
Using (27.8) in (27.5) and neglecting the z-coordinates
C
m

x
R
x
R/np

c
C
L

cos (27.10)
Now change the origin of the coordinate system to measure the distance from leading edge of mac
and divide distance by c
C
m

= (h
np
h
cm
) C
L

cos (27.11)
The term in parentheses is called the static margin. Typically h
cm
is 0.25 chords and h
np
is 0.3
chords providing a static margin of 0.05 chords.At high subsonic and supersonic speeds the ac and
therefore the np moves from close to 0.25c towards 0.5c leading to loss of maneuverability. High
performance aircraft thus may opt for RSS and thus require the use of FBW
28 Rate of Climb Constraint
We expect to specify altitude, speed and ight path angle

V
n
CM/e
= C
n/b
C
b/w
V
w
rel
(28.1)

V
n
CM/e
=

cc cs + ssc ss + csc
cs cc + sss sc + css
s sc cc

cc cs s
s c 0
sc ss c

V
T
0
0

cc cs + ssc ss + csc
cs cc + sss sc + css
s sc cc

V
T

cc
s
sc

(28.2)

V
n
D(CM/e)
= V
T
[s (c) + sc (s) + cc (sc)]
= V
T
[as + bc] (28.3)
where
a = cos cos (28.4)
and
b = sin sin + cos sin cos (28.5)
It follows that
V
T
sin = V
T
[a sin + b cos ] (28.6)
therefore
sin = a sin b cos (28.7)
Assume = /2 and divide by cos to get
sin sec = a tan b (28.8)
25
Taking the square of both sides
(sin )
2

1 + (tan )
2

= a
2
(tan )
2
2ab tan + b
2
(28.9)
Rearranging we have

a
2
(sin )
2

(tan )
2
2ab tan +

b
2
(sin )
2

= 0 (28.10)
which is quadratic in tan . It follows that
tan =
ab sin

a
2
+ b
2
(sin )
2

a
2
(sin )
2
(28.11)
To decide which sign to use, assume wings level = 0 and no side slip = 0 then
a = cos cos = cos (28.12)
and
b = sin sin + cos sin cos = sin (28.13)
consequently
tan =
cos sin sin

(cos )
2
+ (sin )
2
(sin )
2

(cos )
2
(sin )
2

=
cos sin sin cos

(cos )
2
(sin )
2

=
sin(2) sin(2)
2

(cos )
2
(sin )
2
(28.14)
Assuming small angles

22
2 [1
2
]
(28.15)
Since we know that for no side slip and wings level = + so we keep the positive sign and
tan =
ab + sin

a
2
+ b
2
(sin )
2

a
2
(sin )
2
(28.16)
so
= s
1
(, , , ) (28.17)
29 Coordinated Turn

V = RU PW + g
D
sin cos + (Y
A
+ Y
T
) /m (29.1)
26
In a coordinated turn forces along body xed y-axis sum to zero and in addition we have
the steady state condition

V = 0. Therefore
0 = RU PW + g
D
sin cos (29.2)
Recall

P
Q
R

1 0 s
0 c sc
0 s cc

Also a coordinated turn

=

= 0 therefore

P
Q
R

1 0 s
0 c sc
0 s cc

0
0

which means
P =

sin (29.3)
Q =

sin cos (29.4)
R =

cos cos (29.5)
Substituting in (29.3)and (29.5) in (29.2) we have

cos cos

sin

W = g
D
sin cos (29.6)
Also
U = V
T
cos cos
W = V
T
sin cos
Therefore
V
T

cos (cos cos cos + sin sin ) = g
D
sin cos (29.7)
Dene the component of acceleration normal to the aircraft trajectory
G

=
V
T

g
D
(29.8)
to get
G cos (cos cos + sin tan ) = sin (29.9)
Already have expression for tan i.e.
tan =
ab + sin

a
2
+ b
2
(sin )
2

a
2
(sin )
2

Solving simultaneously we get

tan = G

cos
cos

k
2
3
k
2
4
+ k
4
tan

k
5
(1 k
2
4
) +G
2
(sin )
2
(k
2
3
k
2
4
) (1 + k
5
tan
2
)
(29.10)
27
where
k
3
= 1 G tan sin (29.11)
k
4
=
sin
cos
(29.12)
k
5
= 1 +G
2
(cos )
2
(29.13)
Note that
= s
2
(V
T
, , , ) (29.14)
30 Analytic Linearization
The dierential equations representing aircraft the six DOF motion are in the form

x, x, u

= 0, (30.1)
where x is the state vector and u is the control vector. Around the point (x
0
, u
0
) the equations of
motion can be represented by

x
0
+

x, x
0
+ x, u
0
+ u

=

f

x, x
0
+ x, u
0
+ u

= 0 (30.2)
Performing a Taylor series expansion of

f about the point (x
0
, u
0
) we have

f (x
0
, u
0
) +

x = x
0
u = u
0

x +

f
x

x = x
0
u = u
0

x +

f
u

x = x
0
u = u
0

u + H.O.T = 0 (30.3)
Let x R
n
and u R
m
then

f : R
n+m
R
n
. Now dene
E

=

x = x
0
u = u
0

, (30.4)
A

=

f
x

x = x
0
u = u
0

(30.5)
and
B

=

f
u

x = x
0
u = u
0

. (30.6)
If we assume the excursion of the state (x) and control (u) about (x
0
, u
0
) to be small enough so
that quadratic and higher order terms in x and u can be neglected then
E

x =

f (x
0
, u
0
) + A x + B u (30.7)
28
Further more if (x
0
, u
0
) is an equilibrium point of (30.1) then

f (x
0
, u
0
) = 0 and therefore
E

x = A x + B u (30.8)
To see how E, A and B can be constructed explicitly, let

x, x, u

f
1
( x
1
, . . . , x
n
, x
1
, . . . , x
n
, u
1
, . . . , u
m
)
f
2
( x
1
, . . . , x
n
, x
1
, . . . , x
n
, u
1
, . . . , u
m
)
.
.
.
f
n
( x
1
, . . . , x
n
, x
1
, . . . , x
n
, u
1
, . . . , u
m
)

