CONTINUOUS VERSUS DISCRETE

Common boundary Magnitudes The definition of a continuous quantity

we must distinguish what is continuous from what is discrete.

A natural number is a collection of discrete units. 5 pencils, 8 electrons, 100 people. Each one is indivisible. You cannot take half of any one. If you do, it will not be that unit -- that same kind of thing -- any more. Half a person is not also a person We count things that are discrete: One person, two, three, four, and so on. But consider the distance between A and B. That distance is not made up of discrete units. There is nothing to count -- it is not a numberof anything. We say, instead, that it is a continuous whole. That means that as we go from A to B, the line "continues" without a break. Now, with a discrete collection, we can take only certain parts. Of 10 people, we can take only half, a fifth, or a tenth. With a collection of discrete units, we eventually arrive at an indivisible one. But since the length AB is continuous, we could divide it into any number of equal parts. Not only could we take half of it, we could take any part we please -- a tenth, a hundredth, or a billionth -- because AB is not composed of indivisible units. And most important, any part of AB, however small, will still be a length. The idea of a continuum, or a continuous quantity, then, is that there is no limit to the smallness of the parts into which it could be divided. We imagine a continuum to be "infinitely divisible," which is a brief way of saying that no matter into how many parts it has been divided, it could be divided still further. And each part will itself be a continuous quantity -- each part will itself be infinitely divisible
Common boundary

An essential characteristic of a continuous quantity, such as the line AC, is that no matter where we might divide it,

the right-hand boundary B of the part AB, coincides with the left-hand boundary B of BC.

In other words, the parts or any continuous quantity will have their limits or their boundaries in common. The lines AB, B'C, do not share a common boundary, a common endpoint. And so there is not a continuous line that joins A and C. But if we join BB', then what were originally two endpoints, two

limits, become one. That contact allows AB to "continue" into BC without a gap.
The word continuous comes from a Latin root meaning held together. What is it that holds a line together to make it whole? Again, no matter where we might divide a line, the left and right endpoints, as B above, coincide as one. In Lesson 3, we will see how that leads to the definition of a continuous function.

Magnitudes

Whatever has size, whatever could be larger or smaller, we call amagnitude. Magnitudes are of different kinds: distance, area, time, speed. We try to measure them. For that purpose, the rational and irrational numbers, what are now called the real numbers, were originally created. The idea of a magnitude is that it is continuous. Therefore we expect that any part of a magnitude will be a magnitude of the same kind. The idea of time, for example, as conceived in physics and presented in calculus, is that even a trillionth of a second is still an interval of time. We sum this up in the following definition of the idea of a continuous quantity:

DEFINITION 1. We say that a quantity is continuous if there is no limit to the number of

times it could be divided, and 1) no matter where it might be divided, the parts share a common boundary, and 2) each part is a quantity of the same kind.

See the Problem below. *

Thus the idea of a continuous line is that it is potentially divisible into any number of parts, or intervals, and each interval is itself potentially divisible. A line therefore is not composed of points, which are indivisible. "Point" is a convenient word, when we need it, to refer to a specific place on a line, such as where we have divided it, or the boundary of an interval. But points do not exist until we point to them! In calculus, anything more than that is unnecessary. In fact, if points were in any sense real entities, then the "two" points, B, B' above, could not merge into one. (The discussion continues in the Appendix.) That, at any rate, is the concept of a continuum that prevailed from the time of Euclid until well into 19th century, when the abstractions of modernism found their expression in mathematics as well. Certain mathematicians

adopted the exact opposite idea of a continuum. They began with what they called "points," and they ascribed to them a primary logical existence. They defined a "continuum" and specifically a "line," as that which is "composed of points." What were then called the real "numbers" were actually the infinity of those "points." That is logic, which does not require that words have their conventional meanings (or any meaning, for that matter ). It requires only that words -- such as "points," "number," "infinity" -- obey the formal rules of a language. A logical theory therefore may be nothing more than a game, even to the point of fantasy. Is there an arithmetical continuum?

Problem. Which of these is continuous and which is discrete?

