CHAPTER-1 1.

1 INTRODUCTION :
Security is a matter of prime importance in todays era of terrorism and violence.Our Army and Security forces are faced with the tedious task of safeguarding our territories and the citizens of our country.In such a scenario the use of ultra modern electronic equipments becomes an unavoidable essentiality.The battleground in todays era is in the form of a sophisticated equipment itself. Our project utilizes the concept of production of high voltage spark of around 24000 volts,enough to make somebody unconscious but not deemed to cause any potential harm.Unlike the field implementation where voltages as high as 15 lakh volts are produced we are supposed to produce a voltage of around 24000 volts with the help of EHT which is an oscillatory high voltage transformer.This high voltage will be seen in the form of a blue lightning discharge.The spark will be initiated in the direction of the coming object with the help of a stepper motor.Following are the features of this project: It has high speed of operation. It is highly sensitive. It is portable . It is user friendly

1.2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION:

COMPONENTS USED: 1. TRANSMITTER RECEIVER: The transmitter receiver pair is used to sense the presence of any signal and sends the information to microcontroller. 2. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER:-

The signal so received is of very small amplitude so in order to increase its amplitude OP-AMP Is used. 3. MICROCONTROLLER:Microcontroller is used to do all the programming of the circuit.It runs according to the program. We need not to build very large circuits. By using this we can control the work of large circuitry through the help of the program which can be easily burnt into it. 4.CURRENT AMPLIFIER:ULN2803 is the Darlington array which is a current amplifier which amplifies the current of the signal coming from the microcontroller. 5. RELAY:A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an electrical amplifier. 6. PULSE GENERATION:The 555 timer is one of the most remarkable integrated circuits ever developed. It comes in a single or dual package and even low power cmos versions exist - ICM7555. Common part numbers are LM555, NE555, LM556, NE556. The 555 timer consists of two voltage comparators, a bi-stable flip flop, a discharge transistor, and a resistor divider network. 7. STEPPER MOTOR:A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide a full rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's position can be controlled precisely without any feedback mechanism (see Open-loop controller), as long as the motor is carefully sized to the application. Stepper motors are 2

similar to switched reluctance motors (which are very large stepping motors with a reduced pole count, and generally are closed-loop commutated.)

8. E.H.T.:E.H.T stands foe extremely high tension. It is a kind of step up transformer used to step up very low voltage to thousands of kilovolts. 9.POWER SUPPLY:Power supply is used to drive the circuit. Inappropriate voltage will damage the entire circuitry therefore it constitutes a very important part of the circuit.Every electronic circuit requires power for its operation. Every function simple or complex is controlled by the power supply. Even a little variation in voltage can damage all the circuitry. So power supply is of prime importance in all the circuits. The power supply which we get is a.c. operating at 220Volts.But as our electronic circuits work only on d.c. therefore; we cannot employ direct usage of supply which we get. In order to overcome this, we require various process namely transformation, rectification, smoothing or filtering and regulation.

1.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FIG 1.1 SECURITY SYSTEM USING HIGH VOLTAGE SPARKS

FIG 1.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

1.4 LIST OF COMPONENTS:

S.No. 1.

Code R1,R4,R7 R3,R6

Name Resistors

Value 10k 220 ohms

Price 25 paisa each

2.

R2-R5

Potentiometer

10k

3.

C1,C2 C3

Capacitors

33Pf 10F

1 1

4.

IC1A,IC2A IC3 IC4 IC5 U$2 Q3 T1,T2 D1 LED1,LED2 OK1

OP-AMP Microcontroller Current amplifier Timer Regulator Transistor Phototransistor Diode IR LED Optocoupler

LM324 AT89S51 ULN2803 NE555 LM7805 BC547 LPT80A 1N4007 5mm 4N35

10 50 20 6 10 2 150 1 1 20

5.