(30.9)
then
E =

f
1
x
1
f
1
x
2

f
1
x
n
f
2
x
1
f
2
x
2

f
2
x
n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
f
n
x
1
f
n
x
2

f
n
x
n

x = x
0
u = u
0

x
f
1

x
f
2
.
.
.

x
f
n

x = x
0
u = u
0

, (30.10)
A =

f
1
x
1
f
1
x
2

f
1
x
n
f
2
x
1
f
2
x
2

f
2
x
n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
f
n
x
1
f
n
x
2

f
n
x
n

x = x
0
u = u
0

x
f
1

x
f
2
.
.
.

x
f
n

x = x
0
u = u
0

, (30.11)
and
B =

f
1
u
1
f
1
u
2

f
1
u
m
f
2
u
1
f
2
u
2

f
2
u
m
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
f
n
u
1
f
n
u
2

f
n
u
m

x = x
0
u = u
0

u
f
1

u
f
2
.
.
.

u
f
n

x = x
0
u = u
0

. (30.12)
31 Eigen Vectors & System Modes
x = Ax + Bu (31.1)
Pre-multiply by e
At
to get
e
At
x = e
At
Ax + e
At
Bu (31.2)
or
e
At
x e
At
Ax = e
At
Bu (31.3)
which can be written as
d
dt

e
At
x

= e
At
Bu (31.4)
29
Integrating we have
e
At
x(t) e
At
0
x(t
0
) =

t
t
0
e
A
Bu()d (31.5)
or
e
At
x(t) = e
At
0
x(t
0
) +

t
t
0
e
A
Bu()d (31.6)
Now pre-multiply by e
At
to get
x(t) = e
A(tt
0
)
x(t
0
) +

t
t
0
e
A(t)
Bu()d (31.7)
32 Explain Simulator Code
function [Xd] = drv f16 steven(u)
% function for calculating state derivatives of an F-16
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% Conversion Factors
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
RTOD=180/pi; % Is required because aerodynamic data provided in degrees
DTOR=pi/180; % Used to convert back to radians for computing sin cos etc
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% Variable Assignment
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
VT=u(1); % True Airspeed
AOA=u(2)*RTOD; % Angle of Attack
SSA=u(3)*RTOD; % Sideslip Angle
PHI=u(4); % Roll Euler Angle
THETA=u(5); % Pitch Euler Angle
PSSI=u(6); % Yaw Euler angle (used PSSI since PSI is a Matlab command)
P=u(7); % Body axis roll rate
Q=u(8); % Body axis pitch rate
R=u(9); % Body axis yaw rate
ALT=u(10); % Altitude in feet
Pa=u(11); % Engine actual power
THTL=u(12); % Throttle setting
ELEV=u(13); % Elevator deflection in degrees
AIL=u(14); % Aileron deflection in degrees
RDR=u(15); % Rudder Deflection in degrees
XCG=u(16); % CG in chord lengths.
X =

x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
x
6
x
7
x
8
x
9
x
10
x
11
x
12
x
13

V
T
(rad)
(rad)

P
Q
R
p
N
p
E
h
P
a

30
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% MASS PROPERTIES
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
WGT=20500; % Weight in lbs
GD=32.17; % Gravity
MASS=WGT/GD; % Mass
AXX=9496; % Moment of Inertia about x-axis slug-ft
2
AYY=55814;
AZZ=63100;
AXZ=982; % Product of Inertia
AXZS=AXZ*AXZ;
XPQ=AXZ*(AXX-AYY+AZZ);
GAM=AXX*AZZ-AXZS;
XQR=AZZ*(AZZ-AYY)+AXZS;
ZPQ=(AXX-AYY)*AXX+AXZS;
YPR=AZZ-AXX;
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% Aircraft Geometry
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
B=30; % Span in feet
S=300; % Wing area in ft
2
CBAR=11.32; % Mean aerodynamic chord in ft
XCGR=0.35; % Reference CG in chord lengths
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% Engine Angular Momentum
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
HX=160; % Engine Angular Momentum fixed in slug-ft
2
/sec
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% Engine Thrust Angle
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
ALPHA T=0*DTOR; % Thrust vector angle w.r.t frl
% Thrust vector assumed to lie in plane of symmetry
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%% AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS (using interpolation from given data)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
AOA dat=[-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45]; % AOA
ELEV dat=[-25 -12.5 0 12.5 25];
SSA dat1=[-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30];
SSA dat2=[-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30];
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%% X-axis aerodynamic force coefficient as a function of
%%%% angle of attack and elevator deflection. Angle of attack
31
%%%% is used to index the columns and elevator deflection to
%%%% to index the rows
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
CX dat=[-.099 -.081 -.081 -.063 -.025 .044 .097 .113 .145 .167 .174 .166;
-.048 -.038 -.040 -.021 .016 .083 .127 .137 .162 .177 .179 .167;
-.022 -.020 -.021 -.004 .032 .094 .128 .130 .154 .161 .155 .138;
-.040 -.038 -.039 -.025 .006 .062 .087 .085 .100 .110 .104 .091;
-.083 -.073 -.076 -.072 -.046 .012 .024 .025 .043 .053 .047 .040];
CXT=interp2(AOA dat,ELEV dat,CX dat,AOA,ELEV);
C
X
T
=

