Fibre Science and Technology 18 (1983) 265-286

Friction and Wear of Advanced Composite Materials

T. Tsukizoe and N. Ohmae

Osaka University, Department of Precision Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Yamada-Kami, Suita, Osaka (Japan)

SUMMARY Friction and wear properties between unidirectionally oriented fibrereinforced plastics and carbon steel have been investigated. A wide variety of fbre-reinforced plastics were prepared for experiments; the fibrereinforcements used were high-tensile-strength carbon fbre, highmodulus carbon fibre, E-glass fibre, stainless steel fibre and aramid fibre ( Kevlar-49), while epoxy resin, polyester resin and PTFE were employed as matrix material. The law of mixtures in the calculation of the friction coefficient of composite materials is deduced, and the validity of this law is discussed by a comparison of computed values with experimental data. The wear performances of seven different kinds of fibre-reinforced plastics are summarised. Surfaces of composite materials after wear are studied using scanning electron microscopy, and a model is proposed stating that the wear of composite materialsproceeds by wear-thinning of the .fibre-reinforcements, subsequent breakdown of the fibres and by peeling-off of the fibres from the matrix. The equation of wear of composite materials is also proposed stating that the Young's modulus and interlaminar shear strength of fbre-reinforced plastics are the in[tuential factors on their specific wear rates.

1.

INTRODUCTION

Advanced composite materials, such as fibre-reinforced plastics (FRP) or fibre-reinforced metals (FRM), have received highly technological and 265 Fibre Science and Technology0015-0568/83/0018-0265/$03"00 Applied Science Publishers
Ltd, England, 1983. Printed in Great Britain

266

T. Tsukizoe, N. Ohrnae

industrial attention in recent years. A m o n g these composite materials, F R P has been potentially useful in many fields of industry because of its good mechanical properties, especially its high-specific strength. Friction and wear properties of F R P have not been fully understood, although pioneering research by Lancaster and Giltrow has shown a number of significant factors affecting the friction and wear of F R P . 1 -7 The present authors have studied the friction and wear of unidirectionally oriented F R P in contact with carbon steel, and discussed the influences of the volume fraction of the fibres, and the kinds of fibre, as well as tribological anisotropy with respect to sliding direction. 8- iv This article reviews our recent work on the tribology of F R P; the law of mixtures in the calculation of the friction coefficient of F R P , wear performances of F R P , the wear rate estimation by a wear equation for F R P and a systems approach to the wear of F R P . 2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

The unidirectionally oriented fibre-reinforced plastics were prepared by the leaky-mould method 14 to obtain a wide variety of fibre volume fractions and a uniform dispersion of the fibres in the matrix. Table 1 shows the eight kinds of F R P used in the experiments. Typical
TABLE 1

Constitution of Composites Tested

No.
1

Symbol of FRP

Fibre-reinforcements

Resin-matrices

HS-CFRP HM-CFRP NT-CFRP GFRP SFRP AFRP CFRTP Hybrid FRP

High-strength carbon fibre High-modulus carbon fibre High-strength carbon fibre (no surface treatment) E-glass fibre Stainless steel fibre Kevlar-49 (aramid fibre) High-strength carbon fibre High-strength carbon fibre and E-glass fibre

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Epoxy resin or polyester resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin or polyester resin Epoxy resin or polyester resin Epoxy resin PTFE Epoxy resin

Friction and wear of advanced composite materials

267

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.o
o

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6

~.~ ~ .~

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r~

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p
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,-z

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Friction and wear of advanced composite materials

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T. Tsukizoe, N. Ohmae
TABLE 6 Mechanical Properties of FRP (PTFE Composites)

Volume fraction (Vf, %)

CFRTP AFRTP SFRTP 42 67a 42 67 42 67

Young's modulus (GPa)

93 109 32 42 47 54

Bending Modulus of strength rigidity (GPa) (GPa)

0.13 0.14 0.12 0-12 8-6 9-0 14-0 18.6

Shore Interlaminar hardness shear strength (mPa)

72 65 68 64 70 68

a The specimen used in Figs 10, l l, 12 and 13.