Q1 U$1

Crystal Reset switch Battery

12MHz 1.2A,12V

10 5 400

CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS USED

6

2.1 SENSORS:
First of all, two sensors are used in which the IR LED acts as a transmitter and Photo detector as a receiver. Along with this LED, a resistor (220) the current. is used in series to limit

2.1.1 REQUIREMENT IN THE PROJECT:

IR LED emits infrared radiation. This radiation illuminates the surface in front of LED. Surface reflects the infrared light. Depending on reflectivity of the surface, amount of light reflected varies. This reflected light is made incident on reverse biased IR sensor. When photons are incident on reverse biased junction of this diode, electron-hole pairs are generated, which results in reverse leakage current. Amount of electron-hole pairs generated depends on intensity of incident IR radiation. More intense radiation results in more reverse leakage current. This current can be passed through a resistor so as to get proportional voltage. Thus as intensity of incident rays varies, voltage across resistor will vary accordingly. This voltage can then be given to OPAMP based comparator.Output of the comparator can be read by uC. FIG 2.1 IR SENSOR AND LED PAIR

2.1.2 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:

The actual sensor on the chip is made from natural or artificial pyroelectric materials, usually in the form of a thin film, out of gallium nitride (GaN), caesium nitrate (CsNO3), polyvinyl fluorides, derivatives of phenylpyrazine, and The actual sensor on the chip is made from natural or artificial pyroelectric materials, usually in the form of a thin film, out of gallium nitride (GaN), caesium nitrate (CsNO3), polyvinyl fluorides, derivatives of phenylpyrazine, and cobalt phthalocyanine. Lithium tantalate (LiTaO3) is a crystal exhibiting both piezoelectric and pyroelectric properties. The sensor is often manufactured as part of an integrated circuit and may be comprised of one (1), two (2) or four (4) 'pixels' comprised of equal areas of the pyroelectric material. Pairs of the sensor pixels may be wired as opposite inputs to a differential amplifier. R1 is to prevent the emitter (clear) LED from melting itself. Choose a R1 value so that Vcc^2/R1 <Powerspecification. R2 should be larger then the maximum resistance of the detector. Measure the resistance of the detector (black) when it is pointing into a dark area and then choose the next larger resister. This means Vout is close to zero when there is no signal.

FIG 2.2 INFRARED EMITTER DETECTOR BASIC CIRCUIT

2.2 COMPARATOR:

Comparator is a device which compares two voltages or currents and switches its output to indicate which is larger. More generally, the term is also used to refer to a device that compares two items of data. LM324N Op amp IC has been used as a comparator. It is a 14 pin IC. It consists of 4 opamps as shown in the pin diagram below:

FIG 2.3 PIN DIAGRAM OF COMPARATOR

2.2.1 REQUIREMENT IN THE PROJECT:

The operational amplifier (LM324) is used as a comparator lying below the sensor. It checks if the light is being received by the photo detector or not. If the light is received then it gives the output as 1 otherwise 0.

2.2.2 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:

9

A standard op-amp without negative feedback can be used as a comparator, as indicated in the following diagram.

FIG 2.4 BASIC COMPARATOR CIRCUIT

When the non-inverting input (V+) is at a higher voltage than the inverting input (V-), the high gain of the op-amp causes it to output the most positive voltage it can. When the non-inverting input (V+) drops below the inverting input (V-), the op-amp outputs the most negative voltage it can. Since the output voltage is limited by the supply voltage, for an op-amp that uses a balanced, split supply, (powered by VS) this action can be written: Vout = VS. sgn (V+ V) where sgn (x) is the signum function. Generally, the positive and negative supplies VS will not match absolute value: Vout <= VS+ when (V+ > V-) else VS- when (V+ < V-).

10

Equality of input values is very difficult to achieve in practice. The speed at which the change in output results from a change in input (often called the slew rate in operational amplifiers) is typically in the order of 10ns to 100ns, but can be as slow as a few tens of s.

2.3 MICROCONTROLLER:

2.3.1 INTRODUCTION:
Microcontroller is a general purpose device meant to read data, to perform limited calculations on that data and to control its environment based on those calculations. The prime use of a microcontroller is to control the operation of a machine using a fixed program that is stored in ROM and that does not change over the lifetime of the system.

Microcontroller is a true computer on a chip. It incorporates all the features found in a microprocessor like CPU, ALU, PC, SP and registers. It also has additional features needed to make a complete computer like ROM, RAM, parallel input-output, serial inputoutput, counters and a clock circuit. A microcontroller (often abbreviated MCU) is a single computer chip (integrated circuit) that executes a user program, normally for the purpose of controlling some device hence named as microcontroller. The program is normally contained either in a second chip, called an EPROM, or within the same chip as the microcontroller itself. A microcontroller is normally found in devices such as microwave ovens, automobiles, keyboards, CD players, cell phones, VCRs, security systems, time & attendance clocks, etc. Microcontroller-based systems are generally smaller, more reliable, and cheaper. They are ideal for the types of applications described above where cost and unit size are very important considerations. In such applications it is almost always desirable to produce circuits that require the smallest number of integrated circuits, that require the smallest