C
X
(,
....
,
e
)

+
qc
2V
T
C
X
q
()
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%% Y-axis aerodynamic force coefficient as a function of
%%%% angle of attack, aileron deflection and rudder deflection.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
CYT=-.02*SSA + .021*(AIL/20.0)+ .086*(RDR/30.0);
C
Y
T
=

C
Y
(
....
, ) + C
Y

a
. .. .
(, )

a
20
+ C
Y

r
. .. .
(, )

r
30

+
rb
2V
T
C
Y
r
() +
pb
2V
T
C
Y
p
()
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%% Z-axis aerodynamic force coefficient as a function of
%%%% angle of attack, side slip angle and elevator deflection.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% First AOA is used to index the following data
CZ dat temp=[.770 .241 -.100 -.416 -.731 -1.053...
-1.366 -1.646 -1.917 -2.120 -2.248 -2.229];
CZ temp=linterp(AOA dat,CZ dat temp,AOA);
CZT=CZ temp*(1-(SSA*pi/180)
^
2)-0.19*(ELEV/25);
C
Z
T
= [C
Z
(, ,
e
)] +
qc
2V
T
C
Z
q
()
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%% Pitching moment coefficient as a function of
%%%% angle of attack and elevator deflection. Angle of attack
%%%% is used to index the columns and elevator dedflection to
%%%% to index the rows
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
32
CM dat=[.205 .168 .186 .196 .213 .251 .245 .238 .252 .231 .198 .192;
.081 .077 .107 .110 .110 .141 .127 .119 .133 .108 .081 .093;
-.046 -.020 -.009 -.005 -.006 .010 .006 -.001 .014 0 -.013 .032;
-.174 -.145 -.121 -.127 -.129 -.102 -.097 -.113 -.087 -.084 -.069 -.006;
-.259 -.202 -.184 -.193 -.199 -.150 -.160 -.167 -.104 -.076 -.041 -.005];
CMT=interp2(AOA dat,ELEV dat,CM dat,AOA,ELEV);
C
m
T
=

C
m
(,
....
,
e
)

+ C
Z
T
(x
cgr
xcg) +
qc
2V
T
C
m
q
()
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%% Rolling moment coefficient as a function of
%%%% angle of attack and side slip angle. Angle of attack
%%%% is used to index the columns and SSA dat1 is used to
%%%% to index the rows. The data in the book has seven rows
%%%% only corresponding to SSA=[0 5 10 15 20 25 30]. Since
%%%% CL is anti-symmetric wrt SSA we create the matrix
%%%% with 13 rows for the whole range of SSA dat1 by appending
%%%% antisymmetric rows above the zero row
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
CL dat=[-.009 .011 .023 .037 .050 .047 .074 .079 .091 .076 .077 .076;
-.007 .010 .023 .034 .049 .046 .068 .071 .060 .058 .062 .059;
0 .010 .022 .034 .047 .046 .059 .061 .033 .036 .035 .035;
.001 .010 .020 .030 .039 .044 .050 .049 .023 .006 .014 .027;
.003 .009 .017 .024 .030 .034 .040 .037 .016 .002 .010 .019;
.001 .004 .008 .012 .016 .019 .020 .020 .015 .008 .013 .015;
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;
-.001 -.004 -.008 -.012 -.016 -.019 -.020 -.020 -.015 -.008 -.013 -.015;
-.003 -.009 -.017 -.024 -.030 -.034 -.040 -.037 -.016 -.002 -.010 -.019;
-.001 -.010 -.020 -.030 -.039 -.044 -.050 -.049 -.023 -.006 -.014 -.027;
0 -.010 -.022 -.034 -.047 -.046 -.059 -.061 -.033 -.036 -.035 -.035;
.007 -.010 -.023 -.034 -.049 -.046 -.068 -.071 -.060 -.058 -.062 -.059;
.009 -.011 -.023 -.037 -.050 -.047 -.074 -.079 -.091 -.076 -.077 -.076];
CL=interp2(AOA dat,SSA dat1,CL dat,AOA,SSA);
C
l
T
=

C
l
(, ,
....

e
)

