Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry is a way of describing the quantitative relationships among elements in compounds and among substances as they undergo chemical changes.

Youll Need to Know

how to express numbers to the correct number of significant figures how to use log10 and natural log (ln) how to solve problems using the factor-label method how to work with numbers in exponential form (add, subtract, multiply, and divide) how to work with moles how to balance chemical equations how to determine empirical and molecular formulas given data how to determine the percentage composition of a compound given data how to determine the limiting reactant how to determine theoretical and actual yields given data

Significant Figures
Note: The numbers that are underlined are significant. (a) Nonzero digits and zeros between nonzero digits are significant. 123 = 3 s.f. 8.802 = 4 s.f. 20304.007 = 8 s.f. (b) Zeros at the end of a number and to the right of the decimal point are significant. 56.000 = 5 s.f. (c) Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are NOT significant. 0.01 = 1 s.f. 0.00050800 = 5 s.f. (d) Zeros at the end of a number greater than 1 are NOT significant, unless there is a decimal point. 1,600 = 2 s.f. 1,600. = 4 s.f.

Stoichiometry

(e) When multiplying or dividing, the answer should be rounded to contain the same number of significant figures as the least accurate number. 0.300 (3 s.f.) 405.7009 (7 s.f.) = 3 s.f. in answer 5000. (4 s.f.) 10.32 1010 (4 s.f.) = 4 s.f. in answer (f) When adding or subtracting, the answer should have the same number of decimal places as the least accurate number used in the calculation. 84 + 87,600 + 9.005 = round answer to nearest whole number 10.00405 5,400.5 + 6.32 = round answer to nearest tenth

Log10 and Natural Log (ln)

If 10x = y, then log y = x If ex = y, then ln y = x e = 2.7183 ln y = 2.303 log y log (x y) = log x + log y log c x m = log x - log y y

Factor-Label Method
Throughout the rest of this book, we will use the factor-label method to solve problems involving mathematical setups. The following is a sample problem to illustrate the steps required using the factor-label method.

Example
Q. The Exxon Valdez spilled 240,000 barrels of oil into Prince William Sound, Alaska in 1989. It has been determined that a layer of oil can spread out on water to form a layer approximately 115 nanometers thick (1 nm = 109 m). Using factor-label methods, show how you would determine the number of square miles of ocean that could theoretically be covered by all of the oil spilled by the Exxon Valdez. (1 barrel = 31.5 U.S. gallons, 1 L = 1.057 qt., 4 qt = 1 gallon, 1 inch = 2.54 cm, and 5,280 ft = 1 mile). Calculations NOT required. A. Volume = area thickness; therefore, area = volume/thickness 2.4 # 10 5 barrels 31.5 gallons 4 qt. 1L 10 3 mL 1 cm 3 # # # # 1 L # 1 mL # 1 barrel 1 gallon 1.057 qt. 115 nm

_1 m i

_10 9 nm i
3

_1 m i
#
^1mih

_100 cm i
2

_100 cm i _1 in i
2

_1 m i _1 ft i

_10 9 nm i
2 2

_1 m i

_ 2.54 cm i

_12 in i

_ 5280 ft i

= X mi 2 _ The answer would be writtento 2 s.f.i .

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Part I: Subject Review

Moles
A mole (n, abbreviated as mol) is the quantity of anything that has the same number of particles found in 12.000 grams of carbon-12. That number of particles is known as Avogadros Number (NA) and is equal to 6.02 1023. 1 mole of pennies would be 6.02 1023 pennies. 1 mole = 6.022 1023 molecules The mole concept allows us to relate the atomic or molecular mass obtained from the periodic table to a more convenient, everyday unit of measurement called the gram. moles = grams/molar mass Therefore, 1 mole of phosphorus atoms (that would be 6.02 1023 atoms of phosphorus) would weigh 30.974 grams (the atomic mass of P). 6.02 1023 molecules of water (1 mole of water) would weigh 18.02 grams (MW H2O = 18.02 g/mol).

Example
Q. A certain metallic oxide has the formula MO. A 40.00 gram sample of the compound is strongly heated in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas. At the end of the heating, 32.00 grams of the metal M is left. Calculate the atomic mass of metal M. A. Heating the metallic oxide only in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas removes the oxygen. The oxygen combines with the hydrogen gas to form water. The mass of oxygen is 40.00 g MO 32.00 g M = 8.00 g O. For every 1 mole of MO, there is 1 mole of M atoms and 1 mole of O atoms. 32.00 g M 16.00 g O 1 mole O -1 8.00 g O # 1 mole O # 1mole M = 64.0 g $ mol

Balancing Equations
Note: Balancing oxidation-reduction equations is covered in Chapter 13. Starting in 2007, there will be a new format for writing reactions (Question 4 of the Free-Response Section). Both practice exams in this book cover the new format. Look for elements that appear only once on each side of the equation but in unequal numbers. Begin by trying suitable coefficients that will produce the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation. Remember to only change coefficients, not subscripts. For example, if you were given the following equation to balance ? KClO3 ? KCl + ? O2 notice that you have 3 oxygen atoms on the left and 2 oxygen atoms on the right; the common denominator is 6. Therefore, you will need 6 oxygen atoms on both sides: 2KClO3 ? KCl + 3O2. You now observe that you have 2Ks and 2Cls on the left and to complete the problem you will need the same number of Ks and Cls on the right. Simply place a 2 in front of the KCl and youre done: 2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2.