11

amount of physical space, require the least amount of energy, and cost as little as possible. Microcontrollers are hidden inside a surprising number of products these days. If your microwave oven has an LED or LCD screen and a keypad, it contains a microcontroller. All modern automobiles contain at least one microcontroller, and can have as many as six or seven. The engine is controlled by a microcontroller, as are the anti-lock brakes, the cruise control and so on. Any device that has a remote control almost certainly contains a microcontroller: TVs, VCRs and high-end stereo systems all fall into this category. Digital cameras, cell phones, answering machines, laser printers, telephones (the ones with caller ID, 20-number memory, etc.), pagers, and refrigerators, dishwashers, washers and dryers (the ones with displays and keypads). Basically, any product or device that interacts with its user has a microcontroller buried inside

12

2.3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

FIG 2.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MICROCONTROLLER

1 INTERRUPT CONTROL: - The interrupt control basically handles the interrupts

whether they should be handled or not. For the same purpose two registers of 8bits are present i.e. IP and IE i.e. interrupt priority and interrupt enable.

13

2 ON CHIP FLASH: - Flash memory is present on the chip.

3 ON CHIP RAM: - RAM is also present on the chip.

4 TIMERS: - Timer control registers of 8 bits are also present on the chip. The
counter input is given to the timers.

5 SERIAL PORTS: - the serial ports are also present on chip which allows the
microcontroller to communicate serially.

6 I/O PORTS: - the I/O ports basically provides the input and output ports. These
are present on the chip of microcontroller itself. They are of 8 bits. There is no requirement for providing the external interface. Basically there are 4 ports i.e. port 0, port 1, port 2 and port 3. PORT 0 provides both data and addresses along with I/O pins. PORT 1 provides only I/O pins. PORT 2 provides I/O pins and the remaining addresses. PORT 3 provides I/O pins and WR,RD,T0,T1,INT0,INT1,RXD,TXD

7 BUS CONTROL: - The control registers are present i.e. TCON, TMOD, SCON,
PCON, IP, IE.

14

8 OSCILLATOR: -A particular frequency is provided i.e. 11.0592 MHz by a crystal

oscillator.

2.3.3 PIN DIAGRAM :

FIG 2.6 PIN DIAGRAM OF 8051

P1.0 P1.1 P1.2 P1.3 P1.4 P1.5 P1.6 P1.7 RST ( RXD ) P3.0 (TXD) P3.1 (INT0 ) P3.2 (INT1) P3.3 (T0) P3.4 (T1) P3.5 (WR) P3.6 (RD) P3.7 XTAL2 XTAL1 GND

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21

8051 MICRO CONTROLLER

VCC P0.7 (AD0) P0.6 (AD1) P0.5 (AD2) P0.4 (AD3) P0.3 (AD4) P0.2 (AD5) P0.1 (AD6) P0.0 (AD7) EA\VPP ALE PSEN P2.7 (A15) P2.6 (A14) P2.5 (A13) P2.4 (A12) P2.3 (A11) P2.2 (A10) P2.1 (A9) P2.0 (A8)

15

8051 is a 40 pin IC packed in DIP (Dual line packaging). This means that the pin performs the dual functions. Basically 8051 is a 40 pin IC but it performs 64 functions. This is due to the reason that 24 pins are multiplexed pins. So these pins perform dual functions and make it a total of 64 functions. 1.VCC: - PIN (40) - This pin is used to supply voltage to the micro controller. Generally +5V is provided to microcontroller. 2.GND: - PIN (20) - This pin is used for ground. 3.RST: - (PIN 9) It is a Reset Input. When this pin is given a high for the two continuous machine cycles while the oscillator is running, the device gets resets. 4.ALE: - (PIN 30): - It is an Address latch enable. With the bit set the ALE is enabled during the MOVX or MOVC instruction. 5.PSEN: - (PIN 29): - Program Store Enabled is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89C51 is executing code from external memory, This pin is

16

activated during each machine cycle, except that two activation are skipped during each access to external data memory. 6.PORT 0 :-( PINS 32-39 i.e. P0.0-P0.7) Port 0 is an 8 bit bi-directional I/O port. When 1s are written to the pins then port 0 acts as high impedance inputs. Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed address/data bus (i.e. AD0-AD7) during accesses to external program and data memory.