+ C
l

a
(, )

a
20
+ C
l

r
(, )

r
30
+
rb
2V
T
C
l
r
()
+
pb
2V
T
C
l
p
()
. .. .
+C
l

()
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%% Yawing moment coefficient as a function of
%%%% angle of attack and side slip angle. Angle of attack
%%%% is used to index the columns and SSA dat1 is used to
%%%% to index the rows. The data in the book has seven rows
%%%% only corresponding to SSA=[0 5 10 15 20 25 30]. Since
%%%% CN is anti-symmetric wrt SSA we create the matrix
33
%%%% with 13 rows for the whole range of SSA dat1 by appending
%%%% antisymmetric rows above the zero row
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
CN dat=[-.079 -.090 -.106 -.106 -.096 -.080 -.068 -.030 -.064 -.015 -.011 .001;
-.074 -.086 -.093 -.089 -.080 -.062 -.049 -.022 -.028 .012 .002 .013;
-.064 -.077 -.076 -.074 -.073 -.057 -.029 -.007 -.012 .034 .065 .041;
-.056 -.057 -.059 -.058 -.058 -.053 -.032 -.012 -.002 .046 .071 .073;
-.038 -.042 -.042 -.042 -.043 -.039 -.030 -.017 -.004 .035 .047 .057;
-.018 -.019 -.018 -.019 -.019 -.018 -.013 -.007 -.004 .014 .017 .033;
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;
.018 .019 .018 .019 .019 .018 .013 .007 .004 -.014 -.017 -.033;
.038 .042 .042 .042 .043 .039 .030 .017 .004 -.035 -.047 -.057;
.056 .057 .059 .058 .058 .053 .032 .012 .002 -.046 -.071 -.073;
.064 .077 .076 .074 .073 .057 .029 .007 .012 -.034 -.065 -.041;
.074 .086 .093 .089 .080 .062 .049 .022 .028 -.012 -.002 -.013;
.079 .090 .106 .106 .096 .080 .068 .030 .064 .015 .011 -.001];
CN=interp2(AOA dat,SSA dat1,CN dat,AOA,SSA);
C
n
T
=

C
n
(, ,
....

e
)

+ C
n

a
(, )

a
20
+ C
n

r
(, )

r
30
+
rb
2V
T
C
n
r
()
+
pb
2V
T
C
n
p
()
. .. .
+C
n

() +C
Y
T
[x
cgr
x
cg
]
c
b
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%% Rolling moment due to ailerons as a function of
%%%% angle of attack and side slip angle. Angle of attack
%%%% is used to index the columns and SSA dat2 to index the rows
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
DLDA dat=[-.041 -.052 -.053 -.056 -.050 -.056 -.082 -.059 -.042 -.038 -.027 -.017;
-.041 -.053 -.053 -.053 -.050 -.051 -.066 -.043 -.038 -.027 -.023 -.016;
-.042 -.053 -.052 -.051 -.049 -.049 -.043 -.035 -.026 -.016 -.018 -.014;
-.040 -.052 -.051 -.052 -.048 -.048 -.042 -.037 -.031 -.026 -.017 -.012;
-.043 -.049 -.048 -.049 -.043 -.042 -.042 -.036 -.025 -.021 -.016 -.011;
-.044 -.048 -.048 -.047 -.042 -.041 -.020 -.028 -.013 -.014 -.011 -.010;
-.043 -.049 -.047 -.045 -.042 -.037 -.003 -.013 -.010 -.003 -.007 -.008];
DLDA=interp2(AOA dat,SSA dat2,DLDA dat,AOA,SSA); C
l

a
(, )
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%% Rolling moment due to rudder as a function of
%%%% angle of attack and side slip angle. Angle of attack
%%%% is used to index the columns and SSA dat2 to index the rows
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
DLDR dat=[.005 .017 .014 .010 -.005 .009 .019 .005 0 -.005 -0.011 .008;
.007 .016 .014 .014 .013 .009 .012 .005 0 .004 .009 .007;
.013 .013 .011 .012 .011 .009 .008 .005 -.002 .005 .003 .005;
34
.018 .015 .015 .014 .014 .014 .014 .015 .013 .011 .006 .001;
.015 .014 .013 .013 .012 .011 .011 .010 .008 .008 .007 .003;
.021 .011 .010 .011 .010 .009 .008 .010 .006 .005 0 .001;
.023 .010 .011 .011 .011 .010 .008 .010 .006 .014 .020 0];
DLDR=interp2(AOA dat,SSA dat2,DLDR dat,AOA,SSA); C
l

r
(, )
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%% Yawing moment due to ailerons as a function of
%%%% angle of attack and side slip angle. Angle of attack
%%%% is used to index the columns and SSA dat2 to index the rows
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
DNDA dat=[.001 -.027 -.017 -.013 -.012 -.016 .001 .017 .011 .017 .008 .016;
.002 -.014 -.016 -.016 -.014 -.019 -.021 .002 .012 .015 .015 .011;
-.006 -.008 -.006 -.006 -.005 -.008 -.005 .007 .004 .007 .006 .006;
-.011 -.011 -.010 -.009 -.008 -.006 0 .004 .007 .010 .004 .010;
-.015 -.015 -.014 -.012 -.011 -.008 -.002 .002 .006 .012 .011 .011;
-.024 -.010 -.004 -.002 -.001 .003 .014 .006 -.001 .004 .004 .006;
-.022 .002 -.003 -.005 -.003 -.001 -.009 -.009 -.001 .003 -.002 .001];
DNDA=interp2(AOA dat,SSA dat2,DNDA dat,AOA,SSA); C
n

