Vibration frequencies have been calculated for finite one-dimensional lattices in which the point masses alternately have

the values m and m , m <m . Only nearest neighbor Hooke's law interactions are considered. The end atoms are assumed to interact only with their nearest neighbors on the interior of the lattice and are otherwise free. If the numbers of atoms having masses m and m are equal, there exists a single mode whose frequency squared lies at the middle of the "forbidden" gap between the optical and acoustical branches. For this "surface" mode the displacements of the atoms from their equilibrium positions decrease roughly exponentially from the end having the lighter atom. For the case of N atoms of mass m and N+1 atoms of mass m there exist two modes whose frequencies lie in the "forbidden" gap provided ( /m )<N/(N+1). These m modes correspond to symmetric and antisymmetric displacements. The displacements are largest for the end atoms and decrease roughly exponentially toward the center of the lattice. 1957 The American Physical Society G. Kanellis*, J. F. Morhange, and M. Balkanski Laboratoire de Physique des Solides de l'Universit Pierre et Marie Curie associ au CNRS, 4 place Jussieu, 75230 Paris Cedex 05, France Received 23 July 1979; published in the issue dated 15 February 1980 Calculated frequencies of the long-wavelength vibrations of thin slabs of silicon parallel to the (111) plane show that the inplane modes decrease almost exponentially in frequency with decreasing thickness of the slab. The out-of-plane modes have frequencies lower than the in-plane modes and decrease in the same fashion as the slab becomes thinner. This result is consistent with the observation that the Raman-active mode shifts toward lower frequencies in laser-annealed, ion-implanted silicon when the recrystallization is not perfect. 1980 The American Physical Society
Crystal 1,2,3,4 &6 fold Minerals usually form distinct crystals. The shape of the crystals has been found to play an important role in the identification of minerals. The study of crystals is called crystallography and is an important field of study. Not only do scientists in this field study natural crystals but also the crystals formed by metal alloys, chemicals, and other synthetic materials. Often it is the use of crystallographic tools, such as an xray spectrometer, that find and distinguish new minerals as well as verify or correct the identification of specimens. It is through the use of these tools that the structure of a crystal can be gleaned. How can crystallography help an ordinary rockhound to identify minerals? A mineral's crystalline structure, the arrangement o its component f atoms and/or ions, is responsible for the outward shape of the crystal (see crystal habits and crystal forms). Rarely does one mineral form crystals that are completely unique to itself. Rather, a mineral will form crystals that are consistent with the symmetry class that the mineral falls into, based on its own structure. Also, symmetry affects a number of other properties such as cleavage, luster, hardness and at times color. Understanding what symmetry class a mineral belongs to is very helpful in identifying its crystals. SYMMETRY OPERATIONS: There are several symmetry operations that help define the crystal's outward symmetry. These operations represent the way a crystal can repeat the facets or faces on their crystal's surface. One way to repeat a face is with a mirror plane that can reflect a face from one side of the crystal to the other. Consequent to being reflected by a mirror plane, the reflected face must be identical but reversed in orientation. In other words, if the original face has any right handed characteristics, then the reflected face must have the same characteristics but with a left handed slant to them. A rotational axis is a line imaginarily drawn through the crystal that acts as an axis just like the axis for a tire. A face can be repeated on a crystal when the crystal is rotated around this axis and a new face is left at various intervals during the rotation. Consequent to being rotated is that the face must be identical to the original face when the face is viewed head on. In other words, if the face has a right handed slant and is rotated, the rotated faces must keep the right handed slant. The interval for dropping a face is determined by a division of the full turn into equal segments. For example, to drop four faces on a crystal the rotation requires a stop at every 90 degrees and this type of rotation is called a four fold rotational axis. Rotational axes can have rotations of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 fold. Thus the 1 fold axis rotates the crystal in 360 degree intervals, the 2 fold interval is 180 degrees, the 3 fold interval is 120 degrees, the 4 fold interval is 90 degrees and the 6 fold interval is 60 degrees. A rotoinversion axis goes one step further, by after rotating once and before dropping a face, it inverts the face through the crystal's center to the other side. The resulting face is completely flipped, i.e., up is down and right is left. The rotoinversion continues until it returns to the original starting face. Rotoinversion is constrained by the same rules for the simple rotational axes with the same folds or turns and degrees. Finally a symmetry operation called a center is all that is left of symmetry operations to discuss. A center is simply, or perhaps not so simply, an operation that takes a face on one side of a crystal and inverts it through the center of the crystal. This has the same effect as the

inversion in a rotoinversion operation in that the face is completely flipped up to down and right to left. Every point in a crystal is inverted to the other side of the crystal. Usually, a center is one operation that is all but ignored in most crystals because it is often caused by the juxtaposition of other symmetry operations. However in the triclinic system it is the only possible symmetry operation except for a one fold rotational axis, which is actually just returning a crystal face to its original position. CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC AXES: Other axes mentioned are crystallographic axes that are used by crystallographers like geometric axes to plot the faces and symmetry elements and their orientations within the crystal. These axes may or may not be part of the symmetry of the crystals. But they usually are since crystallographers will often orient the crystallographic axes along the planes and axes of symmetry. Below is a list of links to the seven crystallographic systems and their member classes. Listed with the systems are the minimal requirements for a mineral to belong to that particular group. All crystalline solids can be classified as belonging to one of these systems based on its structure and inherent symmetry. Substances that are non-crystalline are called amorphous (without form) and are thus not classified.