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a) The leaves on a tree. Discrete b) The stars in the sky. Discrete c) The distance from here to the Moon. Continuous. Our idea of distance, of length, is that it could have any size, however large or however small. d) e) f) g) A bag of apples. Discrete Applesauce. Continuous! A dozen eggs. Discrete. (But if they're scrambled?) 60 minutes. Continuous. Our idea of time, like our idea of distance, is that there is no smallest unit. Any part of 60 minutes is still time.

h) Motion from one place to another. Continuous. The idea of any quantity of motion is that there is no limit to its smallness. i) Pearls on a necklace Discrete j) The area of a circle. As area, it is continuous; any part of an area is also an area. But as a form, a circle is discrete; half a circle is not also a circle. k) The volume of a sphere. As volume, it is continuous. As a form, a sphere is discrete. l) A gallon of water. Continuous. We think of volume as having any part. And any part is still a volume of water. But: m) Molecules of water.

Discrete. In other words, if we could keep dividing a quantity of water, then ultimately (in theory) we would come to one molecule. If we divided that, it would no longer be water! n) A chapter in a book. Discrete. Surely, half a chapter is not also a chapter. o) Events. If you think that half an event is also an event, then you will say that an event -such as a birthday party -- is continuous. (We are not speaking of the time in which the event occurs. We are speaking of the event itself.) Otherwise, you will say that events are discrete. p) The changing shape of a balloon as it's being inflated. Continuous. The shape is changing continuously. q) The evolution of biological forms; that is, from fish to man n) (according to the theory). What do you think? Was it like a balloon being inflated? Or was each new form discrete? r) Words. Discrete. s) Ideas. If you think that the hundredth part of an idea is also an idea, (Really?), then you will say that ideas are continuous. t) Meanings. Discrete. Half a meaning? u) The proof of a theorem. Discrete. Half a proof? v) The names of numbers. Surely, the names of anything are discrete. w) The universe. Discrete. Is half a universe also a universe? Apart from our conceptions of time, space and motion, we see that virtually everything we encounter is discrete. Even a motion picture -- where the figures on the screen appear to be in continuous motion -- is made up of individual frames, which are discrete. Calculus, however, is the study of magnitudes; of things that are continuous.

LIMITS
A sequence of rational numbers The limit of a variable

Left-hand and right-hand limits The definition of the limit of a variable The limit of a function Section 2: Theorems on limits Limits of polynomials

CENTRAL TO CALCULUS is the value of the slope of a line,

0

, but when

the terms become almost 0. To evaluate the slope, that rate of change, under those vanishing conditions, requires the idea of a limit. And central to the idea of a limit is the idea of a sequence of rational numbers.
A sequence of rational numbers

We encounter such a sequence in geometry when we determine a value for , which is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to the diameter. To do that, we inscribe in the circle a regular polygon. The ratio of the perimeter of the polygon to the diameter, which we can actually calculate, will be an approximation to . And as we increase the number of sides -that is, if we consider a sequence of polygons: 60 sides, 61 sides, 62, 63, 64, and so on -- then the sequence of those ratios gets closer and closer to . Now, the circle is never equal to any polygon. But by considering a sufficiently large number of sides, the difference between the circle and that polygon -- the error -- will be less than a certain small number that we specify. Less, say, than 0.00000000000000000000000000000001 That is the idea of a sequence approaching a limit, or a boundary. By that process we can approximate the value of , which is the limit of the ratio of perimeters to diameter, as closely as we care to. Problem 1. The student surely can recognize the number that is the limit of this sequence of rational numbers. 3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, 3.1415, 3.14159, 3.141592, . . .

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We speak of a sequence as being infinite, which, in analogy with the sequence of natural numbers, is a brief way of saying that, no matter no matter how many terms we name, there is a rule or a pattern that allows us to name one more.

The limit of a variable

Consider this sequence of values of a variable x: 1.9, 1.99, 1.999, 1.9999, 1.99999, . . . Those values are getting closer and closer to 2 -- they are approaching 2 as their limit. 2 is the smallest number such that no matter which term of that sequence we name, it will be less than 2. By "closer and closer" we mean the following. Choose an extremely small positive number. For example, "1 over the national debt " Then we can name a term of that sequence such that the absolute value of thedifference between it and 2 will be less than that small number - and the same will be true of all subsequent terms. (We say the absolute value because the terms are less than 2, and so the difference itself will be negative.) When a variable x approaches a number l as a limit, we symbolize that as x l. Read: "The values of x approach l as a limit," or simply, "x approaches l." In the example above, x 2. "x approaches 2." We also say that a sequence converges to a limit. The sequence aboveconverges to 2. By a sequence in what follows, we mean an ordering of rational numbers according to a rule or an indicated pattern.
Left-hand and right-hand limits