a
(, )
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%% Yawing moment due to rudder as a function of
%%%% angle of attack and side slip angle. Angle of attack
%%%% is used to index the columns and SSA dat2 to index the rows
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
DNDR dat=[-.018 -.052 -.052 -.052 -.054 -.049 -.059 -.051 -.030 -.037 -.026 -.013;
-.028 -.051 -.043 -.046 -.045 -.049 -.057 -.052 -.030 -.033 -.030 -.008;
-.037 -.041 -.038 -.040 -.040 -.038 -.037 -.030 -.027 -.024 -.019 -.013;
-.048 -.045 -.045 -.045 -.044 -.045 -.047 -.048 -.049 -.045 -.033 -.016;
-.043 -.044 -.041 -.041 -.040 -.038 -.034 -.035 -.035 -.029 -.022 -.009;
-.052 -.034 -.036 -.036 -.035 -.028 -.024 -.023 -.020 -.016 -.010 -.014;
-.062 -.034 -.027 -.028 -.027 -.027 -.023 -.023 -.019 -.009 -.025 -.010];
DNDR=interp2(AOA dat,SSA dat2,DNDR dat,AOA,SSA); C
n

r
(, )
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%% Include effect of rudder and aileron deflections in
%%%% rolling and yawing moments
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
DAIL=AIL/20; DRDR=RDR/30;
CLT=CL+DLDA*DAIL+DLDR*DRDR;
35
C
l
T
=

C
l
(, ,
....

e
) + C
l

a
(, )

a
20
+ C
l

r
(, )

r
30

+
rb
2V
T
C
l
r
()
+
pb
2V
T
C
l
p
()
. .. .
+C
l

()
CNT=CN+DNDA*DAIL+DNDR*DRDR;
C
n
T
=

C
n
(, ,
....

e
) + C
n

a
(, )

a
20
+ C
n

r
(, )

r
30

+
rb
2V
T
C
n
r
()
+
pb
2V
T
C
n
p
()
. .. .
+C
n

() +C
Y
T
[x
cgr
x
cg
]
c
b
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%% Damping coefficients as a function of angle of attack
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

C
X
q
() C
Y
r
() C
Y
p
() C
Z
q
() C
l
r
() C
l
p
() C
m
q
C
n
r
() C
n
p
()

CXq dat=[-.267 -.110 .308 1.34 2.08 2.91 2.76 2.05 1.50 1.49 1.83 1.21];
CXq=linterp(AOA dat,CXq dat,AOA);
CYr dat=[.882 .852 .876 .958 .962 .974 .819 .483 .590 1.21 -.493 -1.04];
CYr=linterp(AOA dat,CYr dat,AOA);
CYp dat=[-.108 -.108 -.188 .110 .258 .226 .344 .362 .611 .529 .298 -2.27];
CYp=linterp(AOA dat,CYp dat,AOA);
CZq dat=[-8.80 -25.8 -28.9 -31.4 -31.2 -30.7 -27.7 -28.2 -29.0 -29.8 -38.3 -35.3];
CZq=linterp(AOA dat,CZq dat,AOA);
CLr dat=[-.126 -.026 .063 .113 .208 .230 .319 .437 .680 .100 .447 -.330];
CLr=linterp(AOA dat,CLr dat,AOA);
CLp dat=[-.360 -.359 -.443 -.420 -.383 -.375 -.329 -.294 -.230 -.210 -.120 -.100];
CLp=linterp(AOA dat,CLp dat,AOA);
CMq dat=[-7.21 -.540 -5.23 -5.26 -6.11 -6.64 -5.69 -6.00 -6.20 -6.40 -6.60 -6.00];
CMq=linterp(AOA dat,CMq dat,AOA);
CNr dat=[-.380 -.363 -.378 -.386 -.370 -.453 -.550 -.582 -.595 -.637 -1.02 -.840];
CNr=linterp(AOA dat,CNr dat,AOA);
CNp dat=[.061 .052 .052 -.012 -.013 -.024 .050 .150 .130 .158 .240 .150];
CNp=linterp(AOA dat,CNp dat,AOA);
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%% Add damping derivatives
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
TVT=0.5/VT; B2V=B*TVT; CQ=CBAR*Q*TVT;
CXT=CXT+CQ*CXq;
CYT=CYT+B2V*(CYr*R+CYp*P);
CZT=CZT+CQ*CZq;
CLT=CLT+B2V*(CLr*R+CLp*P);
CMT=CMT+CQ*CMq+CZT*(XCGR-XCG);
36
CNT=CNT+B2V*(CNr*R+CNp*P)-CYT*(XCGR-XCG)*CBAR/B;
C
X
T
= C
X
(,
....
,
e
) +
qc
2V
T
C
X
q
()
C
Y
T
= C
Y
(
....
, ) + C
Y

a
. .. .
(, )

a
20
+ C
Y

r
. .. .
(, )

r
30
+
rb
2V
T
C
Y
r
() +
pb
2V
T
C
Y
p
()
C
Z
T
= C
Z
(, ,
e
) +
qc
2V
T
C
Z
q
()
C
l
T
= C
l
(, ,
....

e
) + C
l

a
(, )

a
20
+ C
l

r
(, )

r
30
+
rb
2V
T
C
l
r
()
+
pb
2V
T
C
l
p
()
. .. .
+C
l

()
C
m
T
= C
m
(,
....
,
e
) + C
Z
T
[x
cgr
xcg] +
qc
2V
T
C
m
q
()
C
n
T
= C
n
(, ,
....

