and ages s of nt Adva vantage disad decision p grou g n maki aches nd o appr Brahm a

lyn Caro . Kleiner H Brian

Brainstorming Brainstorming is a decision-making technique used to indicate verbal generation of ideas by a group. The major idea behind the brainstorming method is that everyone should experience total freedom to express ideas without fear of personal embarrassment or criticism from others. Generating as many creative and innovative ideas as possible is the goal. The emphasis on the brainstorming process has been derived from Alex Osborns text Applied Imagination , published in 1962. Osborn and his associates conducted extensive research using brainstorming techniques. In most situations brainstorming tended to be up to 44 per cent more effective than traditional problem-solving methods[1]. According to Stech, Osborn set the following five rules for his brainstorming technique[2, p. 261]: Technique of brainstorming (1) Criticism is ruled out. Both positive and negative evaluation of ideas must be withheld during the brainstorming process. (2) Free-wheeling is encouraged. The wilder the idea, the better. It is much easier to tame down than to think up an idea. (3) Quantity is encouraged. The greater the number the greater the likelihood that several ideas will be workable. (4) Combinations of ideas are encouraged. The participants may combine two or more stated ideas in still another idea. (5) Hitchhiking is encouraged. This involves suggesting an idea similar to, or triggered by, someone elses idea. According to Barker, groups using the brainstorming process will want to set a specific time limit for the session. Generally, a brainstorming session should last for no longer than five to seven minutes. During this conception period, one or two people may be asked to serve as recorders of the ideas. If two people are recording ideas, they can take turns recording to increase the efficiency of collecting the suggestions that have been made. A chalkboard, piece of paper, or an overhead projector may be used as means of recording the ideas[1]. One important aspect of brainstorming that should be remembered is that a brainstorming session is a true verbal freefor-all[1]. Criticism is ruled out, and all ideas are permitted without ridicule. It generally takes a few trials or practice sessions for the group to get used to the idea of free expression without criticism. It may be valuable for groups
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to practise this technique before the actual session takes place. In general, brainstorming groups with more than five people are difficult to manage. In groups larger than this, several people often do not get a chance to express their ideas. The ideal size is about four or five, with one or more participants serving as recorders as well as contributors. Leadership in a brainstorming group generally is not necessary, although at times a regulator may be necessary in groups just learning the brainstorming technique[1]. It is important that the regulator should try to help remind the members of the group of the rules that must be followed in order for the session to be productive. After the brainstorming session, the solution(s) or criteria advanced then can be evaluated. The evaluation stage may follow immediately after the brainstorming stage. In some instances it may be beneficial to have a waiting period before beginning the evaluation. Advantages One major advantage of brainstorming is the enormous number of ideas that are generated from the technique. By having an open and free session, everyone can engage in the creation of ideas. This kind of atmosphere is not the usual formal situation, which often cramps people of their creativity. People feel good about themselves and the idea that they can contribute to the session. The cost and time of brainstorming is also another important factor. It is a relatively inexpensive technique that takes only a moderate amount of time to engage in. Disadvantages A major disadvantage of the technique is that it produces ideas without screening them. Although brainstorming may produce a wide variety of ideas, many of them may not be quality ideas. Effective solutions to problems usually have been screened, tested, and evaluated. For this reason brainstorming is often used only as the first step in an overall problem-solving process[3]. Also, brainstorming is only useful when there is a small group of individuals, time is plentiful, status differences among group members are minimal, and a need exists to verbally discuss ideas with others. If these criteria are not met, brainstorming will not be helpful for the organization; and a different method might better fit their situation[3]. Brainwriting Brainwriting refers to a group method that emphasizes the silent generation of ideas in writing. In interacting brainwriting groups, each persons ideas are shared and used by the other members to invigorate new ideas. According to Wilson[4, p. 62], four rules that are calculated to group towards this goal are: (1) All evaluation and criticism of ideas is forbidden. (2) Wild and offbeat ideas are encouraged. (3) Quantity, not quality, of ideas is the goal. (4) New combinations of ideas are sought[4, p. 62]. Silent generation of ideas in writing Groups that are not experienced in using the brainstorming technique may find they have problems with it. One problem comes from the natural tendency for people to support their own ideas. A person who presents an idea wants to elaborate on it. Someone who thinks that his or her idea is better wants to tell the group why it is better. A group that is using brainstorming for the first time should have a leader who can lessen the
