A Brief History of Reading

Spoken language is a natural, biological form of human communication that is over 6 million years old. Reading is an invention that is only 6000 years old. There simply hasn't been enough evolutionary time, yet, for the human physiology of reading to be perfected.

Speech is Natural ... 6,000,000 Years.

Text is an Invention ... 6000 Years.

Aristotle, the world's first psychologist, understood this fundamental difference and relationship between spoken language and written language.

Spoken words are the symbols of mental experience, and written words are the symbols of spoken words.

Aristotle--On Interpretation
Over history, humans have found methods to represent their spoken words with written symbols. The first writing - Sumerian logographs from 4000 BC - were simply pictures of objects and activities:

Sumerian Logographs -- circa 4000 BC

Medium Message

In 2000 BC, the Phoenicians developed the first methods to represent spoken language - an alphabet consisting entirely of consonants:

SPKNWRDSRTHSYMBL SFMNTLXPRNCNDWRT TNWRDSRTHSYMBLSF SPKNWRDS.

2000 BC--Phoenician alphabet contained consonants only.

In 1000 BC, the first major upgrade occurred in the technology of representing language - the Greeks added vowels to the alphabet. This is essentially the same alphabet we use today - and it is considered one of humanity's greatest inventions.

SPOKENWORDSARETHES YMBOLSOFMENTALEXPE RIENCEANDWRITTENWO RDSARETHESYMBOLSOF SPOKENWORDS.

1000 BC--the Greeks added vowels.

About 1000 years later, in 200 BC, the next major upgrade in writing appeared: punctuation marks. Punctuation was first observed in Alexandrian manuscripts of plays written by Aristophanes.

SPOKENWORDSARETHES YMBOLSOFMENTALEXPE RIENCE,ANDWRITTENW ORDSARETHESYMBOLSO FSPOKENWORDS.

200 BC--Aristophanes' plays add punctuation.

Yet another 1000 years passed before the next improvement in text, namely the invention of lower case characters by Medieval Scribes.

Spokenwordsarethesymbolsofm entalexperience,andwrittenword sarethesymbolsofspokenwords.

700 AD--lower case

About 1000 years ago, in 900 AD, the last major upgrade in text took place: the insertion of spaces between words. Also developed by Medieval Scribes, this invention made it possible, for the first time, for the vast majority of readers to be able to read silently. Prior to this, most readers had to read out loud in order to be able to read at all. The few who could read text silently without these spaces between the words, like Julius Caesar and St. Ambrose, were viewed as so extraordinary that this ability is specifically recorded in historical records.

Spoken words are the symbols of mental experience, and written words are the symbols of spoken words.
900 AD--spaces between words.

For the past 1000 years, there has been essentially no change in the formatting of text, the technology of spatially symbolizing natural spoken language, whether one considers the handwritten scripts of 900 AD, the Gutenberg Bible of 1500 AD, or the EBook of 2000 AD.

1000 AD

1500 AD

2000 AD

The great reading opportunity of electronic text is that digital content can be read by a machine. This machine readability can be used to analyze text for syntactic structure, grammatical attributes, word difficulty, pronunciation attributes, and the like, and the results of this analysis can then be used to give shape to the presentation of text, using patterns that enable the eye and the mind to work together to build meaning for the reader. The LiveInk method of attribute extraction and varied presentation of text can be automatically performed, and finally transforms Aristotle's sentence into this:

Spoken words are the symbols of mental experience, and written words are the symbols of spoken words.
2000 AD--LiveInk

LiveInk represents the most fundamental advance in the readability of text in the past 1000 years.

A brief History of Reading

Reading was founded in the 6th century by Saxon people who had travelled up the Rivers Thames and Kennet until they came to a place suitable for a camp. Here where it was possible to ford the River Kennet a permanent settlement grew, becoming Christian with the first church probably on the site of St Marys. After the Norman conquest the Domesday book shows Reading as a typical small town. The founding of the Abbey in 1121 changed the fortunes of the town, and the Abbey and the Wool Trade made the town wealthy. In

Tudor times, the dissolution of the abbey and the decline of wool made the town poorer, despite the efforts of John Kendrick and the building of the first Oracle. The Civil War in the 1640s sealed the fate of the wool trade. In Georgian times, the town became richer once more as a market town on good routes. The roads were improved and the Kennet was linked by canal to Bristol. Transport became even more important in Victorian times, with the Great Western Railway passing through the town. The good transport links helped companies such as Huntley and Palmers and Sutton Seeds to grow and need more workers, making the town become larger. The 20th Century saw a gradual change from a landscape of factories where things were made to a town with a large number of headquarter office blocks and high tech industries. The M4 motorway was built passing the town, making more good transport links.

Reading (process)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the learning activity. For other uses, see Reading (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2008)

Part of a series on

Reading

LANGUAGE Language Writing Writing system Orthography Braille

TYPES OF READING Close reading Slow reading Speed reading Subvocalization

LEARNING TO READ Reading skills acquisition Comprehension Spelling Vocabulary Reading disability Dyslexia

READING INSTRUCTION Alphabetic principle Phonics Whole language

LITERACY Literacy Functional illiteracy Family literacy English orthography

LISTS Languages by writing system Management of dyslexia

vde

'Reading' is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols for the intention of deriving meaning (reading comprehension) and/or constructing meaning. It is the mastery of basic cognitive processes to the point where they are automatic so that attention is freed for the analysis of meaning. Reading is a means of language acquisition, of communication, and of sharing information and ideas. Like all language, it is a complex interaction between the text and the reader which is shaped by the readers prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and language community which is culturally and socially situated. The reading process requires continuous practices, development, and refinement. Readers use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding (to translate symbols into sounds or visual representations of speech) and comprehension. Readers may use morpheme, semantics, syntax and context clues to identify the meaning of unknown words. Readers integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or schema (schemata theory).

Other types of reading are not speech based writing systems, such as music notation or pictograms. The common link is the interpretation of symbols to extract the meaning from the visual notations.

Contents
[hide]

1 Overview 2 Medium 3 Goals of reading 4 Reading skills o 4.1 Skill development o 4.2 Methods 5 Assessment o 5.1 Reading rate o 5.2 Types of tests 6 Effects o 6.1 Lighting 7 History 8 See also 9 References o 9.1 Notes o 9.2 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links

[edit] Overview
Currently most reading is either of the printed word from ink or toner on paper, such as in a book, magazine, newspaper, leaflet, or notebook, or of electronic displays, such as computer displays, television, mobile phones or ereaders. Handwritten text may also be produced using a graphite pencil or a pen. Short texts may be written or painted on an object. Often the text relates to the object, such as an address on an envelope, product info on packaging, or text on a traffic or street sign. A slogan may be painted on a wall. A text may also be produced by arranging stones of a different color in a wall or road. Short texts like these are sometimes referred to as environmental print. Sometimes text or images are in relief, with or without using a color contrast. Words or images can be carved in stone, wood, or metal; instructions can be printed in relief on the plastic housing of a home appliance, or a myriad of other examples. A requirement for reading is a good contrast between letters and background (depending on colors of letters and background, any pattern or image in the background, and lighting) and a suitable font size. In the case of a computer screen, not having to scroll horizontally is important.

The field of visual word recognition studies how people read individual words.[1][2][3] A key technique in studying how individuals read text is eye tracking. This has revealed that reading is performed as a series of eye fixations with saccades between them. Humans also do not appear to fixate on every word in a text, but instead fixate to some words while apparently filling in the missing information using context. This is possible because human languages show certain linguistic regularities.[citation needed] The process of recording information to be read later is writing. In the case of computer and microfiche storage there is the separate step of displaying the written text. For humans, reading is usually faster and easier than writing. Reading is typically an individual activity, although on occasion a person will read out loud for the benefit of other listeners. Reading aloud for one's own use, for better comprehension, is a form of intrapersonal communication. Reading to young children is a recommended way to instill language and expression, and to promote comprehension of text. Before the reintroduction of separated text in the late Middle Ages, the ability to read silently was considered rather remarkable. See Alberto Manguel (1996) A History of Reading. New York: Viking. The relevant chapter (2) is posted online here.

[edit] Medium
See also: Writing Short messages can be put on (and read from) various media (including plastic, wood, stone, metal, etc.; the text can be written with ink or paint, or it may have been cut out, etc.). Longer texts such as books, magazines, newspapers, etc. are often available on paper (with printed text) or in electronic form on a computer storage device. In the latter case it may be read from an electronic screen (screen reading); sometimes the user prints it to read it from paper.