Now the sequence we chose were values less than 2. Hence we say thatx approaches 2 from the left. We write x 2 But we can easily construct a sequence of values of x that converges to 2 from the right; that is, a sequence of values that are more than 2. For example, 2.2, 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, 2.00001, . . . In this case, we write x 2+ . But again, no matter what small number we name, if we go far enough out in that sequence, the value of a difference |x 2| will be less than that small number. And so will all subsequent differences. Again, when we say that the values of x "approach a limit l," that limit is never a value of x as it approaches l. There is always a difference between the values of x and their limit. The limit is the boundary beyond which no member of the sequence will pass. We summarize this in the following definition. But first, x is not the only variable. y is a variable. And y will be a function of x -- f(x) -- which is also a variable. And when we come to the definition of the derivative, x or h will be the variable. In the following, then, we will use the letterv to represent any variable.

DEFINITION 2.1. The limit of a variable. We say that asequence of values of a variable v approaches a limit l (a number which is not a term in the sequence) if, beginning with a certain term of the squence, the absolute value of v l for that term and any subsequent term

we might name is less than any extremely small positive number that we specify. When that condition is satisfied, we write v l.

Thus if a sequence of values of a variable approaches a limit, there is always a difference between the limit and the terms of the sequence. But the difference becomes less than the specified small number of thedefinition. Therefore, because we specify that small number, we say that we can come as close to that limit as we please. If x, then, is the variable that approaches the limit 0 (as it does when we determine the derivative), then x is never equal to 0.
The limit of a function

We have defined the limit of a variable, but what we typically have is afunction of a variable -which is also a variable. For example, y = f(x) = x. Now, a sequence of values of x will force a sequence of values of f(x). The question is: If the values of x approaches a limit, will the corresponding values of f(x) also approach a limit? If that is the case -- iff(x) approaches a limit L when x approaches a limit l -- then we write

"The limit of f(x) as x approaches l, is L." In fact, let us see what happens to f(x) = x as x this sequence of values: 2. Suppose again that x assumes

1.9, 1.99, 1.999, 1.9999, 1.99999, . . . x will then assume this sequence: (1.9), (1.99)), (1.999), (1.9999), (1.99999), . . . It is easy to see that x approaches 2 = 4.

Again, this means that, beginning with a certain term of the x sequence, the absolute values of the differences between the terms and 4 will be less than any extremely small positive number that we might specify. Moreover, if we consider a sequence x 2+: 2.2, 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, 2.00001, . . . then x becomes this sequence: (2.2), (2.1), (2.01) , (2.001), (2.0001), . . .

And that sequence also approaches 4. Therefore 4 is the limit of x whether x approaches 2 from the right or from the left. And so we can drop the + or signs and simply write:

To summarize:
DEFINITION 2.2. A function "has a limit." We say that a
function f(x) "has a limit" L as x approaches , if for every sequence of values of x that approach as a limit (Definition 2.1) -- whether from the left or from the right -- the corresponding values of f(x) approach L as a limit (Definition 2.1). If that is the case, then we write:

"The limit of f(x) as x approaches l is L." In other words, for the limit of f(x) to exist as x approaches l , the left-hand and right-hand limits must be equal. if and only if

We will see that this definition of the limit of a functionexisting as x approaches l, becomes the definition of the function being continuous at that value -- if L is thevalue of the function there; that is, if L = f( ). (Definition 3.)

The most important limit -- the limit that differential calculus is about -- is called the derivative. All the other limits studied in Calculus I are logical fun and games, never to be heard from again. Now here is an example of a function that does not approach a limit:

As x approaches 2 from the left, f(x) approaches 1. As x approaches 2 from the right, f(x) approaches 3. The left- and right-hand limits are not equal. Therefore, f(x) does not approach any limit as x approaches 2.Definition 2.2,

LIMITS
Section 2: Theorems on limits
Limits of polynomials

Back to Section 1 We will now prove that a certain limit exists, namely the limit of f (x) = x as x approaches any value c. (That f(x) also approaches c should be obvious.)

THEOREM. If f (x) = x, then for any value c that we might name:

For, if a sequence of values of the variable x approaches c as a limit (Definition 2.1), then a sequence of values of the function f(x) = x will also approach c as a limit (Definition 2.2). For example,

Theorems on limits

To help us calculate limits, it is possible to prove the following. Let f and g be functions of a variable x. Then, if the following limits exist:

1)

(f + g) = A + B

2) 3)

(f g) = AB f A = , if B is not 0. g B
In other words: The limit of a sum is equal to the sum of the limits. The limit of a product is equal to the product of the limits. The limit of a quotient is equal to the quotient of the limits, provided the limit of the denominator is not 0. Also, if c does not depend on x -- if c is a constant -- then

4)

1 1 1 To see that, let x approach 4: e.g. 41 41 48 416 432 . . . , then 2 4 the value of 5 -- or any constant -- does not change. It is a constant

When c is a constant factor, but f depends on x, then

5)
A constant factor may pass through the limit sign. (This follows from Theorems 2 and 4.) For example,

Example 1. Quote Theorems 1) through 5) to prove the following:

Solution. x = x x. And we have proved that equal to 4. Therefore,

exists, and is

according to Theorem 2.