7.PORT 1:- Port 1 is an 8 bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups.When 1s are written to the port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current because of internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives the low order addresses bytes during Flash programming and verification. 8.PORT 2:- Port 2 is an 8 bit bi-directional I/O port. Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current because of internal pull ups. Port 2 emits the high order addresses byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external program memory, data memory that use 16bit addresses. In this application, this uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s.

9.PORT 3:- (PINS 10-17 i.e. P3.0-P3.7) Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port. So along with providing the I/O various other operations are also performed.

2.3.4 MEMORY ORGANISATION:

The diagram showing the organization of memory in a microcontroller is as follows: The8051 microcontroller actually includes a whole family of microcontrollers that have numbers ranging from 8031 to 8751 and are available in NMOS and CMOS constructions in a variety of package types. The 8051 has internal RAM and ROM. Memory for variable data can be altered as the program runs.

17

1) INTERNAL RAM
The 128-byte internal RAM is organized into three distinct areas:

Thirty-two bytes from address 00h to 1Fh that make up 32 working registers A bit addressable area of 16 bytes occupies RAM byte addresses 20h to 2Fh A general purpose RAM area above the bit area, from 30h to 7Fh, addressable as

organized as four banks of eight registers each. forming a total of 128 addressable bits. bytes. 2) INTERNAL ROM In 8051, data memory and program code memory are two different entities. Internal ROM occupies code addresses 0000h to 0FFFh. If program address exceeds 0FFFh then 8051 automatically fetches code from external program memory. Code bytes could also be fetched exclusively from external memory 0000h to FFFFh by connecting the EA pin to the ground.

2.3.5 FEATURES OF MICROCONTROLLER:

1. Perform a single set of functions. 2. Works in a time constrained environment. 3. Provides high-performance and reliability. 4. Mostly Embedded systems have low cost because they are mass produced in millions. 5. Some Embedded systems have mechanical moving parts like disk drives as they are less reliable as compared to solid state parts such as Flash memory. 6. High Integration of Functionality.

18

7. Microcontrollers sometimes are called single-chip computers because they have onchip memory and I/O circuitry and other circuitries that enable them to function as small standalone computers without other supporting circuitry. 8. Field Programmability, Flexibility. 9. Microcontrollers often use EEPROM or EPROM as their storage device to allow field programmability so they are flexible to use. Once the program is tested to be correct then large quantities of microcontrollers can be programmed to be used in embedded systems. 10. Easy to Use: Assembly language is often used in microcontrollers and since they usually follow RISC architecture, the instruction set is small. The development package of microcontrollers often includes an assembler, a simulator, a programmer to "burn" the chip and a demonstration board. Some packages include a high level language compiler such as a C compiler and more sophisticated libraries. 11. Eight bit CPU with registers A and B. 12. Sixteen bit program counter and data pointer. 13. Eight bit program status word. 14. Eight bit stack pointer. 15. Internal ROM of 4K. 16. Internal RAM of 128 bytes: Four register banks, each containing eight registers. Sixteen bytes, which may be addressed at bit level. Eighty bytes of general-purpose data memory. 17. Thirty two input/output pins arranged as four 8-bit ports: P0-P3. 18. Two 16-bit timer/counters: T0 and T1. 19. Full duplex serial data receiver/transmitter: SBUF.

19

20. Control register: TCON, TMOD, SCON, PCON, IP. 21. Two external and three internal interrupt sources. 22. Oscillator and clock circuits.

2.3.6 MICROCONTROLLER VERSUS MICROPROCESSOR:

By microprocessor is meant the general- purpose microprocessors such as Intels x86 family. These microprocessors contain no RAM, no ROM, and no I/O ports on the chip itself. Whereas a microcontroller has a fixed amount of RAM, ROM and I/O ports in the chip itself. Thus a system designer using a general- purpose microprocessor such as Pentium must add RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and timers externally to make them functional. The addition of these external components makes these systems bulkier and much more expensive. But they have the advantage of versatility such that the designer can decide on the amount of RAM, ROM, and I/O ports as per his/her requirement. In case of a microcontroller the fixed amount of on-chip ROM, RAM, and the number of I/O ports makes them ideal for many applications in which coat and space are critical. Thus microcontrollers are the preferred choice for many embedded systems.

2.3.7 REQUIREMENT IN THE PROJECT:

Microcontroller is used to do all the programming of the circuit.It runs according to the program. We need not to build very large circuits. By using this we can control the work of large circuitry through the help of the program which can be easily burnt into it.

2.3.8 ATMELS AT89C51:

20

In our project, we have used the microcontroller AT89C51, a version of popular 8051, manufactured by ATMEL Corporation. The first two letters in the name is for the manufacturer. The AT89C52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89C52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a sixvector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.