[edit] Goals of reading

There are multiple principle goals of reading, which are determined by the end the reader has ordained the activity to obtain. The general goal of reading is the acquisition of meaning from the ordered arrangement of symbols. For example in an alphabet writing system each word is a collection of symbols that expresses a term or some meaning, which taken in conjunction with other words ordered to each other in a predetermined syntax, conveys some general meaning that the author intends the reader to acquire. The second goal of reading is the "reading to obtain understanding". The reader wishes to receive illumination of some discipline or set of facts from the author. The reader usually approaches a given work with a dissimilitude of understanding compared to that of the author. He wishes to increase his understanding by coming to terms with the author of a given book, and subsequently reach an equal level of understanding. The final goal of reading is "reading to obtain information". The reader attempts to gain knowledge of facts or knowledge about the author himself. If a reader is reading a book with the third goal in mind, he may not be as concerned with understanding the arguments and parts of the book and the way these parts relate to the whole. He may spend less or even no time reading a book analytically, but simply systematically inspect a book in order to obtain knowledge.

[edit] Reading skills

Main article: Reading skills acquisition Literacy is the ability to use the symbols of a writing system. To be able to interpret the information symbols represent, and to be able to re-create those same symbols so that others can derive the same meaning. Illiteracy is not having the ability to derive meaning from the symbols used in a writing system. Dyslexia refers to a cognitive difficulty with reading and writing. The term dyslexia can refer to two disorders: developmental dyslexia which is a learning disability; alexia or acquired dyslexia refers to reading difficulties that occur following brain damage. Major predictors of an individual's ability to read both alphabetic and nonalphabetic scripts are phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming and verbal IQ.[4]

[edit] Skill development

Both the Lexical and the Sub-lexical cognitive processes contribute to how we learn to read. Sub-lexical reading Sub-lexical reading,[5][6][7][8] involves teaching reading by associating characters or groups of characters with sounds or by using Phonics learning and teaching methodology. Sometimes argued to be in competition with whole language methods. Lexical reading Lexical reading[5][6][7][8] involves acquiring words or phrases without attention to the characters or groups of characters that compose them or by using Whole language learning and teaching methodology. Sometimes argued to be in competition with phonics methods, and that the whole language approach tends to impair learning how to spell. Other methods of teaching and learning to read have developed, and become somewhat controversial.[9] Learning to read in a second language, especially in adulthood, may be a different process than learning to read a native language in childhood. There are cases of very young children learning to read without having been taught.[10] Such was the case with Truman Capote who reportedly taught himself to read and write at the age of five. There are also accounts of people who taught themselves to read by comparing street signs or Biblical passages to speech. The novelist Nicholas Delbanco taught himself to read at age six during a transatlantic crossing by studying a book about boats.[citation needed]

[edit] Methods

Reading is an intensive process in which the eye quickly moves to assimilate text. Very little is actually seen accurately. It is necessary to understand visual perception and eye movement in order to understand the reading process.[11] There are several types and methods of reading, with differing rates that can be attained for each, for different kinds of material and purposes:

Subvocalized reading combines sight reading with internal sounding of the words as if spoken. Advocates of speed reading claim it can be a bad habit that slows reading and comprehension, but other studies indicate the reverse, particularly with difficult texts.[12][13] Speed reading is a collection of methods for increasing reading speed without an unacceptable reduction in comprehension or retention. It is closely connected to speed learning. Proofreading is a kind of reading for the purpose of detecting typographical errors. One can learn to do it rapidly, and professional proofreaders typically acquire the ability to do so at high rates, faster for some kinds of material than for others, while they may largely suspend comprehension while doing so, except when needed to select among several possible words that a suspected typographic error allows. Structure-Proposition-Evaluation (SPE) method, popularized by Mortimer Adler in How to Read a Book, mainly for non-fiction treatise, in which one reads a writing in three passes: (1) for the structure of the work, which might be represented by an outline; (2) for the logical propositions made, organized into chains of inference; and (3) for evaluation of the merits of the arguments and conclusions. This method involves suspended judgment of the work or its arguments until they are fully understood.[citation needed] Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Review (SQ3R) method, often taught in public schools, which involves reading toward being able to teach what is read, and would be appropriate for instructors preparing to teach material without having to refer to notes during the lecture.[citation needed] Multiple Intelligences-based methods, which draw upon the reader's diverse ways of thinking and knowing to enrich his or her appreciation of the text. Reading is fundamentally a linguistic activity: one can basically comprehend a text without resorting to other intelligences, such as the visual (e.g., mentally "seeing" characters or events described), auditory (e.g., reading aloud or mentally "hearing" sounds described), or even the logical intelligence (e.g., considering "what if" scenarios or predicting how the text will unfold based on context clues). However, most readers already use several intelligences while reading, and making a habit of doing so in a more disciplined manneri.e., constantly, or after every paragraphcan result in more vivid, memorable experience.[citation needed] Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) reading involves presenting the words in a sentence one word at a time at the same location on the display screen, at a specified eccentricity. RSVP eliminates inter-word saccades, limits intra-word saccades, and prevents reader control of fixation times (Legge, Mansfield, & Chung, 2001). RSVP controls for differences in reader eye movement, and consequently is often used to measure reading speed in experiments.

[edit] Assessment
[edit] Reading rate
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (September 2010) Further information: Speed reading, English language learning and teaching, and Proofreading

Average reading rate in words per minute (wpm) depending on age and measured with different tests in English, French and German. Note: the data from Taylor (English) and Landerl (German) are based on texts of increasing difficulty; other data were obtained when all age groups were reading the same text. Rates of reading include reading for memorization (fewer than 100 words per minute [wpm]); reading for learning (100200 wpm); reading for comprehension (200400 wpm); and skimming (400700 wpm). Reading for comprehension is the essence of the daily reading of most people. Skimming is for superficially processing large quantities of text at a low level of comprehension (below 50%). Advice for choosing the appropriate reading-rate includes reading flexibly, slowing when concepts are closely presented, and when the material is new, and increasing when the material is familiar and of thin concept. Speed reading courses and books often encourage the reader to continually accelerate; comprehension tests lead the reader to believe his or her comprehension is continually improving; yet, competence-in-reading requires knowing that skimming is dangerous, as a default habit.[citation needed] Reading speed requires a long time to reach adult levels. The table to the right shows how reading-rate varies with age,[14] regardless of the period (1965 to 2005) and the language (English, French, German). The Taylor values probably are higher, for disregarding students who failed the comprehension test. The reading test by the French psychologist Pierre Lefavrais ("L'alouette", published in 1967) tested reading aloud, with a penalty for errors, and could, therefore, not be a rate greater than 150 wpm. According to Carver (1990), children's reading speed increases throughout the school years. On average, from grade 2 to college, reading rate increases 14 standard-length words per minute each year (where one standard-length word is defined as six characters in text, including punctuation and spaces).

[edit] Types of tests

Sight word reading: reading words of increasing difficulty until they become unable to read or understand the words presented to them. Difficulty is manipulated by using words that have more letters or syllables, are less common and have more complicated spelling-sound relationships.[citation needed] Nonword reading: reading lists of pronounceable nonsense words out loud. The difficulty is increased by using longer words, and also by using words with more complex spelling or sound sequences.[citation
needed]

Reading comprehension: a passage is presented to the reader, which they must read either silently or out loud. Then a series of questions are presented that test the reader's comprehension of this passage. Reading fluency: the rate with which individuals can name words. Reading accuracy: the ability to correctly name a word on a page.

Some tests incorporate several of the above components at once. For instance, the Nelson-Denny Reading Test scores readers both on the speed with which they can read a passage, and also their ability to accurately answer questions about this passage.[citation needed] Recent research has questioned the validity of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test, especially with regard to the identification of reading disabilities.[15]

[edit] Effects
[edit] Lighting
Reading from paper and from some screens requires more lighting than many other activities. Therefore, the possibility of doing this comfortably in cafs, restaurants, buses, at bus stops or in parks greatly varies depending on available lighting and time of day. Starting in the 1950s, many offices and classrooms were overilluminated. Since about 1990, there has been a movement to create reading environments with appropriate lighting levels (approximately 600 to 800 lux).[citation needed] Reading from screens which produce their own light is less dependent on external light, except that this may be easier with little external light. For controlling what is on the screen (scrolling, turning the page, etc.), a touch screen or keyboard illumination further reduces the dependency on external light.[citation needed]

[edit] History
The history of reading dates back to the invention of writing in Mesopotamia during the 4th millennium BC. Although reading print text is now an important way for the general population to access information, this has not always been the case. With some exceptions, only a small percentage of the population in many countries was considered literate before the Industrial Revolution. Some of the pre-modern societies with generally high literacy rates included classical Athens and the Islamic Caliphate.[16] In the latter case, the widespread adoption of paper and the emergence of the Maktab and Madrasah educational institutions played a fundamental role.[17]
[verification needed]

Alhazen gave, in his work Book of Optics (1021), the earliest description of the two ways in which we perceive the written word:[18][verification needed]