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group members desires to evaluate and elaborate. Groups may also come to a standing point after they have a list of several items. At this point a leader should step in and ask, Can we think of a few more ideas? This will encourage the group to continue[1]. Another problem is the tendency for some members to suppress the flow of ideas through their nonverbal communication. For example, a frown of disapproval will discourage the contributors willingness to continue providing ideas[1]. Advantages One advantage of brainwriting is that the technique will produce more ideas than brainstorming (although the uniqueness and quality of these ideas might or might not be superior to those produced by brainstorming)[3]. In contrast to brainstorming, most brainwriting techniques can be used without having a facilitator for each group. Also, concerns of people expressing themselves orally and in front of a group is eliminated. Most people dread speaking in public or even in front of just a small group. Many people feel that they will be seen as inarticulate or suggest ideas that have little or no value. By expressing ideas in writing, people do not need to worry about this. Disadvantages According to VanGundy, a major disadvantage of brainwriting is that some people do not feel comfortable expressing ideas in writing. Some people may feel that they cannot express themselves fully on paper or that their spelling, grammar, etc. is not proficient. Another disadvantage of brainwriting is that this technique is only highly useful for very large groups, when there is little time available, status differences are equalized, and there is no need for verbal interaction. Without these certain criteria, brainwriting will be an ineffective technique[3]. Buzz sessions The buzz session, or Phillips 66 technique, links the gap between public and private discussions. This technique is used most often during private discussions, but it can also include the participation of the audience. In fact, the buzz group method was first associated with J.D. Phillips (1948), who divided large audiences into groups of six for six minutes to perform some task. Groups were asked to discuss an aspect of a problem, to formulate questions, or to brainstorm an idea[1]. Buzz sessions are used regularly but are not limited by size or time constraints. The buzz group method is simply the process of dividing a group into small units for the means of discussion. After the smaller groups are formed, the leader or mediator assigns a task for the time allowed. Once the time is up, a spokesperson for each group reports its results to the larger group. Six factors that need to be applied to successfully achieve the best results of the buzz session are: (1) choice of problem; (2) clear assignments; (3) size of group; (4) proximity of groups; (5) time limit; (6) informal climate[3]. The problem that is to be discussed should be suitable for the groups experiences and interests, relevant to the programme, and capable of producing differences of opinion. Also, the assignment should be as specific
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as possible to force some sort of consensus. The final product should represent a resolution of differences of opinion. Advantages A major advantage of the buzz session technique is that it allows a large number of people to participate in a group discussion[1, p. 211]. In most large groups, participation is limited, but by dividing the group into smaller ones, the method gives everyone the opportunity to contribute. This gives members a sense of belonging and contributing to the purpose. Also, a person who may be uncomfortable expressing his or her opinion or asking a question to a group of 30 might feel less intimidated in a group or four, five, or six[1, p. 211]. It overcomes many of the problems associated with too large a group trying to engage in decision making. Another advantage of this technique is that it can be used in a variety of contexts. Political, social, and fraternal groups use it to get their members involved in the group decisionmaking process[4, p. 65]. Disadvantages A possible disadvantage of the buzz session is the emphasis on unstructured discussions. Although many studies emphasize that groups are more likely to reach a consensus when the leader does not structure the discussion activity, the quality of the ideas produced may not be as high. Another limitation of this technique is the reliance on verbal procedures. Often, members do not feel comfortable expressing themselves verbally, even in groups that are structured to be smaller (as in the case of the buzz session). If certain members are reluctant or feel inhibited, the end result is a reduction of idea spontaneity. A final disadvantage may be in evaluating all the ideas when the groups end their discussion. Because of the high number of groups involved, co-ordinating the end result will be more difficult[5]. Quality circles In recent years quality circles have been used increasingly as a private discussion group alternative. The were originally used in Japanese businesses, but quality circles are now being implemented by businesses in the USA. Quality circles are probably the clearest example of the participative management group[4, p. 66]. The theory is that the employees are in the best position to know about work problems, and when they are involved in decision making, they will be more committed to the outcome. The key to quality circles is the willingness of the employees to volunteer to become involved in the technique. Membership does change over time, but employees are involved for a longer period of time than other techniques. Quality circles consist of six to eight employees who meet voluntarily on a regular basis to generate ideas and discuss work-related problems. They meet during business hours and usually in a room away from the regular work area. This process consists of defining problems, collecting information and technical data, seeking ways to improve work methods, and developing a proposal (using basic problem-solving techniques). These groups then present ideas and solutions to management for approval and monitor the implementation process. Barker points out four guidelines that participants of this method should follow: (1) listen to and show respect for other points of view; (2) criticize ideas, not individuals;