2.3.9 FEATURES:
The various features of AT89C51 are given below: TABLE 2.1 FEATURES OF AT89C51

Feature ROM RAM Timers

Value 4K Bytes 128 Bytes 2

21

I/O pins Serial ports Interrupt Sources

32 1 6

2.3.10 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

The block diagram of AT89C51 is shown below: FIG 2.8 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AT89C51

22

2.3.11 PIN DIAGRAM:

FIG 2.9 PIN DIAGRAM OF AT89C51

23

2.3.12 PIN DESCRIPTION:

VCC -Supply voltage (all packages except 42-PDIP). GND -Ground (all packages except 42-PDIP; for 42-PDIP GND connects only the logic core and the embedded program memory). VDD -Supply voltage for the 42-PDIP which connects only the logic core and the embedded program memory. PWRVDD -Supply voltage for the 42-PDIP which connects only the I/O Pad Drivers. The application board must connect both VDD and PWRVDD to the board supply voltage. PWRGND- Ground for the 42-PDIP which connects only the I/O Pad Drivers. PWRGND and GND are weakly connected through the common silicon substrate, but not through any metal link. The application board must connect both GND and PWRGND to the board ground. 24

Port 0 -Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pullups.Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification. Port 1- Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification. Port 2- Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s.

Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification. Port 3- Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are

25

pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S51, as shown in the following table. RST -Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. This pin drives High for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled. ALE/PROG -Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode. PSEN -Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89S51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. EA/VPP- External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to

26

FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming. XTAL1 Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. XTAL2 Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier

27

FIG

2.10

MICRONTROLLER

INTERFACING

2.4 CURRENT AMPLIFIER:

28

ULN2803 is the Darlington array which is a current amplifier which amplifies the current of the signal coming from the microcontroller. Relay is an electro mechanical switch which converts electrical signal into mechanical output and provides the isolation between the two connections. The signal so received is of very small amplitude in order to amplify it current amplifier is used. The current amplifier used in this project is ULN2803.

2.4.1 REQUIREMENT IN THE PROJECT:

The output from the controller is of very small amplitude and is not capable of driving the motor so to increase its amplitude current amplifier (ULN2803) is used. It provides so much of the current that is required to drive the motor. FIG 2.11 PIN DIAGRAM OF ULN2803

Featuring continuous load current ratings to 500 mA for each of the drivers, the Series ULN28xxA/LW and ULQ28xxA/LW high voltage, high-current Darlington arrays are ideally suited for interfacing between low-level logic circuitry and multiple peripheral power loads. Typical power loads totaling over 260 W (350 mA x 8, 95 V) can be 29

controlled at an appropriate duty cycle depending on ambient temperature and number of drivers turned on simultaneously. Typical loads include relays, solenoids, stepping motors, magnetic print hammers, multiplexed LED and incandescent displays, and heaters. All devices feature open-collector outputs with integral clamp diodes. The ULx2803A, ULx2803LW, ULx2823A, and ULN2823LW have series input resistors selected for operation directly with 5 V TTL or CMOS. These devices will handle numerous interface needs particularly those beyond the capabilities of standard logic buffers. The ULx2804A, ULx2804LW, ULx2824A, and ULN2824LW have series input resistors for operation directly from 6 V to 15 V CMOS or PMOS logic outputs. The ULx2803A/LW and ULx2804A/LW are the standard Darlington arrays. The outputs are capable of sinking 500 mA and will withstand at least 50 V in the off state. Outputs may be paralleled for higher load current capability. The ULx2823A/LW and ULx2824A/LW will withstand 95 V in the off state. These Darlington arrays are furnished in 18-pin dual in-line plastic packages (suffix A) or 18-lead small-outline plastic packages (suffix LW). All devices are pinned with outputs opposite inputs to facilitate ease of circuit board layout. Prefix ULN devices are rated for operation over the temperature range of -20C to +85C; prefix ULQ devices are rated for operation to -40C.

2.5 VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

FIG 2.12 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

30

Voltage regulator is a device which is used to regulate the input voltage to a desired fixed dc value. The regulation is usually obtained from an IC voltage regulator unit, which takes a dc voltage and provides a somewhat lower dc voltage, which remains the same even if the input dc voltage varies or the output load connected to the dc voltage changes. Regulator IC units contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device, and overload protection all in a single IC.