"For when a literate person glances at the form abjad written on a piece of paper, he will immediately perceive it to be abjad [a word denoting the Arabic alphabet] because of his recognition of the form. Thus from his perception that the 'a' comes first and the 'd' last, or from his perception of the configuration of the total form, he perceives that it is abjad. Similarly, when he sees the written name of Allah, be He exalted, he perceives by recognition, at the moment of glancing at it, that it is Allah's name. And it is so with all well-known written words which have appeared many times before the eye: a literate person immediately perceives what the word is by recognition, without the need to inspect the letters in it one by one. The case is different when a literate person notices a strange word which he has not come upon beforehand or the like of which he has not already read. For he will perceive such a word only after inspecting its letters one by one and discerning their meanings; then he will perceive the meaning of the word." The Book of Optics, II, 3 [23]

Reading processes
Edit Read more: Educational psychology, Reading

Edited by Dr Joe Kiff View full history

ASSESSMENT | BIOPSYCHOLOGY | COMPARATIVE | COGNITIVE | DEVELOPMENTAL | LANGUAGE PERSONALITY | PHILOSOPHY | METHODS | SOCIAL | STATISTICS | CLINICAL | EDUCATIONAL | INDUSTRIAL
Educational Psychology: Assessment Issues Theory & research Techniques Techniques X subject Special Ed. Pastoral
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Reading
File:P literature.svg

General Information Braille Family literacy Functional illiteracy Illiteracy Literacy Readability Reading ability Reading achievement Reading materials Reading measures Reading skills Reading speed Types Oral reading Proofreading Skimming Slow reading

Speed reading Silent reading Subvocalized Reading processes Dyslexia National Reading Panel Reading readiness Reading acquisition Comprehension Reading development Reading disability Sight vocabulary Spelling Word recognition Reading education Alphabetic principle Basal reader Decodable text Methodology debate Phonics Remedial education Evidence-based instruction Whole language
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Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols for the intention of deriving meaning (reading comprehension) and/or constructing meaning. Written information is received by the retina, processed by the primary visual cortex, and interpreted in Wernicke's area. Reading is a means of language acquisition, of communication, and of sharing information and ideas. Readers use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding (to translate symbols into sounds or visual representations of speech) and comprehension. Readers may use morpheme, semantics, syntax and context clues to identify the meaning of unknown words. Readers integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or schema (schemata theory). Other types of reading are not speech based writing systems, such as music notation or pictograms. The common link is the interpretation of symbols to extract the meaning from the visual notations. Reading text is now an important way for the general population in many societies to access information and make meaning.

Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Overview 3 Medium 4 Reading skills o 4.1 Skill development o 4.2 Methods 5 Assessment o 5.1 Reading rate o 5.2 Types of tests 6 Effects o 6.1 Lighting 7 References o 7.1 Notes o 7.2 Bibliography 8 Further reading 9 External links

History Edit
Please help improve this article by expanding this section.
See talk page for details. Please remove this message once the section has been expanded.

Although reading print text is now an important way for the general population to access information, this has not always been the case. With some exceptions, only a small percentage of the population in many countries was considered literate before the Industrial Revolution.

Overview Edit
Currently most reading is of the printed word from ink on paper: a book, magazine, newspaper, leaflet, or notebook. Handwritten text may also consist of graphite from a pencil. More recently, text is read from computer displays, television, and other displays, such as mobile phones or ereaders. Short texts may be written or painted on an object. Often the text relates to the object, such as an address on an envelope, product info on packaging, or text on a traffic or street sign. A slogan may be painted on a wall. A text may also be produced by arranging stones of a different color in a wall or road. Short texts like these are sometimes referred to as environmental print. Sometimes text or images are in relief, with or without using a color contrast. Words or images can be carved in stone, wood, or metal; instructions can be printed in relief on the plastic housing of an home appliance, or a myriad of other examples.

Chalk on a blackboard is often used for classroom settings. A requirement for reading is a good contrast between letters and background (depending on colors of letters and background, any pattern or image in the background, and lighting) and a suitable font size. In the case of a computer screen, not having to scroll horizontally is important. The field of visual word recognition studies how people read individual words. A key technique in studying how individuals read text is eye tracking. This has revealed that reading is performed as a series of eye fixations with saccades between them. Humans also do not appear to fixate on every word in a text, but instead fixate to some words while apparently filling in the missing information using context. This is possible because human languages show certain linguistic regularities. The process of recording information to be read later is writing. In the case of computer and microfiche storage there is the separate step of displaying the written text. For humans, reading is usually faster and easier than writing. Reading is typically an individual activity, although on occasion a person will read out loud for the benefit of other listeners. Reading aloud for one's own use, for better comprehension, is a form of intrapersonal communication. Reading to young children is a recommended way to instill language and expression, and to promote comprehension of text. Before the reintroduction of separated text in the late Middle Ages, the ability to read silently was considered rather remarkable. See Alberto Manguel (1996) A History of Reading. New York: Viking. The relevant chapter (2) is posted on line here.

Medium Edit
See also: Writing Short messages can be put on (and read from) various media (including plastic, wood, stone, metal, etc.; the text can be written with ink or paint, or it may have been cut out, etc.). Longer texts such as books, magazines, newspapers, etc. are often available on paper (with printed text) or in electronic form on a computer storage device. In the latter case it may be read from an electronic screen; sometimes the user prints it to read it from paper.

Reading skills Edit

Literacy is the ability to read and write; illiteracy is usually caused by not having had the opportunity to learn these concepts. Dyslexia refers to a difficulty with reading and writing. The term dyslexia can refer to two disorders: developmental dyslexia is a learning disability; alexia or acquired dyslexia refers to reading difficulties that occur following brain damage. Major predictors of an individual's ability to read both alphabetic and nonalphabetic scripts are phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming and verbal IQ.[1]

Skill development Edit

Template:Global

Main article: Reading education Other methods of teaching and learning to read have developed, and become somewhat controversial[2]: Phonics Phonics involves teaching reading by associating characters or groups of characters with sounds. Sometimes argued to be in competition with whole language methods. Whole language Whole language methods involve acquiring words or phrases without attention to the characters or groups of characters that compose them. Sometimes argued to be in competition with phonics methods, and that the whole language approach tends to impair learning how to spell. Learning to read in a second language, especially in adulthood, may be a different process than learning to read a native language in childhood. There are cases of very young children learning to read without having been taught.[3] Such was the case with Truman Capote who reportedly taught himself to read and write at the age of five. There are also accounts of people who taught themselves to read by comparing street signs or Biblical passages to speech. The novelist Nicholas Delbanco taught himself to read at age six by studying a book about boats during a transatlantic crossing.

Methods Edit
File:EyeFixationsReading.gif Reading is an intensive process in which the eye quickly moves to assimilate text. Very little is actually seen accurately. It is necessary to understand visual perception and eye movement in order to understand the reading process.[4] There are several types and methods of reading, with differing rates that can be attained for each, for different kinds of material and purposes:

Subvocalized reading combines sight reading with internal sounding of the words as if spoken. Advocates of speed reading claim it can be a bad habit that slows reading and comprehension, but other studies indicate the reverse, particularly with difficult texts.[5][6] Speed reading is a collection of methods for increasing reading speed without an unacceptable reduction in comprehension or retention. It is closely connected to speed learning. PhotoReading is a collection of speed reading techniques with an additional technique of photoreading to increase reading speed and comprehension and retention. Proofreading is a kind of reading for the purpose of detecting typographical errors. One can learn to do it rapidly, and professional proofreaders typically acquire the ability to do so at high rates, faster for some kinds of material than for others, while they may largely suspend comprehension while doing so, except when needed to select among several possible words that a suspected typographic error allows. Structure-Proposition-Evaluation (SPE) method, popularized by Mortimer Adler in How to Read a Book, mainly for non-fiction treatise, in which one reads a writing in three passes: (1) for the structure of the work, which might be represented by an outline; (2) for the logical propositions made, organized into chains of inference; and (3) for evaluation of the merits of the arguments and conclusions. This method involves suspended judgment of the work or its arguments until they are fully understood.

Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Review (SQ3R) method, often taught in public schools, which involves reading toward being able to teach what is read, and would be appropriate for instructors preparing to teach material without having to refer to notes during the lecture. Multiple Intelligences-based methods, which draw upon the reader's diverse ways of thinking and knowing to enrich his or her appreciation of the text. Reading is fundamentally a linguistic activity: one can basically comprehend a text without resorting to other intelligences, such as the visual (e.g., mentally "seeing" characters or events described), auditory (e.g., reading aloud or mentally "hearing" sounds described), or even the logical intelligence (e.g., considering "what if" scenarios or predicting how the text will unfold based on context clues). However, most readers already use several intelligences while reading, and making a habit of doing so in a more disciplined manner -- i.e., constantly, or after every paragraph -- can result in more vivid, memorable experience. Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) reading involves presenting the words in a sentence one word at a time at the same location on the display screen, at a specified eccentricity. RSVP eliminates inter-word saccades, limits intra-word saccades, and prevents reader control of fixation times (Legge, Mansfield, & Chung, 2001). RSVP controls for differences in reader eye movement, and consequently is often used to measure reading speed in experiments.