material properties of the fibre-reinforcements and resin-matrices are shown in Table 2, and the fabricational parameters of F R P are tabulated in Table 3. Mechanical properties of several kinds of unidirectionally oriented F R P are listed in Tables 4, 5, 6 and 7. The friction-testing apparatus used in the present study is diagrammatically shown in Fig. 1, and the shape of the carbon steel cone indenter

Fig. I. Friction-testing apparatus. 1, Flexure pivot bearing. 2, Leaf spring. 3, Weight. 4, Weight pan. 5, Cone indenter. 6, FRP specimen. 7, Traversing table. 8, Strain gauges. 9. Bed. 10, Adjust screw. I1, Balance weight. 12, Vertical feed handle. 13, Reduction gearbox. 14, Motor.

Friction and wear o f advanced composite materials

271

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t~
,,d

e-

li

~a

272

T. Tsukizoe, N. Ohmae

Fig. 2.

Shape of cone indenter (0.2 % carbon steel).

L~

Fig. 3. Wear-testing apparatus. 1, Spindle. 2, Transmission device. 3, Holder of CFR P specimen. 4, FRP specimen. 5, Carbon steel specimen. 6, Holder of carbon steel specimen. 7, Leaf spring. 8, Strain gauges. 9, Ball-bearing. 10, Balance weight. 11, Lever. 12, Supporting point. 13. Weight.

Friction and wear of advanced composite materials

273

4,30

!8

~29

FRP

I llL,i

48 (a) (b)-Fig. 4. Shapes of specimens for wear tests, a, Carbon steel; b, FRP.

in Fig. 2. Friction experiments were conducted unlubricated in air (temperature 25 + 1 C, relative humidity 55-60 %). Figure 3 shows the wear-testing apparatus, ~4 and Fig. 4 the shapes of the specimens. Wear tests were performed at a temperature of 20-25 C and a relative humidity of 55-60 %. Three different sliding directions are to be identified in order to clarify the tribological anisotropy of unidirectionally oriented FRP with respect to sliding directions. Figure 5 illustrates an FRP block indicating three sliding directions, i.e., parallel, anti-parallel and normal directions.

:fix

Fig. 5. FRP block indicating sliding directions.

274

T. Tsukizoe, N. Ohmae

The wear volume of F R P was calculated from the change in surface profiles measured with a Talysurf. The wear of carbon steel could be neglected, when compared with that of F R P .

3.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1. The law o f mixtures in the calculation of the friction coefficient 1o,13

When a countersurface slides against an F R P surface, both normal load W and tangential force F are supported by fibres and matrix, so that the friction coefficient p can be given by

F
/[/ : -~/V:

F,-+F m
Wf [/Vm

(1)

where suffixes f and m denote fibre and matrix, respectively. Then we can assume

Af = VfA
A m = V m A = (1 -

1
Vf)A j
(2)

where A is the nominal area of contact, and Vf and Vm are the volume fractions of the fibres and matrix, respectively. When a peeling-off of the fibres from the matrix, under the action of shear deformation, does not occur, we can assume that the shear strain 7Af is equal to ]:Am: 7Af = ?Am (3)

If GAf and GAIn, the moduli of rigidity of materials underneath the contacting surface, are equal, then the shear stress r becomes constant, that is, Ff F r o m eqns (2) and (4), we obtain Fm (4)
7~f -- A f -- T m = A m

Ff=Vff~
Fm VmFJ

(5)

By taking into account the relation of W = Wf + W m, we have F P

-

Ff Pr

Fm Pm

(6)

Friction and wear of advanced composite materials

275

and finally

Vf 1 1 ~f + Vm #m

(7)

From this equation we are able to calculate the friction coefficient # of FR P when the friction coefficients of the fibres,/~f, and of the matrix, Pm, are given. When the FRP is hybrid-reinforced with two fibres f l and f2, the law of mixtures in the calculation of the friction coefficient is given by

1
= Vf, ~ft
'

1
+

Vf2

~2f2

'+

1
V m

1
- -

]~m

(8)

where

V:, + V:, +
3,2. Friction properties of F R P

Vm = 1

(9)