It should be clear from this example that to evaluate the limit of anypower of x as x approaches a value, simply evaluate the power at that value. Repeated application of Theorem 2 affirms that. Problem 2.

Problem 3. Evaluate the following limits, and justify your answers by quoting Theorems 1 through 5.

43 + 4 = 64 + 4 = 68. This follows from Theorem 1 and Theorem 2.

4 + 1 = 16 + 1 = 17. This follows from Theorem 1, Theorem 2, and Theorem 4.

5 4 = 5 16 = 80. This follows from Theorem 5 andTheorem 2.

15 = 3. 5

The limits of the numerator and denominator follow from Theorems 1, 2, and 4. The limit of the fraction follows from Theorem 3.
Limits of polynomials

The student might think that to evaluate a limit as the independent variable approaches a value, all we do is evaluate the function at that value. And for the most part that is true One of the most important classes of functions for which that is true are the polynomials. (Topic 6of Precalculus.) A polynomial in x has this general form: P(x) = anxn + an1xn1 + . . . + a1x +a0 where n is a whole number, and an 0.

Therefore, according to the Theorems on limits, to name the limit of a polynomial as the independent variable approaches any value c, simply evaluate the polynomial at that value. If P(x) is a polynomial, then

(We will see that this is equivalent to saying that polynomials arecontinuous functions. Definition 3.) It is important to state again that when we write

the variable x is never equal to c, and therefore P(x) is never equal to P(c) Both c and P(c) are approached as limits. The point is, we can name the limit simply by evaluating the function at c. Problem 4. Evaluate In that polynomial, let x = 1. Then 5(1) 4(1) + 3(1) 2(1) + 1 =5+4+3+2+1 = 15. Problem 5. Evaluate On replacing x with c, c + c = 2c. Problem 6. Evaluate [Hint: This is a polynomial in t.] On replacing t with 1: 3(1) 5(1) + 1 = 3 + 5 + 1 = 9 Problem 7. Evaluate [Hint: This is a polynomial in h.] On replacing h with 0, the limit is 4x. Some of the most important limits, however, will not be polynomials. They will be limits of certain quotients -- and they will appear to be 0 Dealing with that will be the challenge. Example 2. Consider the function g(x) = x + 2, whose graph is a simple straight line. And just to be perverse (and to illustrate a logical point to which we shall return in Lesson 3), let the following functionf(x) not be defined for x = 2. That is, let
0

In other words, the point (2, 4) does not belong to the function; it is not on the graph. Yet the limit as x approaches 2 -- whether from the left or from the right -- is 4 For, every sequence of values of x that approaches 2, can come as closeto 2 as we please. (The limit of a variable is never a member of the sequence, in any case; Definition 2.1.) Hence the corresponding values off(x) will come closer and closer to 4. Definition 2.2 will be satisfied.

CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
Continuous motion A continuous function The definition of "a function continuous at a value of x" A removable discontinuity A theorem about continuous functions

CONTINUOUS MOTION between two points is motion that does not stop between them.
(Lesson 1.) Calculus wants to describe that motion mathematically, both the distance traveled and the speed at any given time, particularly when the speed is not constant. Solving that mathematical problem is one of the first applications of calculus.
In any real problem of continuous motion, the distance traveled will be represented by a "continuous function" of the time traveled, because we always treat time as continuous. Therefore, we must investigate what we mean by a continuous function.
A continuous function

The graph on the left is the graph of a continuous function; it is one unbroken line. We say that the function f(x) is continuous at every value of x in the interval [a, b]. In particular, f(x) is continuous at the valuex = c. The graph on the right, however, is discontinuous at x = c. If we think of each function as having two "branches" -- one to the left ofx = c, and the other to the right -- then in the continuous function there is no gap between the branches: the endpoints, which are the boundaries or the limits of each branch, coincide at (c, f(c)). But in the graph on the right, the endpoints of each branch do not coincide. Now we can see that. The question is, How can we express what we see in the technical language of calculus? How can we mathematically define the sentence, "The function f(x) is continuous at x = c."? (To avoid scrolling, the figure above is repeated .)