e
) + C
n

a
(, )

a
20
+ C
n

r
(, )

r
30
+
rb
2V
T
C
n
r
()
+
pb
2V
T
C
n
p
()
. .. .
+C
n

() +C
Y
T
[x
cgr
x
cg
]
c
b
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%% IMPLEMENT AIR DATA COMPUTER USING NASA ATMOSPHERE MODEL
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% if ALT < 36152
% TF=59-0.00356*ALT; % Temperatutre in Farenheit
% PSF= 2116*((TF+459.67)/518.6)^(5.256); % Pressure in PSF
% elseif ALT >= 36152 && ALT< 82345
% TF=-70;
% PSF=471.3*exp(1.73-0.000048*ALT);
% else
% TF=-205.05+0.00164*ALT;
% PSF= 51.97*((TF+459.67)/389.98)^(-11.388);
% end
% RHO = PSF/(1718*(TF+459.67));
% QBAR=0.5*RHO*VT^2;
% TK=(TF+459.67)*(5/9); % Temperature in Kelvin
% a s=sqrt(2402.82*TK); % Speed of Sound
% Mcn=VT/a s; % Mach Number
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%% IMPLEMENT AIR DATA COMPUTER USING ATMOSPHERE MODEL FROM THE BOOK
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
TFAC=1-0.703*10^(-5)*ALT;
TMPR=519*TFAC;
if ALT >= 35000
TMPR=390;
end
RHO=2.377*10^(-3)*(TFAC^(4.14));
Mcn=VT/sqrt(1.4*1716.3*TMPR);
37
QBAR=0.5*RHO*VT*VT;
E E E E E
T
c
c
E
E
E
E
E
E
T
T T T T
E
E
Gearing Modify P
c
Select
eng
1/
eng

F
T
(h, M, P
a
)
T
idle
T
mil
T
max
h
M
+
-

th
P
c
(
th
)
P
c
P
a
F
T
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%% ENGINE POWER LEVEL
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%% ENGINE GEARING (see TGEAR 0n pg 635 OF THE BOOK)
if THTL <= 0.77
Pct=64.94*THTL;
else
Pct=217.38*THTL-117.38;
end
P
c
(
th
) =

64.94
th
if
th
0.77
217.38
th
117.38 if
th
> 0.77
0
th
1
%%% COMMANDED POWER (see PDOT 0n pg 635 OF THE BOOK)
if Pct >= 50
if Pa >= 50
Pc=Pct;
else
Pc=60;
end
else % (i.e.Pct<50)
if Pa >= 50
Pc=40;
else
Pc=Pct;
end
end
P
c
=

P
c
(
th
) if P
c
(
th
) 50 and P
a
50
60 if P
c
(
th
) 50 and P
a
< 50
40 if P
c
(
th
) < 50 and P
a
50
P
c
(
th
) if P
c
(
th
) < 50 and P
a
< 50
%%% ENGINE TIME CONSTANT (see RTAU 0n pg 635 OF THE BOOK)
DP=abs(Pc-Pa);
38
if DP <= 25 Te star inv=1;
elseif DP >= 50
Te star inv=0.1;
else Te star inv=1.9-0.036*DP;
end
1/
eng

1.0 if |P
c
P
a
| 25
0.1 if |P
c
P
a
| 50
1.9 0.036(P
c
P
a
) if 25 < |P
c
P
a
| < 50
%%% ENGINE TIME CONSTANT (see PDOT 0n pg 635 OF THE BOOK)
if Pct >= 50
if Pa >= 50
Te inv=5;
else
Te inv=Te star inv;
end
else
if Pa >= 50
Te inv=Te star inv;
else
Te inv=5;
end
end
1/
eng
=

5.0 if P
c
50 and P
a
50
1/
eng

if P
c
50 and P
a
< 50
1/
eng

if P
c
< 50 and P
a
50
5.0 if P
c
< 50 and P
a
< 50
%%% ENGINE DYNAMICS (see PDOT 0n pg 635 OF THE BOOK)
PaDOT=Te inv*(Pc-Pa);

P
a
=
1

eng
(P
c
P
a
)
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------
% Thrust data
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mach dat=0:0.2:1;
Alt dat=0:10000:50000;

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

0 10, 000 20, 000 30, 000 40, 000 50, 000

% THR idl(Mach,Alt)
THR idl dat=[1060.0 670.0 880.0 1140.0 1500.0 1860.0 ;
635.0 425.0 690.0 1010.0 1330.0 1700.0 ;
60.0 25.0 345.0 755.0 1130.0 1525.0 ;
-1020.0 -710.0 -300.0 350.0 910.0 1360.0 ;
-2700.0 -1900.0 -1300.0 -247.0 600.0 1100.0 ;
-3600.0 -1400.0 -595.0 -342.0 -200.0 700.0];
% THR mil(Mach,Alt)
THR mil dat=[12680.0 9150.0 6200.0 3950.0 2450.0 1400.0 ;
12680.0 9150.0 6313.0 4040.0 2470.0 1400.0 ;
12610.0 9312.0 6610.0 4290.0 2600.0 1560.0 ;
12640.0 9839.0 7090.0 4660.0 2840.0 1660.0 ;
12390.0 10176.0 7750.0 5320.0 3250.0 1930.0 ;
11680.0 9848.0 8050.0 6100.0 3800.0 2310.0];
39
% THR max(Mach,Alt)
THR max dat=[20000.0 15000.0 10800.0 7000.0 4000.0 2500.0 ;
21420.0 15700.0 11225.0 7323.0 4435.0 2600.0 ;
22700.0 16860.0 12250.0 8154.0 5000.0 2835.0 ;
24240.0 18910.0 13760.0 9285.0 5700.0 3215.0 ;
26070.0 21075.0 15975.0 11115.0 6860.0 3950.0 ;
28886.0 23319.0 18300.0 13484.0 8642.0 5057.0];
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%% ENGINE THRUST
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
THR idl=interp2(Alt dat,Mach dat,THR idl dat,ALT,Mcn);
THR mil=interp2(Alt dat,Mach dat,THR mil dat,ALT,Mcn);
THR max=interp2(Alt dat,Mach dat,THR max dat,ALT,Mcn);
if Pa < 50
FT=THR idl+(THR mil-THR idl)*(Pa/50);
else
FT=THR mil+(THR max-THR mil)*((Pa-50)/50);
end
F
T
=