The measurement Of the friction coefficient was performed when the top of the cone indenter became flattened (approximately 0.1 mm diameter) and the fluctuation of friction force became small, typically after a sliding distance of about 10 mm. 10 The relationships between the friction coefficient and the volume fraction of the fibres are shown in Figs 6, 7 and 8. Figure 9 shows typical results of hybrid FRP. The thick solid, dotted and chain lines in these figures show the calculated friction coefficient obtained from either eqn (7) or eqn (8). As there is good agreement between the theoretical and the experimental results, the assumption of eqn (3) might be reasonable for the friction of FRP at low sliding speeds and light normal loads, in which case fracture of FRP at the sliding surface does not take place. From the results in Figs 6, 7 and 8, it is clear that carbon fibre is the best reinforcement as far as the friction of FRP is concerned. The friction anisotropy depending on the fibre orientation relative to the sliding direction cannot be recognised in these figures. In Fig. 9 where a medium hybrid FRP (V:~ = 35 %, V:2 = 35 %) is utilised instead of a carbon fibre FRP (V:~ = 70 ~o, V:2 = 0 ~), there is only a slight increase in the friction coefficient. Thus for a practical application of FRP where friction becomes an important problem, the use of hybrid carbon FRP can be recommended in regard to the performance/cost ratio.

276
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T, Tsukizoe, N. Ohmae
I I I I

0.5

0.4

~
~

o.3
0.2

II l l l l l l l l l l
GFRP I ~ P ~ r a l l e l [~Anti-paral]eL v=l.3mm/min

[~; P a r a l l e l
v=l . $mm/mill ',=1 . 52N

5FRP ~ $ Ar~ti p a r a l l e l [~) N o r m a l

0.5

CFRP

Anti-par~lllel
Nor~

0.4
0.3

.......

. . . . . .4

....

4
[

0.2

0.1 0 1 [ I I I i I I I 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
VOLUME FRACTION Vf,
7.

0.1 0
I I 10 20 I I I J I J 30 1,0 50 60 70 80 90 100
%

VOLUME FRACTTON V f ,

Fig. 6. Influence of the volume fraction of fibres on the friction coefficient of epoxy composites (No. 1).

F i g . 7.

I n f l u e n c e o f the v o l u m e

fraction

of fibres on the friction coefficient of epoxy composites (No. 2).

{
0.5 0.4

~ Parallel Anti-parallel ~ Parallel Anti-parallel

v= [. 5ram/rain W=[. 52N

i
0.4

.
Hybrid

i
FRP

'

N....1

Parallel dllCtlon

[~N ....

{~ Anti-parallel 1

TT ~-"

S,,I ~
"

.~

v= I 5mmlmln

0.3

._
0,3

....
0.2

0.2

~.

o.i

0.1

o
I I I l I I I

,'o 2~ 30 4'o 5'o

e'o o
i

V O L U M E F R A C T I O N OF C A R B O N F I B E R Vfl, %

20

40

60

80

1oo

VOLUME FRACTION Vf, 7o

70
VOLUME

~o 5'o 4'0 3'o 2'o ,'o o

F R A C T I O N OF GLASS F I B E R Vf 2 , 7.

Fig. 8. Influence of the volume fraction of'fibres on the friction coefficient of polyester composites.

Fig. 9. ]nfluence of the v o l u m e fraction of fibres on the friction coefficient of hybrid

epoxy composites.