We can do so by observing that the limit of f(x) as x approaches cexists. Why does it exist? Because whether x approaches c from the left or from the right, f(x) approaches f(c). Those limits are equal. (Definition 2.2.) For example, if f(x) were the function y = x, and c = 5, then

That is, The two branches of f(x) share the common boundary, the common limit, the common point (c, f(c)). Therefore that function is continuous atx = c.

(Compare Definition 1.)

In the function g(x), however, the limit of g(x) as x approaches c does not exist. If the lefthand limit were the value g(c), the right-hand limit would not be the same. That function is discontinuous at x = c. The following then is the definition of a function being continuous at a specific value of x.

DEFINITION 3. A function continuous at a value of x.

We say that a function f(x) that is defined at the value x = c is continuous at that value if and only if as x approaches c as a limit, f(x) approaches f(c) as a limit. (Definition 2.2.) In symbols:

if and only if f(x) is continuous at x = c.

If a function is continuous at every value in an interval, then we say that the function is continuous in that interval. And if a function is continuous in any interval, then we simply call it a continuous function. Although there are exceptions, calculus is essentially about functions that are continuous at every value in their domains. Prime examples of continuous functions are polynomials (Lesson 2). Problem 1. a) Prove that this polynomial, 2x 3x + 5, a) is continuous at x = 1.

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We must apply the definition of "continuous at a value of x,"Definition 3.1. That is, we must show that when xapproaches 1 as a limit, f(x) approaches f(1), which is 4. And according to the Theorems of Lesson 2, that is true. f(x) therefore is continuous at x = 1. b) Can you think of any value of x where that polynomial -- or any b) polynomial -- would not be continuous? You should not be able to. Polynomials are continuous everywhere. As x approaches any limit c, any polynomial P(x) approaches P(c). (Lesson 2) Problems 4, 5, 6 and 7 of Lesson 2 are examples of functions -- polynomials -- that are continuous at each given value. In addition to polynomials, the following functions also are continuous at every value in their domains. Rational functions Root functions Trigonometric functions Inverse trigonometric functions Logarithmic functions Exponential functions These are the functions that one encounters throughout calculus. To evaluate the limit of any one of these as x approaches a value, simply evaluate the function at that value. Definition 3.1.

Example 2. Evaluate Solution. The student should have a firm grasp of the basic values of the trigonometric functions. In calculus, they are indispensable. See Topics 15 and 16 of Trigonometry.

Problem 2. Evaluate sin 0 = 0 Problem 3. Evaluate

Problem 4. Velocity, v(t), is a continuous function of time t. Let v(t) = 2t + 1. If distance is measured in meters, and the function is defined at t = 5 sec, then explain why Since v(t) is a continuous function, then according to thedefinition, we may write the above. For a definition is an "if and only if" sentence, which is to say, it is reversible. See theCommentary on the Definitions in Euclid's Elements.

If a function is not continuous at a value, then it is discontinuous at that value. Here is the graph of a function that is discontinuous at x = 0.

This is the graph of y = . At x = 0, the function is not defined, because division by 0 is an excluded operation. (Skill in Algebra, Lesson 5.) x = 0 is a point of discontinuity. In fact, as x approaches 0 -- whether from the right or from the left -- y does not approach any number Nevertheless, as x increases continuously in an interval that does not include 0, then y will decrease continuously in that interval. We say, "The function y =
1 is continuous for all values of x except x = 0." x

1 x

Equivalently, "The function y =

1 is continuous for all values of x is its domain." x

Example 3. Consider this function: f(x) =

x 4 x2

This function is undefined at x = 2, and therefore it is discontinuous there; however, we will return to this point below. The function nevertheless is defined at all other values of x, and it is continuous at all other values. For example, as x approaches 8, then according to the Theorems of Lesson 2, f(x) approaches f(8). f(8) =
60 6

= 10.

f(x) therefore is continuous at x = 8. (Definition 3.1.) In this same way, we could show that the function is continuous at all values of x except x = 2.
A removable discontinuity

For a function to be continuous at x = c, it must exist at x = c. However, when a function does not exist at x = c, it is sometimes possible to assigna value so that it will be continuous there. This function f(x) = does not exist at x = 2. But for every value of x
x 4 x2

2:

x 4 (x + 2)(x 2) = = x + 2. x2 x2

Therefore, as x approaches 2,

(Compare Example 2 of Lesson 2.) That is,

Now, f(x) is not defined at x = 2 -- but we could define it. We could define it to have the value of that limit We could say, "At x = 2, let f(x) have the value 4."