Assessment Edit
Reading rate Edit
Template:Global Further information: Speed reading, English language learning and teaching, and Proofreading File:Reading speed by age.jpg Average reading rate in words per minute (wpm) depending on age and measured with different tests in English, French and German. Note: the data from Taylor (English) and Landerl (German) are based on texts of increasing difficulty; other data were obtained when all age groups were reading the same text. Rates of reading include reading for memorization (fewer than 100 words per minute [wpm]); reading for learning (100200 wpm); reading for comprehension (200400 wpm); and skimming (400700 wpm). Reading for comprehension is the essence of the daily reading of most people. Skimming is for superficially processing large quantities of text at a low level of comprehension (below 50%). Advice for choosing the appropriate reading-rate includes reading flexibly, slowing when concepts are closely presented, and when the material is new, and increasing when the material is familiar and of thin concept. Speed reading courses and books often encourage the reader to continually accelerate; comprehension tests lead the reader to believe his or her comprehension is continually improving; yet, competence-in-reading requires knowing that skimming is dangerous, as a default habit. Reading speed requires a long time to reach adult levels. The table to the right shows how reading-rate varies with age [7], regardless of the period (1965 to 2005) and the language (English, French, German). The Taylor values probably are higher, for disregarding students who failed the comprehension test. The reading test by the french psychologist Pierre Lefavrais ("L'alouette", published in 1967) tested reading aloud, with a penalty for

errors, and could, therefore, not be a rate greater than 150 wpm. According to Carver (1990), children's reading speed increases throughout the school years. On average, from grade 2 to college, reading rate increases 14 standard-length words per minute each year (where one standard-length word is defined as six characters in text, including punctuation and spaces).

Types of tests Edit

Sight word reading: reading words of increasing difficulty until they become unable to read or understand the words presented to them. Difficulty is manipulated by using words that have more letters or syllables, are less common and have more complicated spelling-sound relationships. Nonword reading: reading lists of pronounceable nonsense words out loud. The difficulty is increased by using longer words, and also by using words with more complex spelling or sound sequences. Reading comprehension: a passage is presented to the reader, which they must read either silently or out loud. Then a series of questions are presented that test the reader's comprehension of this passage. Reading fluency: the rate with which individuals can name words. Reading accuracy: the ability to correctly name a word on a page.

Some tests incorporate several of the above components at once. For instance, the Nelson-Denny Reading Test scores readers both on the speed with which they can read a passage, and also their ability to accurately answer questions about this passage.

Effects Edit
Lighting Edit
Reading from paper and from some screens requires more lighting than many other activities. Therefore, the possibility of doing this comfortably in cafs, restaurants, buses, at bus stops or in parks greatly varies depending on available lighting and time of day. Starting in the 1950s, many offices and classrooms were overilluminated. Since about 1990, there has been a movement to create reading environments with appropriate lighting levels (approximately 600 to 800 lux). Reading from screens which produce their own light is less dependent on external light, except that this may be easier with little external light. For controlling what is on the screen (scrolling, turning the page, etc.), a touch screen or keyboard illumination further reduces the dependency on external light.

References Edit
Notes Edit
1. Powell D, Stainthorp R, Stuart M, Garwood H, Quinlan P. (2007). An experimental comparison between rival theories of rapid automatized naming performance and its relationship to reading. J Exp Child Psychol. 98(1):46-68. PMID 17555762 2. Facts and fads in beginning reading: a cross-language perspective(1998), ppgs. 3. Learning From Children Who Read at an Early Age(1999), ppgs. 4. Im Auge des Lesers, foveale und periphere Wahrnehmung: vom Buchstabieren zur Lesefreude(2006), ppgs.

5. Moidel, Steve. Speed Reading for Business, 2324, Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational. 6. Rayner, Keith (1995). The Psychology of Reading, Pollatsek, Alexander, 192194, London: Routledge. 7. Im Auge des Lesers, foveale und periphere Wahrnehmung: vom Buchstabieren zur Lesefreude(2006), ppgs. 117.

Bibliography Edit

Carver, R.P. (1990). Reading rate: A review of research and theory, San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Feitelson, Dina (1988). Facts and Fads in Beginning Reading: A Cross-Language Perspective, Norwood, New Jersey, United States: Ablex. Legge, G.E., Mansfield, J.S., & Chung, S.T.L.C. (2001). Psychophysics of reading. XX. Linking letter recognition to reading speed in central and peripheral vision. Vision Research, 41, 725-743. Stainthorp, Rhona; Diana Hughes (1999). Learning From Children Who Read at an Early Age, Routledge. Hunziker, Hans-Werner (2006). Im Auge des Lesers foveale und periphere Wahrnehmung: vom Buchstabieren zur Lesefreude (In the eye of the reader: foveal and peripheral perception - from letter recognition to the joy of reading) (in German), Transmedia Zurich.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Developmental psychology attempts to understand the nature and sources of growth in children's cognitive, language, and social skills. Within that context, there are four central themes that are unique to a developmental perspective and that bear on issues in childhood education. The first is the role of nature versus nurture in shaping development. Specifically, developmentalists want to know the contribution of genetic or maturational influences on development as well as the role played by environmental experiences. One important educational issue related to this topic is the question of whether a child's en-trance age, or maturational level, is important for school success. For this and other important educational questions, nature and nurture interact in complex ways to shape a child's academic growth. The second question focuses on whether children's growth proceeds in a continuous or more stage-like fashion. Stage theories, such as those proposed by Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, and Sigmund Freud, contend that development progresses through maturationally determined stages. While this perspective underscores the contributions of both biology and the environment, a greater emphasis is placed on a maturationally predetermined progression through a fixed developmental sequence. Many researchers and theorists dispute such a rigid, step-like theory of development, emphasizing instead a more continuous, gradual process influenced equally by both brain maturation and environmental stimulation. Two important educational questions relevant to this issue are the extent to which children can be taught particular concepts or skills prior to entering a given developmental stage, and whether concepts learned in one domain are automatically transferred to other similar domains as a child reaches a new developmental stage. A distinct but related theme centers on the existence of critical or sensitive periods in human development. A critical or sensitive period is defined as a time of growth during which an organism is maximally responsive to certain environmental or biological events. Critical periods emphasize the interaction of both nature and nurture,

with environmental experiences (nurture) activating biologically programmed (nature) developmental changes, or, conversely, biologically determined changes enabling an organism to assimilate certain environmental experiences. In terms of language development, educators often wonder whether there is a critical or sensitive period during which children should learn a second language. While certain components of language, such as phonological processing, are believed to be constrained by sensitive periods in development, other elements of language, such as vocabulary, clearly evolve over the lifespan. The final theme concerns the importance of early experience in shaping later growth and development. Developmental scientists such as Mary Ainsworth, Alan Sroufe, and Freud emphasize the significance of early attachment and emotional conflict in predicting later psychological adjustment. It is argued that early risk factors have a more permanent influence on the course of development than later experiences. Early negative circumstances such as family conflict and social disadvantage have been linked to later delinquent behavior and school failure. Nevertheless, many children display resilience in the face of such early adverse social and environmental conditions. Thus, it is the cumulative impact of both early and later experiences that determines a child's developmental outcome. Children's literacy development, for example, is a product of both early experiences, such as parentchild book reading, as well as later experiences, such as reading instruction in school. Modern developmental theory centers on these four central issues. An in-depth examination of these topics within a historical context will provide a more comprehensive understanding of developmental theory and its relevance for educational policies and practices.

Nature Versus Nurture

Philosophers and psychologists have debated the relative roles of nature and nurture in human development for centuries. The seventeenth-century English philosopher John Locke described a young child's mind as a tabula rasa (blank slate) upon which the child's experiences are written. Jean-Jacques Rosseau, an eighteenth-century French philosopher, also argued that human development was primarily a function of experience. He believed in the existence of a natural, unspoiled state of humankind that is altered and corrupted by modern civilization. In contrast, nineteenth-century scientists such as Gregor Mendel, Charles Darwin, and Sir Francis Galton highlighted the importance of heredity in shaping development. While all of these scientists provided meaningful insights into the role of heredity and the environment, modern researchers have sought to further explore the dynamic interactions between nature and nurture that shape human development. The twentieth century saw the evolution of various theories of development that differentially emphasized the role of biological versus environmental factors. These theories can be classified according to four major developmental frameworks: (1) environmental learning (empiricism), (2) biological maturation (nativism), (3) cultural context, and (4) constructivist. The environmental-learning framework, best exemplified by the behaviorist theories of John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner, underscores the paramount importance of empirical learning in development. According to behaviorist theories, learning is characterized as the process by which an organism's behavior is shaped by experience. While environmental-learning theorists do not completely discount the role of innate factors, they argue that it is the external environment that has the greatest influence on development.