THESE ARE THE SEVEN CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS:

y y y y y y y y

ISOMETRIC, requires 4 three fold axis of rotation. TETRAGONAL, requires 1 four fold axis of rotation. HEXAGONAL, requires 1 six fold axis of rotation. TRIGONAL, requires 1 three fold axis of rotation. ORTHORHOMBIC, requires either 3 two fold axis of rotation or 1 two fold axis of rotation and two mirror planes. MONOCLINIC, requires either 1 two fold axis of rotation or 1 mirror plane. TRICLINIC, requires either a center or only translational symmetry. AMORPHOUS; no symmetry is present and it is therefore not a crystallographic system

The radius of a sphere within which the nuclear density is large, and at the surface of which it falls off sharply.

Answer: atomic radius is the average distance from the center of the nucleus to the outer orbital. two radius distances give approximate size of the atom.
Department of Physics and Laboratory for Nuclear Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts Received 13 June 1955; published in the issue dated October 1955 The difference between the radius of the nuclear matter distribution and the nuclear force radius, RN 1.4A 1/310-13 cm, for heavy nuclei (A>100) is interpreted as a consequence of the finite range of nuclear forces. Assuming that the nuclear matter distribution coincides with the charge distribution as determined at Stanford (RC=1.12A1/310-13 cm is the distance at which the charge density falls to one half value) we sum up the nuclear intera ctions of an incident nucleon for various proposed internucleon potentials, V(r). We also evaluate contributions from the spin, charge, and matter polarizations induced in the nuclear distributions by the incident nucleon as a test of the convergence of these calculations. The aim here is to infer some features of nuclear forces which satisfy saturation requirements and at the same time give rise to an appreciable nuclear attraction for an incident nucleon at RN. Analyses of the scattering of neutrons and protons by heavy nuclei suggest a nuclear attraction 14 Mev at a distance RN. These considerations are primarily sensitive to the long range behavior of the direct, central part of V(r). The key point which emerges from them is that the nuclear forces must contain long range (~ meson Compton wavelength) direct, central attractions which will be felt by an incident nucleon at RN before the shorter range repulsions (hard cores, many-body forces, or exchange interactions), which are responsible for saturation, become effective. Such interactions can be constructed phenomenologically, but are not found in recent meson-theoretically deduced potentials.

Some Nuclear Units

Nuclear energies are very high compared to atomic processes, and need larger units. The most commonly used unit is the MeV.

1 electron volt = 1eV = 1.6 x 10 -19 joules 1 MeV = 106 eV; 1 GeV = 10 9 eV; 1 TeV = 10 12 eV
However, the nuclear sizes are quite small and need smaller units:

Atomic sizes are on the order of 0.1 nm = 1 Angstrom = 10-10 m Nuclear sizes are on the order of femtometers which in the nuclear context are usually called fermis:

1 fm = 10 -15m
Nuclear masses are measured in terms of atomic mass units with the carbon-12 nucleus defined as having a mass of exactly 12 amu. It is
2 also common practice to quote the rest mass energy E=m0 c as if it were the mass. The conversion to amu is:

1 u = 1.66054 x 10 -27 kg = 931.494 MeV

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1) in acoustic ranch the atoms move synchronously and deviation of every atom is about the

same at any moment of the time see this case at the bottom of the animation); in optical branch the atoms move in antiphase it is shown on top of animation). or the shortest waves

= 2 / = 2 /a) in acoustic branch the lighter atoms are still and more

heavy atoms oscillate; in the optical branch the situation is inverse these cases are shown in the middle of animation).

in optical branch polari es the matter electrically and this type of oscillation can be excited by infra-red optical radiation. his is the reason why this branch was called optical .

e can see that the modes differ in the details of how the atoms move, but they both represent energy

stored in the crystal, being passed back and forth between the kinetic energy of the atoms and the potential energy of the springs". he temperature of the crystal is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the atoms.

here are some limitations to this mechanical description of what is going on in crystal vibrations. Because we are dealing w objects as ith

small as individual atoms, uantum mechanical effects may not be neglected. or example, in a metal sample large enough to work with in a laboratory, there may be millions of individual crystals each with millions of individual atoms. n a laboratory si e scale,it appears that we

can add energy to the sample in any amount, as if the crystal were really composed of weights and springs. In fact, energy may only be added in multiples of some minimum amount.

e call that minimum amount of vibrational energy a "phonon" analogous to the phot n o

energy packet familiar in electromagnetic radiation. Energy addition appears continuous on the laboratory scale because the phonon is so small.

n the scale of the atoms in the crystals however, the phonon magnitude is significant, and only vibration modes and a mplitudes

which differ in energy by whole phonon multiples are allowed.

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