T
idle
+ (T
mil
T
idle
)

P
a
50

if P
a
) < 50
T
mil
+ (T
max
T
mil
)

P
a
50
50

if P
a
) 50
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% GET READY FOR STATE EQUATIONS
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
AOA=AOA*DTOR; % Convert AOA back to radians
SSA=SSA*DTOR; % Convert SSA back to radians
CBTA=cos(SSA); % Cosine of side slip angle
Ux=VT*cos(AOA)*CBTA; % Velocity along body x-axis
Vy=VT*sin(SSA); % Velocity along body y-axis
Wz=VT*sin(AOA)*CBTA; % Velocity along body z-axis
STH=sin(THETA);
CTH=cos(THETA);
SPH=sin(PHI);
CPH=cos(PHI);
SPSI=sin(PSSI);
CPSI=cos(PSSI);
QS= QBAR*S;
QSB=QS*B;
RMQS=QS/MASS;
GCTH=GD*CTH;
QSPH=Q*SPH;
AY=RMQS*CYT;
AZ=RMQS*CZT;
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% FORCE EQUATIONS (Dynamics of Translation)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
40
UDOT=R*Vy-Q*Wz-GD*STH+(QS*CXT+FT*cos(ALPHA T))/MASS ;% added thrust angle
VDOT=P*Wz-R*Ux+GCTH*SPH+AY;
WDOT=Q*Ux-P*Vy+GCTH*CPH+AZ+((FT*sin(ALPHA T))/MASS); % added thrust angle
DUM=Ux*Ux+Wz*Wz;
VTDOT=(Ux*UDOT+Vy*VDOT+Wz*WDOT)/VT;
AOADOT=(Ux*WDOT-Wz*UDOT)/DUM;
SSADOT=(VT*VDOT-Vy*VTDOT)*CBTA/DUM;
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% KINEMATICS (Kinematics rotational motion)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
PHIDOT=P+(STH/CTH)*(QSPH+R*CPH);
THETADOT=Q*CPH-R*SPH;
PSIDOT=(QSPH+R*CPH)/CTH;
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% MOMENT EQUATIONS (Dynamics of rotational motion)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
ROLL=QSB*CLT; % ROLLING MOMENT
PITCH=QS*CBAR*CMT; % PITCHING MOMENT
YAW=QSB*CNT; % YAWING MOMENT
PQ=P*Q; QR=Q*R; QHX=Q*HX;
PDOT=(XPQ*PQ-XQR*QR+AZZ*ROLL+AXZ*(YAW+QHX))/GAM;
QDOT=(YPR*P*R-AXZ*(P^2-R^2)+PITCH-R*HX)/AYY;
RDOT=(ZPQ*PQ-XPQ*QR+AXZ*ROLL+AXX*(YAW+QHX))/GAM;
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% NAVIGATION EQUATIONS (Kinematics of Translation)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
T1=SPH*CPSI; T2=CPH*STH; T3=SPH*SPSI;
S1=CTH*CPSI; S2=CTH*SPSI; S3=T1*STH-CPH*SPSI;
S4=T3*STH+CPH*CPSI; S5=SPH*CTH; S6=T2*CPSI+T3;
S7=T2*SPSI-T1; S8=CPH*CTH;
PNDOT=Ux*S1+Vy*S3+Wz*S6; % North Speed
PEDOT=Ux*S2+Vy*S4+Wz*S7; % East Speed
ALTDOT=Ux*STH-Vy*S5-Wz*S8; % Vertical speed
Xd=[ VTDOT AOADOT SSADOT PHIDOT THETADOT PSIDOT PDOT QDOT RDOT...
PNDOT PEDOT ALTDOT PaDOT];
33 Numerical Linearization
41
34 Transient Responce of Second Order Systems
Consider the transfer function
G(s) =
Y (s)
U(s)
=

2
n
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
(34.1)
Let U(s) = 1/s then
Y (s) =

2
n
s (s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
)
(34.2)
In order to determine y(t) will perform partial fraction expansion and then take Lapalace inverse.
The partial fraction expansion will depend on the roots of the second order polynomial in the
denominator
s =
n

2
1 (34.3)
We now have three cases depending on the value of
For > 1 the expression under the square root is positive and therefore the roots are real and
distinct
s =
n
+
n

2
1 s =
n

2
1 (34.4)
For = 1 the expression under the square root is zero and therefore the roots are real and
repeated
s =
n
(34.5)
For < 1 the expression under the square root is negative and therefore the roots are a
complex conjugate pair
s =
n
j
n