If we do that, then f(x) will be continuous at x = 2 -- because the limit at that value will be the value of the function. (Definition 3.1.) When we are able to do that -- define a function at a value where it is undefined and therefore discontinuous -- we say that the function has aremovable discontinuity. f(x) above is such a function. Problem 5. Consider this function: y=
5x . x

a) For which value of x is this function discontinuous? x = 0. b) Define the function there so that it will be continuous. For all values except x = 0, the function has the value 5. Hence, if we define the function to have the value 5 at x = 0, then we have successfully removed the discontinuity.
A theorem about continuous functions

Let f(x) = 5x and g(x) = x3. And let us consider

Since f is continuous, then the limit as x approaches 2 will be the value f (g(2)). (See Topic 3 of Precalculus.) Now let us consider

That is, let us first take the limit of g. But since g is continuous, that limit will be g(2). We will have

In other words:

THEOREM 3.1. If f and g are continuous in an interval containing the value c, then

THE LIMIT "INFINITY" ()

The definition of "becomes infinite" Limits of rational functions Change of variable

INFINITY, along with its symbol , is not a number and it is not a place. To become
"infinite" is the mathematical idiom we use to describe a property of the values of a variable. It is the following.
DEFINITION 4.

"becomes infinite." We say that a variable "becomes infinite" if, beginning

with a certain term of a sequenceof its values, the absolute value of that term and any subsequent term we might name is greater than any positive number we might name, however large.

When the variable is x, and it takes on only positive values, then it becomes positively infinite. We write If x takes on only negative values, it becomes negatively infinite, in which case we write In both cases, we mean: No matter what large number M we might name, we get to a point in the sequence of values of x that their absolute values become greater than M. When the variable is f(x), it will become positively or negatively infinite when x approaches some value c. We will write

Thus we employ the symbol in algebraic statements to signify that the condition the "if" clause of Definition 4 has been satisfied. That symbol by itself has no meaning.

As an example, here is the graph of the function y =

1 : x

Let us see what happens to the values of y as x approaches 0 from the right:

As the sequence of values of x become very small numbers, then the sequence of values of y, the reciprocals, , become very large numbers. The values of y will become and remain greater, for example, than 10100000000 y becomes infinite. We write, in this case,

When a limit is infinite, as in this case, then even though the limit is not a number (Defintion 2.1), we are required to say nevertheless that the limit "exists." Saying that means that the definition of "becomes infinite" has been satisfied.

If x approaches 0 from the left, then the values of x become large negative numbers. In this case, we write

That limit also exists. However, since it is different from the righthand limit, the "limit as x approaches 0" does not exist Definition 2.2.

When a function becomes infinite as x approaches a value a, then the function is discontinuous at x = a, and the the straight line x = a is avertical asymptote of the graph. (Topic 18 of Precalculus.) The graph of y = x , then, has a vertical asymptote at x = 0 Next, let us consider the case when x becomes infinite, that is, when it becomes a large positive number -- when it takes on values to the extreme right of 0.
1

In that case, x becomes a very small number, namely 0. We write

We should read that as "the limit as x becomes infinite," not as "x approaches infinity," because again, infinity is neither a number nor a place. On the other hand, we could read that however we please ("the limit as x becomes dizzy"), as long as whatever expression we use refers to the condition of Definition 4! See First Principles of Euclid's Elements, Commentary on the Definitions. See especially that a definition isnominal; it asserts only how a word or a name will be used; and we must agree to that.

Finally, when x becomes infinite negatively, that is, when it assumes values to the extreme left of 0 (), then again x approaches 0. We write
1

In other words, whenever x becomes infinite positively or negatively, 1 the values of y = approach the horizontal line y = 0. That line is x called a horizontal asymptote of the graph. Problem 1. Evaluate

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At

, tan x does not exist. (Topic 15 and Topic 18 of Trigonometry.)

As x approaches
2

from the left, tan x becomes larger than any number

we might name. (Definition 4.)

Limits of rational functions

A rational function is a quotient of polynomials (Topic 6 of Precalculus). It will have the form f (x) g (x) where f and g are polynomials (g 0). Apart from the constant term, each term of a polynomial will have a factor xn (n 1). Therefore let us investigate the following limits. c could be any positive constant. As a problem, the student should complete each right-hand side.