Friction and wear of adranced composite materials

277

3.3. Wear properties of FRP

The results of our wear tests 9 - 14 have shown that wear volume increases linearly with sliding distance; no running-in period of wear has been apparent. Thus it is possible to characterise the wear in terms of a specific wear rate wr, which has a unit of m m 3 / N m . Figures 10, 11 and 12 summarise wear performances of seven kinds of unidirectionally oriented FRP, the volume fraction of which is approximately 70 % (see Tables 4 and 6). These three figures show the relationships between the specific wear rate and the friction coefficient, the Young's modulus and the interlaminar shear strength, respectively. As for the tribological anisotropy, it seems that every F R P has good wear-resistance in normal and parallel sliding but poor wear resistance in anti-parallel sliding. In normal sliding, every FR P except A F R P suffered 'seizure' after several kilometres sliding distance, so these data are not given in the three figures. From the results in Fig. 10, it is evident that H S - C F R P and H M C F R P have a small specific wear rate of the order of 10- 7 mm3/N m and a low friction coefficient of 0.2. In contrast, G F R P and SFRP show a large specific wear rate of the order of 1 0 - 4 m m 3 / N m and a high friction coefficient of 0.4. The lowest friction coefficient of 0.1 is obtained for C F R T P . The good tribological properties of the carbon-fibre-reinforced plastics group (CFRTP, N T - C F R P , H S - C F R P and H M - C F R P ) may be caused by the good mechanical properties of FRP, for instance, high Young's modulus and high interlaminar shear strength, as well as by the good tribological properties of the fibres, e.g., self-lubricating ability and high strength. From the results in Fig. 11, it is noticed that the F R P with higher Young's modulus always shows a better wear-resistance, and the coefficient of correlation between them is calculated as high as - 0 . 7 4 . When we look at the results of the C F R P group in Fig. 12, it will be noticed that the interlaminar shear strength also has a close relation with the specific wear rate; the coefficient of correlation being estimated at -0.88.
3.4. The wear equation for FRP

From the experimental results and discussions in the previous sections, and the scanning electron microscope observations of worn F R P

278

T. Tsukizoe, N. Ohmae

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Friction and wear o f advanced composite materials

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surfaces,S.9A 1A,* the following model of wear processes can be proposed: The wear of F R P proceeds by: (a) wear-thinning of the fibre-reinforcements; (b) subsequent breakdown of the fibres; (c) peeling-off of the fibres from the matrix. A sequential occurrence of these processes governs the wear of F R P . The essential factors affecting these three processes may be as follows: (a) in the wear-thinning of the fibres--load W a n d sliding distance D; (b) in the breakdown of the fibres--strain lap/Eof the FR P caused by friction force, load W and sliding distance D; (c) in the peeling-offofthe fibres from the matrix--interlaminar shear strength I s of the F R P , strain lap/Eof the F R P , load W a n d sliding distance D. Therefore, wear volume Q can be given by

1
Q = k - ~ ~ WD
#pl

D)

(10)
(ll)

As for first-order approximation, we can assume

where k is a dimensionless constant. Then the specific wear rate wr can be written as w~ = k / t p 1

E/s

(12)

or

wr/s = k

(13)

where WrIs and kpp/E are both dimensionless quantities. Figure 13 shows the relationship between wrIs and k#p/E under varied normal pressure p of l, 1.5 and 2 N / m m 2 for seven kinds of F R P . The solid line in this figure shows the experimental values for p = 1.5 N / m m 2, and the wear equation at a constant normal pressure p is given by

wrIs = ~

(14)

280

T. Tsukizoe, N. Ohmae
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i i i i i i i i ]

o - GFR

/ /

16'

X~, 0 (1) (~ -

SFRP AFRP NT-CFRP HS-CFRP I'I4-*CFRP CFRTP

/
d] u E] ,/ E] porallel

10"
, ~
A / "%

"N l~roliel
No?tool

/
/

_~_ -a,- ,26,,,,2

10NJ-n~1s Nt'~'

I 0-~

10
i i I

+'Y+I'
I

+ 5:/

10 +

10"S

u .P/E
Fig. 13.

R e l a t i o n s h i p between wrl s a n d yp/E.

The values of ~ and /~ may be calculated from the experimental line in Fig. 13, and the experimental wear equation of F R P can be written as wr = 1"40 x 10 t -Ix (15)

When the Young's modulus E (M Pa) and the interlaminar shear strength I+ (MPa) of the F R P are given and the friction coefficient y between the F R P and a carbon steel is known, we can estimate the specific wear rate wr (mm3/N mm) under the normal pressure p -- 1.5 N/mm2 from the wear equation, eqn (15).

4.