Biological-maturationist theories represent the opposing swing of the theoretical pendulum. This framework posits that biologically and genetically predetermined patterns of change have a greater impact on development than environmental influences. During the early twentieth century, theorists such as Freud and Arnold Gessell proposed that experiential influences were secondary to innate maturational mechanisms. This perspective regained popularity in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries as a result of major advances in genetic research, as well as the introduction of twin studies and behavioral genetics. Researchers such as Robert Plomin, Noam Chomsky, and Steven Pinker assert that human characteristics such as personality, intelligence, and language acquisition are, to a great extent, genetically grounded and maturationally controlled. Ads by Google Saybrook Graduate School Earn your MA or PhD at a distance Humanistic Psychology & Org Systems www.saybrook.edu 96th NCA Conference Routledge have put together a free resource related to this years NCA www.communicationarena.com OPEN Routledge Journals Giving you access to all content from Routledge Health journals www.tandf.co.uk/journals The cultural-context perspective of psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky and Barbara Rogoff contends that while both biological and experiential factors exert important influences on development, such factors are filtered through an individual's social and cultural context. Lev Vygotsky believed that the activities, symbols, and customs of particular social groups are formed by the collective social, cultural, and historical experiences of their ancestors. Through influences on social customs and practices, parenting, and the environment, culture shapes children's cognitive, language, and social development. For example, children's academic performance has been found to vary cross-culturally, as demonstrated by studies showing that Asian immigrant children outperform their white peers in the United States, as well as the black-white test score gap. Finally, the constructivist, or interactionist, approach stresses the balanced interaction of nature and nurture in forming the foundation for developmental change. In such a framework, both genetics and environment play an important role, and it is the dynamic relations among such internal and external influences that ultimately shape development. Piaget's theory of cognitive development asserts that children construct their knowledge based on the combination of input received from both maturational and environmental sources. Theorists such as Richard Lerner, Gilbert Gottlieb, Esther Thelen, and Linda Smith have taken this conceptualization one step further with the introduction of dynamic systems theories, which emphasize that the source of developmental change is in the process of bidirectional interaction among complex environmental and biological systems. Frederick Morrison and colleagues have explored one facet of the nature-nurture question relevant to education by examining the importance of entrance age, or maturation level, on school readiness and academic growth. They found that younger first graders benefited as much from instruction in reading and math as older first graders, and that the younger students made significantly more progress than older kindergarteners of

essentially the same age. Thus, entrance ageor maturation levelis not an important indicator of learning or academic risk. The dispute over the relative importance of nature and nurture in children's development has endured for several centuries, and will no doubt continue to divide theorists for a long time to come. Increasingly, however, developmental scientists are concluding that, for most human characteristics, nature and nurture are inextricably linked and interact in complex ways to shape human growth.

Stages in Development
According to Piaget's stage theory, children progress through a sequence of qualitative transformations, advancing from simple to more complex levels of thought. Piaget believed these transformations to be universal, innately programmed shifts in a child's perception and understanding of the world. He proposed four main stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The transition from preoperational to concrete operational thought, at about five to seven years of age, corresponds with entry into formal schooling. While children in the preoperational stage are able to internally represent reality through the use of symbols such as language and mental images, concrete-operational children move beyond this simple mental representation of objects and actions and are able to logically integrate, order, and transform these objects and actions. For instance, because preoperational children cannot integrate information about height and width simultaneously, they are unable to recognize that water poured from a short, wide container into a tall, narrow container represents the same volume of water. Yet once they reach the age of reason, their maturational level converges with their accumulated experiences to facilitate a qualitative shift toward concrete operational thinking. In addition to Piaget's stage theory of cognitive development, several others have proposed stage theories of psychosexual/personality development (Freud), psychosocial/identity development (Erikson), moral reasoning (Lawrence Kohlberg), and social development (Theory of Mind). These theories claim that children proceed through universal, age-specific stages of growth. Yet not all psychologists agree with such a rigid, step-like representation of development. Recently, neo-Piagetian theorists such as Kurt Fischer, Robbie Case, Annette Karmiloff-Smith, and others have attempted to reconcile the variability and domain-specificity observed in children's cognitive growth with Piaget's static stage theory. In general, the neo-Piagetian perspective expands upon Piagetian theory by asserting that, while some general constraints or core capacities are hard-wired at birth, learning and experience lead to variation and domainspecificity in the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Cross-cultural studies have shown that varying cultural experiences result in the acquisition of different, contextually relevant skills. For example, children from a Mexican village known for its pottery-making learn conservation of solids (e.g., the fact that a ball of clay has the same mass even when it is molded into a long, thin roll) before conservation of number, which is generally mastered first in formally schooled children. Thus, most neo-Piagetians believe that while learning is constrained by innate mechanisms or information processing capacities, it proceeds in an individualized, domain-specific manner. The question of whether certain knowledge or skills can be acquired before a child has reached a specified stage of development has also been addressed by neo-Piagetians. Renee Baillargeon conducted experiments with

young infants and found that they recognize properties of object permanence prior to reaching that designated Piagetian stage of development. In addition, researchers have demonstrated that children can be taught concreteoperational concepts even before they have formally reached that stage of cognitive understandingthough these children are unable to transfer such knowledge outside the context of the testing situation. <body><noscript> <iframe scrolling="no" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" src="http://adq.nextag.com/buyer/dyad/300x250s.jsp?s=27632&amp;p=352240" frameborder="0" height="250" width="300"> Other theorists construe development as a constructive web (Kurt Fischer) or as a series of overlapping waves (Robert Siegler), rather than a sequence of qualitatively distinct steps. They recognize that cognitive development is the result of gradually acquired skills and abilities that build upon each other. Siegler, in particular, emphasizes the overlapping use of progressively more advanced strategies in the acquisition of skills such as addition. He found that children learning addition use various strategies in "overlapping waves," such as finger counting, verbal counting in their head, the Min strategy (taking the larger of two numbers as a base and adding the smaller number to it) and, eventually, retrieval from memory. They gradually move from using easier, less efficient strategies to more difficult, but more efficient, strategies. The neo-Piagetian view resembles the information-processing perspective in that both contend that cognitive development is limited by general constraints that are hard-wired at birth. Information-processing researchers such as Robert Kail, Wolfgang Schneider, and David Bjorklund argue that children's learning is restricted by the broad processing capacities of the brain, which improve with age. This perspective regards development as a more gradual, continuous process that evolves as children's processing speed or capacity for holding information increases. Thus, the step-like progression of development is rejected for a more linear representation.

Critical Periods
A critical, or sensitive period is defined as a period of time in development when a particular environmental experience or biological event has its greatest influence. Evidence demonstrates that some physiological and psychological processes are constrained by critical periods. The existence of sensitive periods in children's psychological development has been noted in aspects of language acquisition. Children deprived of verbal stimulation during the first few years of life are severely impaired in their capacity to learn language and have great difficulty acquiring normal language later on. In addition, while young infants are able to distinguish among the variety of phonemes present in all human languages, after about six months of age the infant's knowledge becomes more focused, and they are only able to discriminate between the various phonemes in their own native language. Consequently, infants can learn any language that they are exposed to, yet it is more difficult for an older child or adult to completely master a nonnative or secondary language. Taken together, such information lends support to the argument that the first few years of life represent a sensitive period for certain aspects of language development. However, the fact that children continue to benefit from exposure to new vocabulary, semantics, and grammatical rules well into elementary school and beyond leads researchers to question whether all language learning is restricted by a sensitive period. During the first few years of life, children's brains grow and become more organized, specialized, and efficient. Yet brain

growth and development does not end at three years of age, but rather continues throughout childhood, benefiting from the effects of schooling and other environmental stimulation. Thus, the question of when educators should teach children a second language depends on the components of language being considered (e.g., phonology, semantics, vocabulary, grammar) and the level of proficiency desired. Another area of development believed to be constrained by a sensitive period is attachment. Psychologists such as John Bowlby, Ainsworth, Sroufe, Erikson, and Freud contend that children's early attachment to their primary caregiver (e.g., mother, father) during the first few years of life sets the foundation for their later socioemotional development. Research conducted by Harry Harlow on infant monkeys found that those deprived of maternal attachment prior to six months of age had a more difficult time recovering socially than those deprived of maternal contact after six months of age, thus lending support to the existence of a critical period for social development in monkeys. Yet many "natural experiments" looking at orphan children who have been deprived of adequate affection and sensitivity from a primary caregiver have found that, if removed from such a socioemotionally impoverished environment and placed in a loving adoptive home, most children are able to recover socially, emotionally, and cognitively. Thus, while early experiences can and do have an impact on later development, children often demonstrate resilience in response to adverse early experiences.