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1) 2a) n even. 2b) n odd. 2c) n odd. Compare y = above, where n = 1. 3) =
1 x

4)

Example. Prove:

Solution. Divide the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x. In this case, divide them by x:

According to 1), above, the limit of each term that contains x is 0. Therefore by the theorems of Topic 2, we have the required answer. In similar cases, the first step is: Divide the numerator and denominator by the power of x that appears in the leading term of either one. Problem 2. =4

The result follows on dividing both numerator and denominator by x. Problem 3. =

In other words: When the numerator and denominator are of equal degree,

then the limit as x becomes infinite is equal to the quotient of the leading coefficients.
Problem 4. = = =0

In the following, the rational function is the reciprocal of the one above: = This problem illustrates: =

When the degree of the denominator is greater than the degree of the numerator -- that is, when the denominator dominates -- then the limit as x becomes infinite is 0. But when the numerator dominates -when the degree of the numerator is greater -- then the limit as x becomes infinite is .
Change of variable

Consider this limit:

Rather than have the variable approach 0, we sometimes prefer that it become infinite. In that case, we do a change of variable. We put x= or 1 z

1 1 or , it does not matter. For, x approaching 0 is equivalent to n t z becoming infinite. Then

1 On replacing x with , we let z become infinite. The limit remains 1. z Where will this come up? In the limit from which we calculate the number e :

(Lesson 15.) Problem 5. In the above limit, change the variable to n, and let it become infinite.

THE DERIVATIVE
The rate of change of a function at a specific value of x
The slope of a straight line The slope of a tangent line to a curve A secant to a curve The definition of the derivative The derivative of f(x)= x Differentiable at x Notations for the derivative A simple difference quotient
Section 2: Problems

The derivative of f(x) = 2x 5 The equation of a tangent to a curve The derivative of f(x) = x

CALCULUS IS CONCERNED WITH THINGS that do not change at a constant rate. The values of
the function called the derivative will be that varying rate of change.
Now, the slope of a straight line indicates a constant rate of change as

we move from any point A on the line to any point B. (Topic 8 of Precalculus.) The slope is the number y Change in y-cordinate = = . x Change in x-cordinate That number indicates how the value of y changes when the value ofx changes. y/ x is constant. A straight line has one and only one slope. If x represents time, for example, and y represents distance, then a

straight line graph that relates them indicates constant speed. 45 miles per hour, say -- at every moment of time.
The slope of a tangent line to a curve

Calculus however is concerned with rates of change that are not constant.

If this curve represents distance Y versus time X, then the rate of change the speed at each moment of time is not constant. The question that calculus asks is: "What is the rate of change at exactly the point P ?" If we can name the slope of a tangent line to the curve at that point, then that will be the answer. And the method for finding that slope that number was the remarkable discovery by both Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and Gottfried Leibniz (16461716). That method is the one for finding what is called the derivative.
A secant to a curve

A secant is a straight line that cuts a curve. (A tangent is a straight line that just touches a curve.) Hence, consider a secant line that cuts the curve at points P and Q. Then the slope of the secant is the average rate of change between those two points. For example, if

then on changing from x1 to x2, the function has changed an average of 4 units of y for every 5 units of x. But once again, the question calculus asks is: How is the function changing exactly at x1? What is the slope of

the tangent to the curve at P? We cannot, of course, evaluate y exactly at P -- because y and x x y would then both be 0, and the value of would be completely x ambiguous. Therefore we will consider shorter and shorter intervals of x, which will result in a sequence of secants --

-- a sequence of slopes. And we will define the tangent at P to be thelimit of that sequence

That slope, that limit, will be the value of what we will call the "derivative."
The definition of the derivative

Let y = f(x) be a continuous function, and let the cordinates of a fixed point P on the graph be (x, f(x)). (Topic 4 of Precalculus.) Let xnow change by an amount x. Then the new x-cordinate is x + x. It is the x-cordinate of Q on the graph. But when the value of x changes, there is a corresponding change y in the value of y, that is, in the value of f(x). Its new value is f(x + x). The cordinates of Q are (x + x , f(x + x)). Then

Finally:

The slope of the tangent line at P is the limit of the ratio of the change in the function to the change in the independent variable, as that change approaches 0.

Since x -- not x -- is the variable that approaches 0, x will remain constant, and that limit will be a function of x. Since it will be derived from f(x), we call it the derived function or the derivative of f(x). And to remind us that it was derived from f(x), we denote it by f '(x) -- "fprimeof x."
Since the theorems on limits make it easy to evaluate a limit, it is easy to lose sight of its actual meaning. With regard to the derivative, it is the number which that ratio can approach as closely as we desire.