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Example
Q. Balance the following equation: ? NaHCO3 ? Na2CO3 + ? H2O + ? CO2. A. Do NOT start trying to balance the oxygens since theyre all over the place on the right side. Starting with the carbons wont work either because they are in a 1:1 ratio. The one to start with is Na. Your coefficient in front of NaHCO3 will be twice your coefficient in front of Na2CO3. Start with the smallest numbers possible: 2NaHCO3 1Na2CO3 + ? H2O + ? CO2. You will discover at this point that the 2 wont work since that gives you 6 Os on the left but you have 8 Os on the right without going further. Forget about trying a 3 since you cant get 3 Nas on the right (unless you use fractions, which is allowed but more complicated sometimes). So, try a 4: 4NaHCO3 2Na2CO3 + ? H2O + ? CO2. Now you have 4 Hs on the left, and it is possible to get 4 Hs on the right: 4NaHCO3 2Na2CO3 + 2H2O + ? CO2. The last piece of the puzzle is to balance the Os. You have 12 Os on the left. Its possible to get 12 Os on the right by placing a 2 in front of CO2: 4NaHCO3 2Na2CO3 + 2H2O + 2CO2. The last step is to double check your work.

Determination of Empirical and Molecular Formulas

An empirical formula is the lowest, whole-number ratio for a compound. The actual formula for glucose is C6H12O6; however, this can reduced to the empirical formula for glucose which would be CH2O.

Example
Q. A 4.601 g sample of a compound only containing nitrogen and oxygen was found to contain 1.401 g N and 3.200 g O. The molecular mass of the compound is known to be 46.01 g mol1. What is the most likely formula for this compound? A. nN = 1.401 g N (1 mol N / 14.01 g N) = 0.1000 mol N nO = 3.200 g O (1 mol O / 16.00 g O) = 0.2000 mol O The empirical formula is N0.1000O0.2000 = NO2. Since the molecular mass of the empirical formula is the same as the known molecular mass given in the question, the formula for the compound is NO2 (nitrogen dioxide).

Percentage Composition
Percentage composition is the percent by mass of each element that a compound contains. To determine the percentage composition, divide the mass of each element in 1 mole of the compound by the molar mass and then multiply by 100%. %= mass of element # 100% molar mass of compound

Example
Q. What is the actual formula of a compound that contains 60.1% K, 18.4% C, and 21.5% N? The molecular mass of the compound is 65.118 g mol1.

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Part I: Subject Review

A. 60.1 g K # 1mol K . 1.5 mol K 1 39.01 g K 18.4 g C 1mol # 12.01 gC . 1.5 mol C 1 C 21.5 g N 1mol N . 1.5 mol N # 14.01 g N 1 The empirical ratio would therefore be: K1.5C1.5N1.5 = KCN. Since the molar mass of the empirical formula is the same value as the molar mass of the molecular compound, the molecular formula is KCN, known as potassium thiocyanate.

Average Atomic Mass

To calculate the average atomic weight, each exact atomic weight is multiplied by its percent abundance (expressed as a decimal). Then, the results are added together and rounded off to an appropriate number of significant figures.

Example
Silicon
Mass Number 28 29 30 Exact Weight 27.976927 28.976495 29.973770 Percent Abundance 92.23 4.67 3.10

Q. Examine the data above. The average atomic mass of silicon is: A. 27.883 B. 27.977 C. 28.086 D. 28.221 E. 29.013 A. C. 0.9223 (27.976927) + 0.0467 (28.976495) + 0.0310 (29.973770) = 28.09

Limiting Reactant
The reactant that is used up first in a reaction is called the limiting reactant. After it is used up, the reaction stops. The rest of the reactants are in excess.

Example
Q. The hole in the ozone layer is prominent over Antarctica. One of the causes of depletion of stratospheric ozone is the reaction of ozone with nitric oxide (NO) produced by high-flying aircraft. Ozone reacts with nitric oxide to produce nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas.

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(a) Write the balanced equation. (b) If 0.960 g of ozone reacts with 0.900 g of nitric oxide, how many grams of nitrogen dioxide would be produced? (c) How many molecules of excess reactant would be left? A. (a) O3(g) + NO(g) O2(g) + NO2(g) (b) (0.960 g O3) (1 mol 48 g-1) = 0.02 mol O3 (0.900 g NO) (1 mol 30.01g-1) = 0.03 mol NO Referring back to the balanced equation, 1 mole of O3 combines with 1 mole of NO, and since we have more than 0.02 moles of NO, ozone is the limiting reactant. Now we can solve for grams of NO2: 0.02 mole O 3 1 mole NO 2 44.01g NO 2 # # = 0.88 g NO 2 1 1 mole O 3 1 mole NO 2 (c) Since we can only use 0.02 moles of NO, there would be 0.01 moles of NO in excess. 0.01 mol NO 6.02 # 10 23 moleculesNO # = 6.02 # 10 21 molecules of NO in excess 1 1 mol NO

Theoretical and Actual Yield

The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of a product that could be produced when all of the limiting reactions has been used. The actual yield is what is actually produced. Reasons for not producing the maximum amount possible include errors in procedures, reversible reactions which do not proceed 100% to the right, difficulties in extracting materials from aqueous solutions, products may further react to produce other compounds, etc. actual yield % yield = # 100% theoreticalyield

Example
Q. The explosion of nitroglycerin (NG) (C3H5N3O9) can be represented by the following balanced equation: 4C3H5N3O9(l) 6N2(g) + 10H2O(g) + 12CO2(g) + O2(g). (a) How many grams of oxygen gas can be produced from the explosion of 454.2 grams of nitroglycerin? MW of NG = 227.1 g/mol (b) If only 8.00 g of oxygen gas was produced, what was the percent yield?
2

A. (a) (b)

1 mol O 2 454.2 g NG 1 mol NG 32.00 g O 2 # 227.1g NG # # = 16.00 g O 2 1 4 mol NG 1 mol O 2 1

8.00 g O 2 # 100% = 50.0% 16.00 g O 2

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