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(3) give equal treatment to group members; (4) give credit to those who deserve it[1, p. 207]. The most successful quality circle programmes include an extensive training phase. There are two basic requirements that Stech points out: (1) Supervisors must be trained as group leaders. (2) Workers must be trained in group methods[2, p. 280]. Without these two requirements, quality circles are bound to fail. Advantages The major advantage of quality circles is the employee involvement[4]. Who knows the problems, employees, and work tasks better than the actual workers themselves? This method allows employees to feel more committed and take on a real sense of pride in their work. Employee commitment, higher quality production, and employee cohesiveness can all occur as outcomes of using this method properly. Disadvantages A major disadvantage of quality circles is that the supervisor of the method serves only as a guide rather than a boss who imposes a decision[4, p. 67]. This causes the supervisor to be in an inevitable position. Once a group recommends a course of action, the supervisor must either accept the idea or reject it and thereby demoralize the group. Once the decision is implemented, the supervisor is now the person held accountable for the consequences, not the employees. For this reason the supervisor must be extra careful about accepting proposals and must also be able to deny others without making the circle angry or feel rejected. Another disadvantage of this method is that this technique will not work well unless all criteria are met. Top management must support the group and must be willing to accept suggestions and criticisms from subordinates. Training may need to be implemented in task and social skills (which may become quite costly). In addition, employees egos must not be so involved with the issues being discussed that they will be inflexible or not objective enough. Conversely, employees must be assertive and participative enough to contribute to the group. So, although quality can be extremely effective, there are many aspects of the method that must be taken into consideration. Nominal group technique Nominal group technique (NGT) is a procedure that combines both features of brainstorming and brainwriting to produce a highly effective group decision-making process. This procedure has been labelled nominal group because it is not necessary for the group to engage in the type of interaction that is considered important for groups. Wilson[4, p. 64] explains that the NGT process involves the following six basic steps: (1) silent generation of ideas in writing; (2) recording of ideas; (3) discussion for clarification; (4) preliminary vote on item importance; (5) discussion of the preliminary vote; (6) final vote.
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According to VanGundy, the room used to conduct the meeting should be large enough to accommodate the different groups, which will each contain between five and nine members seated in a U-shaped fashion around a table. Tables should be placed far enough away from other groups so that one groups discussion is not likely to interfere with another groups[3, p. 344]. Minimizes differences Advantages One major advantage of NGT is that it avoids two problems caused by group interaction. First, some members are reluctant to suggest ideas because they are concerned about being criticized. Second, some members are reluctant to create conflict in groups. (Many people want to maintain a pleasant climate.) NGT overcomes these problems. NGT has the clear advantage of minimizing differences and ensuring relatively equal participation. It may also, in many cases be a time-saving technique. Research has suggested that NGT also decreases the tension and hostility a group might normally experience relative to its decision making. Other research on NGT has also suggested that this technique is excellent when used in meetings that are concerned with judgmental decision making. These are involve creative decision making, not routine meetings. Other advantages include producing a large number of ideas and providing a sense of closure that is often not found in less-structured group methods[3]. Disadvantages A major disadvantage of NGT is that the method lacks flexibility by only being able to deal with one problem at a time. Also, there must be a certain amount of conformity on the part of the members involved in NGT. Everyone must feel comfortable with the amount of structure involved[3]. Another disadvantage is the amount of time needed to prepare for the activity. There is no spontaneity involved with this method. Facilities must be arranged and carefully planned.
References 1. Barker, L., Groups in Process, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1987. 2. Stech, E. and Ratliffe, S., Effective Group Communication, National Textbook Company, IL, 1985. 3. VanGundy, A., Techniques of Structured Problem Solving, Van Nostrand, New York, NY, 1988. 4. Wilson, G. and Hanna, M., Groups in Context, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1990. Further reading Brightman, H., Group Problem Solving, College of Business Administration, Georgia State University, Georgia, 1988. Paulus, P., Psychology of Group Influence, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, 1989.

Lacks flexibility

Carolyn Brahm and Brian H. Kleiner

Carolyn Brahm and Brian H. Kleiner are at the Department of Management, School of Business Administration and Economics, California State University, Fullerton, California, USA.

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