This quotient --

-- is called the Newton quotient, or the difference quotient. Calculating and simplifying it is a fundamental task in differential calculus.

Again, the difference quotient is a function of x. But to simplify our written calculations, instead of writing x, we will write h.

x=h y = f (x + h) f (x) The difference quotient then becomes

We now express the definition of the derivative as follows.

DEFINITION 5. By the derivative of a function f(x), we mean the following limit, if it exists:

We call that limit f '(x) -- "f-prime of x" -- and we say that f itself isdifferentiable at x, and that f has a derivative. Again, in taking that limit, the variable that is approaching 0 is h, not x, and we are to regard x as being fixed. It is the specific value at which we are evaluating the rate of change of f(x). In practice, we have to simplify the difference quotient before lettingh approach 0. We have to express the numerator -f (x + h) f (x) -- in such a way that we can divide it by h. As an example, we will apply the definition to prove the following:
THEOREM.

f(x) = x implies f '(x) = 2x.

Proof. Here is the difference quotient, which we will proceed to simplify: 1) (x + h) x h x + 2xh + h x h 2xh + h h

2) =

3) =

4) = 2x + h. In going from line 1) to line 2), we squared the binomial x + h. (Lesson 18 of Algebra.) In going to line 3), we subtracted the xs. That is, we subtracted f(x). In going to line 4), we divided the numerator by h. (Lesson 20 of Algebra.) We can do that because h is never equal to 0, even when we take the limit (Lesson 2). We now complete the definition of the derivative and take the limit: f '(x) = (2x + h)

= 2x. This is what we wanted to prove. Whenever we apply the definition, we have to algebraically manipulate the difference quotient so that we can simply replace h with 0. In fact, the entire theory of limits, with all its complexities and subtleties, was invented to justify just that (Poor Newton and Leibniz were criticized for offering justifications that the inventors of limits didn't like.) We may put h = 0 here, because the difference quotient reduces to2x + h, and is therefore a polynomial in h.
Differentiable at x

According to the definition, a function will be differentiable at x if a certain limit exists there. Graphically, this means that the graph at that value of x will have a tangent line. At which values, then, would a function not be differentiable? Where it does not have a tangent line

Above are two examples. The function on the left does not have a derivative at x = 0, because the function is discontinuous there. At x = 0 there is obviously no tangent. As for the graph on the right, it is the absolute value function,y = |x|. (Topic 5 of Precalculus.) And it is not possible to define the tangent line at x = 0, because the graph makes an acute angle there. In fact, the slope of the tangent line as x approaches 0 from the left, is 1. The slope approaching from the right, however, is +1. The slope of the tangent line at 0 -which would be the derivative at x = 0 -- therefore does not exist . (Definition 2.2.) The absolute value function nevertheless is continuous at x = 0. For, the left-hand limit of the function itself as x approaches 0 is equal to the right-hand limit, namely 0. This illustrates that continuity at a point is no guarantee of differentiability -- the existence of a tangent -- at that point. (Conversely, though, if a function is differentiable at a point -- if there is a tangent -- it will also be continuous there. The graph will be smooth and have no break.) Since differential calculus is the study of derivatives, it is fundamentally concerned with functions that are differentiable at all values of their domains. Such functions are called differentiable functions. Can you name an elementary class of differentiable functions?

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Polynomials.
Notations for the derivative

Since the derivative is this limit: derivative is (Read: "dee-y, dee-x.")

then a symbol for the

For example, if

y = x, then, as we have seen, = 2x. "Dee-y, dee-x -- the derivative of y with respect to x -- is 2x." We also write y '(x) = 2x. "y-prime of x is equal to 2x." This symbol by itself: d ("dee, dee-x") , is called the differentiating dx operator. We are to take the derivative of what follows it. For example,

d f(x) signifies the derivative with respect to x of f(x). dx d 3 (4t 5) signifies the derivative with respect to t of (4t3 5). dt And so on.
A simple difference quotient

y . And at times we x will use the latter. That is, the change in the value of a function y = f(x) is y + y. Hence the difference quotient is The difference quotient is a version of

At times it will be convenient to express the difference quotient as

Note: As x approaches 0 -- as the point Q moves closer to P along the curve -- then y, or equivalently, f also approaches 0. That is,

The student should now do Problems that require the definition of the derivative.