Early Experience
Early experience is the consummate critical period. During the broad social reform of the late 1800s, scientists in the newly evolving field of developmental psychology brought attention to the harmful effects of child industrial labor and validated the importance of a healthy and nurturing environment for promotion of normal development. Throughout the twentieth century, psychologists such as Bowlby, Freud, Erikson, and Sroufe have stressed the profound importance of early socioemotional experiences on later psychological outcomes. In addition, scientists and policymakers have recognized the importance of early intervention programs, such as Head Start, that seek to enrich the cognitive development of socially disadvantaged children. During the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, public interest and government policy has advocated even earlier interventions, focusing on zero to three as the most important age range on which to concentrate resources. Yet, as theorists such as John Bruer argue, the importance of the first three years of life has reached "mythical" proportions. According to Bruer, it is important to recognize the cumulative nature of development, emphasizing both early and later experiences in shaping children's growth. Evidence from researchers such as Baillargeon and Susan Rose has demonstrated that cognitive skills begin to develop very early in life, and that these skills follow rather stable trajectories over time. Such findings suggest that children's developmental course begins to solidify before they enter formal schooling, and even before they utter their first words. A problem of particular interest is the poor state of literacy in America, and the impact of early experiences on literacy development. The amount of cognitive enrichment, verbal stimulation, and book reading, for example, that children are exposed to at an early age is predictive of later literacy skills. Research conducted by Betty Hart and Todd Risley (1995) found a wide range of variability in young children's vocabulary skills as early as two years of age, and this variability was highly correlated with the number of words spoken by their parents. Socioeconomically disadvantaged toddlers were exposed to a substantially lower number of words per day as compared to toddlers from professional families. It is clear from such research that children's early experiences can lead to striking differences among children from enriching versus impoverished environments. Furthermore,

studies have shown that the achievement gap between low- and high-performing children widens once children enter school. With respect to socioemotional development, psychologists such as Freud, Sroufe, Bowlby, Erikson, and Mary Main have claimed that children's early attachment relationships with their primary caregivers lay the foundation for later social functioning. Researchers have found that securely attached children are more cooperative with their mothers, achieve higher cognitive and academic scores, are more curious, and maintain better relationships with teachers and peers, as compared to insecurely attached children. Taken together, such research affirms the impact of early attachment and socioemotional experiences on later psychosocial and cognitive development. While early risk factors such as poor attachment and socioeconomic disadvantage can have long-term effects on children's cognitive, academic, social, and emotional development, children do demonstrate varying levels of vulnerability and resilience toward such early conditions. Differences in temperament and coping abilities, for example, can moderate the degree to which a child's early experiences forecast their later developmental outcomes. Furthermore, while there is ample evidence that early experiences have a substantial effect on later cognitive and social outcomes, the real question is whether early experiences are any more important than later experiences. Growing evidence suggests that it is the cumulative effects of both early and later experiences that define an individual's trajectories later in life. In summary, developmental theory pursues four central themes: (1) the importance of nature versus nurture, (2) stages in development, (3) the existence of critical or sensitive periods, and (4) the impact of early experience. Significant progress has been made over the last thirty years on each of these topics, resulting in a more complex view of human psychological growth and the forces that shape it. With regard to educational practice, modern developmental theory stresses that rigid notions of genetic determinism, stages, critical periods, or the lasting impact of early experience are being replaced by more flexible views that emphasize the malleability of human nature and its potential for change. See also: DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY, subentries on COGNITIVE AND INFORMATION PROCESSING, EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH, VYGOTSKIAN THEORY.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
AINSWORTH, MARY. 1985. "Patterns of Attachment." Clinical Psychologist 38 (2):2729. BOLBY, JOHN. 1988. A Secure Base: Parent-Child Attachment and Healthy Human Development. New York: Basic Books. BRUER, JOHN T. 1999. The Myth of the First Three Years: A New Understanding of Early Brain Development and Lifelong Learning. New York:Free Press. COLE, MICHAEL, and COLE, SHEILA R. 1996. The Development of Children, 3rd edition. New York:W. H. Freeman. DEMETRIOU, ANDREAS; SHAYER, MICHAEL; and EFKLIDES, ANASTASIA. 1992. Neo-Piagetian Theories of Cognitive Development: Implications and Applications for Education. London: Routledge.

GOTTLIEB, GILBERT; WAHLSTEN, DOUGLAS; and LICKLITER, ROBERT. 1998. "The Significance of Biology for Human Development: A Developmental Psychobiological Systems View." In Handbook of Child Psychology Vol. 1: Theoretical Models of Human Development, 5th edition, ed. William Damon and Richard M. Lerner. New York: Wiley. HART, BETTY, and RISLEY, TODD R. 1995. Meaningful Individual Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. KAIL, ROBERT. 1991. "Development of Processing Speed in Childhood and Adolescence." In Advances in Child Development and Behavior Vol. 23, ed. Hayne W. Reese. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. KARMILOFF-SMITH, ANNETTE. 1992. Beyond Modularity: A Developmental Perspective on Cognitive Science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. LERNER, RICHARD M. 1998. "Theories of Human Development: Contemporary Perspectives." In Handbook of Child Psychology Vol. 1: Theoretical Models of Human Development, 5th edition, ed. William Damon and Richard M. Lerner. New York: Wiley. PIAGET, JEAN. 1983. "Piaget's Theory." In Handbook of Child Psychology Vol. 1: History, Theory, and Methods, 4th edition, ed. William Kessen. New York: Wiley. PLOMIN, ROBERT. 1990. Nature and Nurture: An Introduction to Human Behavior Genetics. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. ROGOFF, BARBARA. 1998. "Cognition as a Collaborative Process." In Handbook of Child Psychology Vol. 2: Cognition, Perception, and Language, 5th edition, ed. William Damon and Richard M. Lerner. New York: Wiley. SIEGLER, ROBERT S. 1998. Emerging Minds: The Process of Change in Children's Thinking. New York: Oxford University Press. SINGER, DOROTHY G., and REVENSON, TRACY. 1997. A Piaget Primer: How a Child Thinks. Madison, CT: International Universities Press. THELEN, ESTHER, and SMITH, LINDA. 1998. "Dynamic Systems Theories." In Handbook of Child Psychology Vol. 1: Theoretical Models of Human Development, 5th edition, ed. William Damon and Richard M. Lerner. New York: Wiley. VYGOTSKY, LEV. 1978. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. MAUREEN KESSENICH FREDERICK J. MORRISON

Read more: Developmental Theory - Cognitive And Information Processing, Evolutionary Approach, Vygotskian Theory - HISTORICAL OVERVIEW - Children, Experiences, Language, Child, and Human http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1913/Developmental-Theory.html#ixzz10g33Hzi4

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages Summary Chart

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development Hope is both the earliest and the most indispensable virtue inherent in the state of being alive. If life is to be sustained hope must remain, even where confidence is wounded, trust impaired. --Erik Erikson Stage Basic Conflict Important Events Outcome Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding

Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration

Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School

Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Social Relationships

Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to you, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years) Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years) Generatively vs. Stagnation Work and Parenthood

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life

Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfilment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

Theories of reading Submitted by TE Editor on 23 March, 2006 - 13:00 This article is in two parts. The first part will look at some of the shifts and trends in theories relating to reading. The second part will examine tips and guidelines for implementing a theory of reading which will help to develop our learners' abilities.

The traditional view The cognitive view The metacognitive view Conclusion

Just like teaching methodology, reading theories have had their shifts and transitions. Starting from the traditional view which focused on the printed form of a text and moving to the cognitive view that enhanced the role of background knowledge in addition to what appeared on the printed page, they ultimately culminated in the metacognitive view which is now in vogue. It is based on the control and manipulation that a reader can have on the act of comprehending a text. The traditional view According to Dole et al. (1991), in the traditional view of reading, novice readers acquire a set of hierarchically ordered sub-skills that sequentially build toward comprehension ability. Having mastered these skills, readers are viewed as experts who comprehend what they read.

Readers are passive recipients of information in the text. Meaning resides in the text and the reader has to reproduce meaning. According to Nunan (1991), reading in this view is basically a matter of decoding a series of written symbols into their aural equivalents in the quest for making sense of the text. He referred to this process as the 'bottom-up' view of reading. McCarthy (1999) has called this view 'outside-in' processing, referring to the idea that meaning exists in the printed page and is interpreted by the reader then taken in. This model of reading has almost always been under attack as being insufficient and defective for the main reason that it relies on the formal features of the language, mainly words and structure.