SYSTEMS A P P R O A C H TO THE WEAR OF F R P 16'1v

A method of systems analysis is introduced to the wear phenomenon of unidirectionally oriented FR P. A complicated system of the wear of FR P

Friction and wear of advanced composite materials

281

is affected by a n u m b e r of variables. Thus in order to identify the predictor variables of this system, the stepwise methods (both forward and backward) were employed. The wear of F R P was treated as a statics model where the black-box cutting w a s made to establish a hierarchical systems model. 4.1. Selection of predictor variables A multiple regression analysis model is expressed by

I!l] [i x
n Xnl " " "

xl
Xnp

or by y=Xfl+s

I!l+[!ln

(16)

(17)

Then, a residual sum of squares is written as

S-~-gT.g
= [y - X/J] r . [y - X/~] The normal equation derived from eqn (18) leads to fl = (XTX)-1XTy (19) (18)

Using the least squares estimate/~ derived from eqn (19), we obtain y = X/~ (20)

A normalisation is made on each variable in such a way that the average is zero and the variance is unity. The normalisation excludes the problem of units of variables. The significance of multiple regression is tested by the variance analysis. Predictor variables are selected both by stepwise forward and backward methods. The former is based on the correlation, while the latter on the multiple correlation. In an actual operation, a sequential calculation of these analyses is m a d e by a large-scale computer (Fig. 14). Five mechanical properties were taken in the stepwise methods; tensile strength a B, Young's modulus E, bending strength B, Barcol hardness H and interlaminar shear strength I~. It was found that the most significant parameter to the wear of F R P is E and the second most significant

282

T. Tsukizoe, N. Ohmae

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o

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Friction and wear o f advanced composite materials

283

parameters are aB and I S. Therefore, the present systems analysis agrees with eqn (12) concerning the significance of E and I Son the wear of FRP. 4.2. Model building Figure 15 is a model of the FR P wear system. Wear of FR P proceeds first by wear-thinning of the fibres, then by breakdown of the fibres and finally by peeling-off of the fibres, as proposed in Section 3.4. From a heuristic

SUB SYSTEIv 1

SUB SYSTEM 2 RISE OF TEMPERATURE

SUB SYSTE]~ 3 CHANCE IN MECHANICAL "-" PROPERTIES

o,o SLI Di HG VELOCITY TYPE OF FRP

FRICTION

[]

[]

[]

Fig. 15. Approach by systems methodology-hierarchical modelling.

criterion that the wear of FRP is caused by a degradation of mechanical properties, the black-box cutting was done; subsystem 1 identifies the friction, subsystem 2, the surface temperature, and subsystem 3, the degradation of FRP due to temperature rise. An input-output relation of each system is written as /a = f l ( W , v, M) AT=fz(/a, W, v, M) AE =f3(AT, M ) }
AI S = f 4 ( A T , M )

subsystem 1 subsystem 2

(21) (22)

subsystem 3

(23)

Aa a =fs(AT, M) where f is the criterion function, M is a property of material, AT is temperature rise, and AE, AIS and AtrB are the changes in Young's modulus, interlaminar shear strength and tensile strength of FRP, respectively. Assuming a function of
AW r

=f6(AE, AIs, Aa a .... )

(24)

284

T. Tsukizoe, N. Ohmae

where Aw, is the change in specific wear rate. The substitution of eqns (21), (22) and (23) in eqn (24) leads to
w~ =fv(W, v, M)

(25)

Once the unknown parameters are identified for a certain FRP, the present model can be tested for other FRP. One of the results showing the prediction power of this model is illustrated in Fig. 16. The present model predicts fairly well the values of

PREDICTED EXPERIMENTAl,

CFRP

AFRP GFRP

~ o

10 -~

10 6

c~

10 7

10 9

SAMPLE NUMBER

Fig. 16. Comparison of predicted values of % with experimentaldata.

wr. The results obtained for CFRP shows a higher wr than the measured data. This may be attributed to the fact that the CFRP has a selflubricating ability to reduce wear. Further, to estimate the dynamic tribological processes of FRP, an autoregression (AR) model has been applied to the wear of FRP. The model simulation is being carried out. An investigation on the development of the system, when a foreign stimulus is introduced, is in progress. The results of this preliminary analysis recently appeared in Reference 18.

Friction and wear of adt,anced composite materials

285

5.