1
2
(34.6)
Consider rst the case where > 1, then
Y (s) =

2
n
s (s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
)
=
A
s
+
B
s +
n

2
1
+
C
s +
n
+
n

2
1
(34.7)
The constants A, B and C can be evaluated as follows
A =

2
n
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n

s=0
= 1 (34.8)
B =

2
n
s

s +
n
+
n

2
1

s=
n
+
n

2
1
=
1

2
1

2
1

=
1
2

2
1 1
(34.9)
C =

2
n
s

s +
n

2
1

s=
n

2
1
=
1

2
1

2
1

=
1
2

2
+

2
1 1
(34.10)
42
Therefore
Y (s) =
1
s
+
1
2

2
1 1

s +
n

2
1

+
1
2

2
+

2
1 1

s +
n
+
n

2
1
(34.11)
and
y(t) = 1 +
e
(

n
+
n

2
1
)
t
2

2
1 1
+
e
(

2
1
)
t
2

2
+

2
1 1
(34.12)
The solution has one input mode and two plant modes. The time constants for the two modes are

1
=
1

n
+
n

2
1
(34.13)

2
=
1

2
1
(34.14)
The solution is of the form
y(t) = 1 + Be
t/
1
+ Ce
t/
2
(34.15)
The settling time for each mode is 4 i.e the time required for the exponential to decay to e
4
=
0.0183. The settling time of the system depends on the slower mode (the one with the larger time
constant).
Now for = 1
Y (s) =

2
n
s (s +
n
)
2
=
A
s
+
B
(s +
n
)
+
C
(s +
n
)
2
(34.16)
or

2
n
= A(s +
n
)
2
+ Bs (s +
n
) + Cs
= A

s
2
+
2
n
+ 2s
n

+ B

s
2
+ s
n

+ Cs
= s
2
(A + B) + s (2A
n
+ B
n
+ C) + s
0

A
2
n

(34.17)
Comparing the like powers of s we have A = 1, B = 1 and C =
n
. Therefore
y(t) = 1 e

n
t

n
te

n
t
(34.18)
Finally for < 1
Y (s) =

2
n
s (s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
)
=
A
s
+
B
s +
n
j
n

1
2
+
C
s +
n
+ j
n

1
2
(34.19)
43
It follows that
A =

2
n
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n

s=0
= 1 (34.20)
B =

2
n
s

s +
n
+ j
n

1
2

s=
n
+j
n

1
2
=
1

+ j

1
2

2j

1
2

=
1
2

2
1 j

1
2
(34.21)
C =

2
n
s

s +
n
j
n

1
2

s=
n
j
n

1
2
=
1

1
2

2j

1
2

=
1
2

2
1 + j

1
2
(34.22)
Y (s) =
1
s
+
1
2

2
1 j

1
2

s +
n
j
n

2
1

+
1
2

2
1 + j

1
2

s +
n
+ j
n

2
1
(34.23)
and
y(t) = 1 +
e
(

n
+j
n

2
1
)
t
2

2
1 j

1
2
+
e
(

n
j
n

2
1
)
t
2

2
1 + j

1
2
(34.24)
Dene

=

1
2
. Then
y(t) = 1 +
e

n
t
2

e
j
n
t

2
j
+
e
j
n
t

2
+ j

= 1 +
e

n
t
2

(
2
+ j) e
j
n
t
+ (
2
j) e
j
n
t

2
(
2
+
2
)

= 1 +
e

n
t

2
+
2

e
j
n
t
+ e
j
n
t

2
+ j

e
j
n
t
e
j
n
t

= 1
e

n
t

2
+
2

e
j
n
t
+ e
j
n
t

2
+

e
j
n
t
e
j
n
t

2j

(34.25)
but
2
+
2
= 1, and so
y(t) = 1 e

n
t

cos
n
t +

sin
n
t

= 1
e

n
t

[(sin
n
t) + (cos
n
t) ] (34.26)
Now using the trignometric identity
sin (A + B) = sin Acos B + cos Asin B (34.27)
44
y(t) = 1
e

n
t

sin

n
t + tan
1

(34.28)
For 0 < < 1 the output is a decaying exponential, for = 0 the output is a pure sinusoid and for
< 0 the output is a growing sinusoid. To ne the peak value of y(t) we derive and equate to zero
y(t) =
1

n
e

n
t
sin

n
t + tan
1

+ e

n
t
cos

n
t + tan
1

=

n

n
t

sin

n
t + tan
1

cos

n
t + tan
1

(34.29)
Now using the trignometric identity
sin (A B) = sin Acos B cos Asin B (34.30)
we have
y(t) =

n

n
t
sin

n
t + tan
1

tan
1

=

n

n
t
sin (
n
t) (34.31)
Equating y(t) to zero we have

n
t = n n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (34.32)
Using the rst non-zero positive value at which y(t) = 0 we get the time to peak

n
T
p
= T
p
=

n
(34.33)
Therefore
y(T
p
) = 1
e
/

sin

+ tan
1

= 1 +
e
/

sin

tan
1

= 1 +
e
/

= 1 + e
/
= 1 +
e
/

= 1 + e
/

1
2
(34.34)
Percentage overshoot
% OS =
y(T
p
) C
ss
C
ss
100 (34.35)
35 Cascading State Space Systems

x
L
x
R

A
L
0
B
R
C
L
1
A
R

x
L
x
R

B
L
0

u
L
(35.1)

y
R
y
L
2

0 C
R
C
L
2
0

x
L
x
R

(35.2)
45
-
6
-

6
-
6
-

6
-
-
-
-
A
L
A
R
B
R
C
R
B
L
C
L
1
C
L
2
+
+
+
+

y
L
1
= u
R
y
L
2
u
L
x
L
x
R
y
R
x
L
x
R
46