Although it is possible to accept this rejection for the fact that there is over-reliance on structure in this view, it must be confessed that knowledge of linguistic features is also necessary for comprehension to take place. To counteract over-reliance on form in the traditional view of reading, the cognitive view was introduced. The cognitive view The 'top-down' model is in direct opposition to the 'bottom-up' model. According to Nunan (1991) and Dubin and Bycina (1991), the psycholinguistic model of reading and the top-down model are in exact concordance.

Goodman (1967; cited in Paran, 1996) presented reading as a psycholinguistic guessing game, a process in which readers sample the text, make hypotheses, confirm or reject them, make new hypotheses, and so forth. Here, the reader rather than the text is at the heart of the reading process. The schema theory of reading also fits within the cognitively based view of reading. Rumelhart (1977) has described schemata as "building blocks of cognition" which are used in the process of interpreting sensory data, in retrieving information from memory, in organising goals and subgoals, in allocating resources, and in guiding the flow of the processing system. Rumelhart (1977) has also stated that if our schemata are incomplete and do not provide an understanding of the incoming data from the text we will have problems processing and understanding the text.

Cognitively based views of reading comprehension emphasize the interactive nature of reading and the constructive nature of comprehension. Dole et al. (1991) have stated that, besides knowledge brought to bear on the reading process, a set of flexible, adaptable strategies are used to make sense of a text and to monitor ongoing understanding. The metacognitive view According to Block (1992), there is now no more debate on "whether reading is a bottom-up, language-based process or a top-down, knowledge-based process." It is also no more problematic to accept the influence of background knowledge on both L1 and L2 readers. Research has gone even further to define the control readers execute on their ability to understand a text. This control, Block (1992) has referred to as metacognition. Metacognition involves thinking about what one is doing while reading. Klein et al. (1991) stated that strategic readers attempt the following while reading:

Identifying the purpose of the reading before reading Identifying the form or type of the text before reading Thinking about the general character and features of the form or type of the text. For instance, they try to locate a topic sentence and follow supporting details toward a conclusion

Projecting the author's purpose for writing the text (while reading it), Choosing, scanning, or reading in detail Making continuous predictions about what will occur next, based on information obtained earlier, prior knowledge, and conclusions obtained within the previous stages.

Moreover, they attempt to form a summary of what was read. Carrying out the previous steps requires the reader to be able to classify, sequence, establish whole-part relationships, compare and contrast, determine cause-effect, summarise, hypothesise and predict, infer, and conclude. Conclusion In the second part of this article I will look at the guidelines which can also be used as general ideas to aid students in reading and comprehending materials. These tips can be viewed in three consecutive stages: before reading, during reading, and after reading. For instance, before starting to read a text it is natural to think of the purpose of reading the text. As an example of the during-reading techniques, re-reading for better comprehension can be mentioned. And filling out forms and charts can be referred to as an after-reading activity. These tasks and ideas can be used to enhance reading comprehension. This article published: 23rd March, 2006 was first published in Iranian Language Institute Language Teaching Journal Volume 1, No.1 Spring 2005. Further reading Barnett, M. A. (1988). Teaching reading in a foreign language. ERIC Digest Block, E. L. (1992). See how they read: comprehension monitoring of L1 and L2 readers. TESOL Quarterly 26(2) Dole, J. A. Duffy, G. G., Roehler, L. R., and Pearson, D. D. (1991). Moving from the old to the new: research on reading comprehension instruction. Review of Educational Research 61 Dubin, F., and Bycina, D. (1991). Models of the process of reading. In Celce-Murcia (ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Boston, Mass.: Heinle and Heinle. Duke, N. K., and Pearson, D. P. (n.d.). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension. Available at //effective reading.com/ (Oct. 15, 2001). Estes T. H. (1999). Strategies for reading to learn. Available at www.reading strategies. Fitzgerald, J. (1995). English-as-a-second-language learners' cognitive reading processes: a review of research in the United States. Review of Educational Research 65 Klein, M. L., Peterson, S., and Simington, L. (1991). Teaching Reading in the Elementary Grades. Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon. Lebauer, R. (1998). Lessons from the rock on the role of reading. Available at // langue.Hyper.Chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/t/t/98/lebauer.html McCarthy, C. P. (n. d.) Reading theory as a microcosm of the four skills. Applied Linguistics Series. Nunan, D. (1991). Language Teaching Methodology. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall International. Paran, A. (1996). Reading in EFL: facts and fiction. ELT Journal 50 Rumelhart, D. E. (1977). Toward an interactive model of reading. In S. Dornic (ed.), Attention and Performance IV. New York, NY: AcademicPress.

Steinhofer, H. (1996). How to read nonfictional English texts faster and more effectively. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. II, No. 6, June 1996 Ur, P. (1996). A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. Vaezi, S. (2001). Metacognitive reading strategies across language and techniques. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Allameh Tabataba'iUniversity, Tehran, Iran. Van Duzer, C. (1999). Reading and the Adult English Language Learner. Washington, D.C.: Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy Education

Teaching reading: Whole Language and Phonics

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. This article is written like a personal reflection or essay and may require cleanup. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (December 2007)

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Reading

LANGUAGE Language Writing Writing system Orthography Braille

TYPES OF READING Close reading Slow reading Speed reading Subvocalization

LEARNING TO READ

Reading skills acquisition Comprehension Spelling Vocabulary Reading disability Dyslexia

READING INSTRUCTION Alphabetic principle Phonics Whole language

LITERACY Literacy Functional illiteracy Family literacy English orthography

LISTS Languages by writing system Management of dyslexia

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"Phonics" emphasizes the alphabetic principle -- the idea that letters represent the sounds of speech, and that there are systematic and predictable relationships between written letters and spoken words, which is specific to the alphabetic writing system Children learn letter sounds (b = the first sound in "bat" and "ball") first and then blend them (bl = the first two sounds in "blue") to form words. "Whole language" is a method of teaching reading that emphasizes literature and text comprehension. Students are taught to use critical thinking strategies and to use context to "guess" words that they do not recognize. In the younger grades, children use invented spelling to write their own stories. Both instructional methods use elements that are emphasized in the other; the differences between the methods are largely related to what is emphasized and the sequence of skill instruction.

Contents
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1 Phonics 2 Whole Language 3 Learning Theories Compared 4 Combining phonics with whole language programs 5 Careful combination 6 See also 7 References 8 Related Resources 9 External links

[edit] Phonics
Main article: Phonics Phonics is seen to be an improvement on the previously used method of learning the approximate sounds represented by letters (b=buh) first and then blending them with other sounds (bl=bluh) to decode and encode words in written form. This newer method attempts to eliminate the extraneous "uh" sounds which were unavoidable in the older method. Children also learn strategies to figure out words they don't know. Phonics is considered an "analytical" approach where students analyze the letters, letter combinations and syllables in a word; in an effort to "decode" (1) the speech-sounds represented by the letters and (2) the meaning of the text. The advantage of phonics is that, especially for students who come to schools with large English vocabularies, it enables students to decode or "sound-out" a word they have in their speaking vocabulary. Phonics proponents led by Rudolf Flesch in his book Why Johnny Can't Read attacked the whole word approach because (1) it did not get students into reading children's stories that did not have carefully controlled vocabularies and (2) it theoretically required the students to memorize every word as a whole. Phonics advocates focus their efforts on the primary grades and emphasize the importance of students having phonemic awareness, that is an understanding of the alphabetic principle that the spelling of words relates to how they sound when spoken. A problem with teaching the reading of English with this analytical approach is that English words do not have a one-to-one speech-sound to symbol relationship. If they did have a one-to-one relationship, reading would be easier. In general, with a few common exceptions, the consonants do have a one-to-one speech-sound to symbol relationship but the vowels do not. For instance the letter "a" represents one sound in the word "say", a second sound in "at", a third sound in "any", a fourth sound in "are", a fifth sound in "all", a sixth sound in "about", a seventh sound in "father" , an eighth sound in "orange", and a ninth sound (silence) in "bread". The speechsounds are sometimes influenced by (a) the letters surrounding the target vowel, (b) by the sentence containing the word and (c) the stress, or lack thereof, given to the syllable containing the letter.