CONCLUSIONS

From investigations on the unlubricated friction and wear between unidirectionally oriented F R P and carbon steel, the following results were obtained: 1. The law of mixtures in the calculation of the friction coefficient of F R P was deduced, and the validity of this law was confirmed by the experimental results. C F R P gave a small specific wear rate and a low friction coefficient. In contrast, G F R P and S F R P provided large specific wear rates and high friction coefficients. The lowest friction coefficient of 0.1 was obtained with C F R T P . A model was proposed stating that the wear of F R P proceeds by the wear-thinning of the fibres with subsequent breakdown of the fibres and by peeling-off of the fibres from the matrix. Using this model, the experimental equation for the wear of F R P was deduced. It was found, by criticising this wear equation, that the most significant parameters in the wear of F R P are Young's modulus and interlaminar shear strength. A method of systems analysis was applied to the wear of FRP. The specific wear rate was found to have a close correlation with Young's modulus, tensile strength and interlaminar shear strength. The total systematic programmings were performed; the model predicted the specific wear rate.

2.

3.

4.

REFERENCES 1. J. K. Lancaster, Composite self-lubricating bearing materials, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs, 182(1, 2) (1967/68) p. 33. 2. J. P. Giltrow and J. K. Lancaster, Carbon-fibre reinforced polymers as selflubricating materials, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs, 182(3) (1967/68) p. 147. 3. J. K. Lancaster, The effect of carbon fibre reinforcement on the friction and wear of polymers, Brit. J. Appl. Phys., 2(1) (1968) p. 549. 4. J. P. Giitrow and J. K. Lancaster, The role of the counterface in the friction and wear of carbon fibre reinforced thermosetting resins, Wear, 16(5) (1970) p. 359. 5. J. K. Lancaster, Lubrication of carbon fibre-reinforced polymers: Part I - Water and aqueous solution, Wear, 20(3) (1972) p. 315.

286

T. Tsukizoe, N. Ohmae

6. J. K. Lancaster, Lubrication of carbon fibre-reinforced polymers: Part II-Organic fluids, Wear, 20(3) (1972) p. 335. 7. J. P. Giltrow, Friction and wear of self-lubricating composite materials, Composites, March (173) p. 55. 8. N. Ohmae, K. Kobayashi and T. Tsukizoe, Characteristics of fretting of carbon fibre reinforced plastics, Wear, 29(3) (1974) p. 345. 9. T. Tsukizoe and N. Ohmae, Wear performance of unidirectionally oriented carbon-fibre-reinforced plastics, Tribology lnternl., 8(4) (1975) p. 171. 10. T. Tsukizoe and N. Ohmae, Friction properties of advanced composite materials, Proc. JSME-ASME Joint Western Conference on Applied Mechanics (Hawaii, March 1975), JSME paper No. D-2. 11. T. Tsukizoe and N. Ohmae, Tribo-mechanics of carbon-fibre-reinforced plastics, Industrial Lubrication and Tribology, 28(1) (1976) p. 19. 12. T. Tsukizoe and N. Ohmae, Friction and wear of with parallely oriented fibre reinforced plastics--tribological assessment for CFRP, GFRP and SFRP, J. Japan Society of Lubrication Engrs, 21(5) (1976) p. 330 (in Japanese). 13. T. Tsukizoe and N. Ohmae, Friction properties of composite materials, Trans. Japan Society of Mech. Engrs, 43(367) (1977) p. 115 (in Japanese). 14. T. Tsukizoe and N. Ohmae, Wear mechanism of unidirectionally oriented fibre-reinforced plastics, Trans. ASME, 99(4) (1977) p. 401. 15. T. Tsukizoe, Friction and wear of fibre reinforced plastics, J. Japan Society of Lubrication Engrs, 23(1) (1978) p. 11 (in Japanese). 16. M. Yukumoto, T. Tsukizoe and N. Ohmae, Systems approach to the wear of fibre-reinforced plastics, J. Japan Society of Lubrication Engrs, 23(12) (1978) p. 881 (in Japanese). 17. N. Ohmae, M. Yukumoto and T. Tsukizoe, Analysis of System Structure in the Wear of FRP, Proc. 2nd European Tribology Congress (Diisseldorf, October 1977), Band II/II1, 57/1. 18. N. Ohmae, An Introduction to Tribo-Engineering, Fundamentals o[ Tribology (ed. Suh and Saka), MIT Press, 1980, p. 1183.