Almost any combination of three letters with a central "a" can reasonably be pronounced in a number of different ways. For instance the "a" in "pag" could be pronounced as in "page" (long "a"), "pageant" (short "a"), creepage (short "i") or decoupage (short "o" as in "dot"). It therefore follows that beginning students will have a difficult time picking the appropriate sound when sounding-out words which are not in their speaking vocabularies. Fortunately, most readers quickly develop a subconscious word sense which helps them fluently pick the right sound based on the structure of the word and how that structure is related to other similar words they know. Some very common words do not fully follow common phonic patterns, so those words have to be memorized. Some books refer to these words as "sight words", but it is probably better to refer to them as "memory words" because some books refer to sight words as those words which are so common they do not have to be analyzed or "sounded-out". It does not seem like a good idea to have "sight-words" mean two different things when "memory-words" is available. The many homonyms in English such as to, too, and two create difficulties for students, even at the university level in regard to spelling. Drawbacks:

For those who learn to speak by learning the whole sound of a word, phonics is not an ideal form of reading instruction, because these learners do not naturally break words into separate sounds. Some phonics programs use low-interest reading material and too many boring worksheets. Those "drawbacks", of course, are not unique to a phonics program.

[edit] Whole Language

Main article: Whole language Whole language is a currently controversial approach to teaching reading that is based on constructivist learning theory and ethnographic studies of students in classrooms. With whole language, teachers are expected to provide a literacy rich environment for their students and to combine speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Whole language teachers emphasize the meaning of texts over the sounds of letters, and phonics instruction becomes just one component of the whole language classroom. Whole language is considered a "top down" approach where the reader constructs a personal meaning for a text based on using their prior knowledge to interpret the meaning of what they are reading. Drawbacks:

Some whole language programs place too little emphasis on word analysis. When that's left out, young readers may guess or skip over words they don't know and some children may not learn how to read. Some scholars have estimated that a whole-word memorization approach puts severe limitations on the number of words that children can learn to read.[1]

[edit] Learning Theories Compared

Behaviorism (Official Theory) Constructivism (Classic Theory)

Teacher-Centered Direct Instruction Transmission (Friere's Banking Model) Phonics Emphasis Sound & Skills Emphasis

Student-Centered Instruction Experiential Interactive Whole Language Emphasis Meaning Emphasis

Students who come from "high literacy" householdswhere young children are read bedtime stories on a regular basis, there are lots of children's books, and adults read regularlytend to learn to read well regardless of the teaching approach used. These students tend to enter school with large vocabularies and reading readiness skills (and sometimes they already can read). Students from "low literacy" households are not exposed much to reading in their homes and tend to have smaller vocabularies. They may speak non-standard dialects of English such as African American Vernacular English and can be unmotivated students, especially if they see teachers as enemies trying to change how they speak and act, in other words their language and culture. It can be argued that a standard phonics approach might be unsuccessful for these students. Whole language approaches encourage teachers to find reading material that reflects these students' language and culture. Publishing basal reading textbooks is a multimillion dollar industry that responds to the demands of purchasers. Two populous states, California and Texas, do statewide adoptions of textbooks, and whatever they want in their textbooks, publishers tend to supply. Currently publishers are including systematic phonics instruction, more classic and popular children's literature, and whole language activities. This compromise generally goes under the rubric of a "balanced approach" to teaching reading. Advocates of balanced reading instruction should supplement a school's adopted reading program with materials that reflect the experiential background and interests of their students. Various approaches to reading presume that students learn differently. The phonics emphasis in reading draws heavily from behaviorist learning theory that is associated with the work of the Harvard psychologist B.F. Skinner while the whole language emphasis draws from constructivist learning theory and the work of the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Behaviorist learning theory is based on studies of animal behaviors where animals such as pigeons learned to do tasks when they received rewards and extinguished (stopped) behaviors that were not rewarded or were punished. Most of us can point to things we continue to do because we are rewarded for doing them. Rewards can be the pay we get for jobs we do, desired recognition like "A" grades for doing excellent school work, and praise from our friends when they like what we are doing. Likewise, we can point to things we stopped doing because we were not rewarded or were punished for them. Behaviorist learning theory tends to look at extrinsic rewards like money, grades, and gold stars rather than intrinsic rewards like feeling good about successfully accomplishing a difficult task. Constructivist learning theory is based on the idea that children learn by connecting new knowledge to previously learned knowledge. The term is a building metaphor that includes students using scaffolding to organize new information. If children cannot connect new knowledge to old knowledge in a meaningful way, they may with difficulty memorize it (rote learning), but they will not have a real understanding of what they are learning.

Vygotsky identified a "zone of proximal development" where children can learn new things that are a little above their current understanding with the help of more knowledgeable peers or adults. This new knowledge is incorporated into their existing knowledge base.

[edit] Combining phonics with whole language programs

Recommendations for teachers using primarily phonics include:

Balance your reading program by focusing on literature and fun. Read to students often, choral read with them, and give them time to read both alone and in pairs. Guard against boredom. Spend only a brief time each day on phonics and do no more than one worksheet daily. Use many word games in your teaching. For most children, phonics is easier to learn if they are having fun. If students are not able to learn phonics easily, try other reading approaches, like recorded books or story writing. Develop a classroom library. Have children browse, read, and discuss books.

Suggestions for teachers using whole language include:

Balance the reading program by providing as much structure as needed and some step-by-step skill work, especially for analytic students, while emphasizing literature and fun. Provide sufficient tools for decoding words, using small amounts of direct instruction in phonics for auditory and analytic learners. Tape-record phonics lessons so that students can work independently to improve skills. Don't use invented spelling for long periods with highly analytic learners or students who have memory problems.

[edit] Careful combination

Which approach wins the debate then? Phonics or whole language? The majority of experts now contend that neither approach by itself is effective all the time but that both approaches possess merit. What does succeed then, many experts say, is a carefully designed reading program that employs part whole language approach and part phonics, and takes into account each student's learning style and demonstrated strengths and weaknesses. Parental involvement is vital to reading success no matter which approaches are used, reading experts assert. Many parents follow debates like phonics vs. whole language in the media, and form opinions on one side or the other. Explaining why and how phonics, whole language, or another method of instruction is used will help bring students' parents on board and support the classroom teaching of reading.

[edit] See also

List of Phonics Programs Phonics Whole Language Dick and Jane

[edit] References
1. ^ McGuinness, Diane. A Prototype for Teaching the English Alphabet Code Reading Reform Foundation Newsletter (49)

[edit] Related Resources

Feitelson, Dina (1988). Facts and Fads in Beginning Reading: A Cross-Language Perspective. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. ISBN 0-89391-507-6. Adams, Marilyn Jaeger, Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990. Vacca, R.T. The Reading Wars: Who Will Be the Winners, Who Will Be the Losers? Reading Today, October/November 1996. Pikulski, J.J. Becoming a Nation of Readers: Pursuing the Dream. Paper presented at the meeting of the Wisconsin State Reading Association, Milwaukee, WI. Goodman, Ken. Phonics Phacts, Heinemann, 1993. Moats, Louisa C. Teaching Reading IS Rocket Science, Wren, Sebastian, Ten Myths of Reading Instruction. Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, retrieved from http://www.sedl.org/pubs/sedl-letter/v14n03/2.html October 19, 2007. Turner, Richard L. The 'Great' DebateCan Both Carbo and Chall Be Right? Phi Delta Kappan, December 1989. Newman, Judith M. and Susan M. Church, Myths of Whole Language, The Reading Teacher, September 1990.

[edit] External links

http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content3/phonics.whole.p.k12.3.html http://www.halcyon.org/wholelan.html http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/phonics.html http://www.superkids.com/aweb/pages/features/reading/phonics.shtml http://school.familyeducation.com/phonics/educational-research/38842.html http://www.alleducationalsoftware.com/reading---writing-software.html [hide]

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Developmental disorders: Dyslexia and related specific developmental disorders (F80-F83, 315)
Speech and Expressive language disorder Aphasia/Dysphasia (Expressive aphasia, Receptive language/ aphasia) LandauKleffner syndrome Lisp Mixed receptive-expressive language General communication disorder conditions disorders Scholastic Dyslexia (Alexia (acquired dyslexia), Developmental dyslexia) Dysgraphia

skills/ learning disorder

(Disorder of written expression) Dyscalculia (Gerstmann syndrome)

Motor function Developmental dyspraxia Other Related topics Lists Auditory processing disorder Scotopic sensitivity syndrome

Dyslexia research Management of dyslexia/Dyslexia interventions Reading acquisition Writing system Spelling Literacy Irlen filters Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic Neuropsychology Languages by Writing System People with dyslexia Dyslexia in fiction

dsrd (o, p, m, p, a, d, s), proc, sysi/epon, spvo drug(N5A/5B/5C/6A/6B/6D) Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching_reading:_Whole_Language_and_Phonics" Categories: Phonics | Pedagogy | Dyslexia | Orthography | Applied linguistics Hidden categories: Articles with limited geographic scope | Wikipedia articles needing style editing from December 2007 | All articles needing style editing
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