2.5.1 REQUIREMENT IN THE PROJECT:

7805 is an integrated three-terminal positive fixed linear voltage regulator. It supports an input voltage of 7 volts to 35 volts and output voltage of 5 volts. It typically has a current rating of 1 amp although both higher and lower current models are available. Its output voltage is fixed at 5.0V. The 7805 also have a built-in current limiter as a safety feature. The 7805 will automatically reduce output current if it gets too hot. It belongs to a family of three-terminal positive fixed regulators with similar specifications and differing fixed voltages from 8 to 15 volts.

2.5.2 IC 7805The 78XX series is for positive voltage regulators. 5 at the end indicates the output dc voltage. This voltage regulator requires a minimum of 6.3 V. Thus if a signal having variations above 6.3 V is applied at the input of 7805 will produce 5 V fixed dc at the output. FIG 2.13 7805 PIN DIAGRAM 31

3 2 1

The input voltage is applied at pin 1. Pin 2 is grounded. The output is taken from Pin 3. For obtaining a stable dc of 5 V it is necessary to have a minimum of 6.3 V at the output because IC itself also has a voltage drop. This IC generates a lot of heat during its operation. Therefore a heat sink is also there to prevent this IC from damage.

2.6 POWER SUPPLY :

The term power supply is more commonly abbreviated to PSU, this will be used from hereon in. Telecommunications equipment is designed to operate on voltages lower than the domestic Mains voltage. In order to reduce this voltage a PSU is used. To provide a useable low voltage the PSU needs to do a number of things:

Reduce the Mains AC (Alternating current) voltage to a lower level. Convert this lower voltage from AC to DC (Direct current) Regulate the DC output to compensate for varying load (current demand) Provide protection against excessive input/output voltages.

Reduction of AC Mains This is achieved by using a device known as a Transformer an electromagnetic device consisting of an ferrous iron core which has a large number of turns of wire wound around it, known as the Primary Winding The ends of these turns of wire being connected to the input voltage (in this case Mains AC). 32

A second number of turns of wire are wound around the Primary Winding, this set being known as the Secondary Winding. The difference between the number of turns provides us with a way of reducing (in our case) a high AC voltage to a lower one. Conversion of AC to DC To convert our now low AC voltage to DC we use a Rectifier Diode connected to the Secondary Winding. This is a silicon diode, which has operation analogous to a bicycle tyre valve (as the valve only allows air to flow into the tyre, the diode only allows current to flow in one direction) As our low AC voltage will be working at a frequency of 50Hz (Mains AC frequency) it is desirable to reduce the inherent hum on this to a lower level. This is achieved by a technique known as Smoothing (Ironing out the bumps in the AC). A simple way to reduce the hum is to use Full Wave Rectification. Today this is usually done by four diodes in a bridge configuration known as a Bridge Rectifier. (This can be four individual diodes or a dedicated self contained package) Regulation of Output Voltage The Electrolytic Capacitor is a device capable of storing energy the amount of energy and the time it remains stored depending on the value. In a simple PSU the easiest way to provide regulation to compensate for varying load conditions is to use a pair of relatively high value Electrolytic Capacitors. Their values in this case being in the region of 470uF to 2000uF depending on the application and the amount of current required from the output of the unit. One of these capacitors is connected across the DC output of the rectifier diode(s) or bridge, this capacitor also providing an extra degree of smoothing the output waveform. The second capacitor is connected via a low value, medium to high wattage resistor, which assists in limiting the current demand. 33

Protection against excessive voltages In a simple PSU the easiest way to do this is by providing fuses at the input to the transformer, generally in the live side of the mains supply, also at the DC outputs. In the event of an excessive input voltage, or excessive current being drawn from the output, one of these fuses should normally blow protecting the PSU and the equipment connected to it. The transformer may also be fitted with an internal or external thermal fuse, which will open if the transformer becomes hot due to the aforementioned conditions.

2.6.1 REQUIREMENT IN THE PROJECT:

Power supply is used to drive the circuit. Inappropriate voltage will damage the entire circuitry therefore it constitutes a very important part of the circuit. Every electronic circuit requires power for its operation. Every function simple or complex is controlled by the power supply. Even a little variation in voltage can damage all the circuitry. So power supply is of prime importance in all the circuits. The power supply which we get is a.c. operating at 220Volts.But as our electronic circuits work only on d.c. therefore; we cannot employ direct usage of supply which we get. FIG 2.14 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

34

Power supply is used to drive the circuit. Inappropriate voltage will damage the entire circuitry therefore it constitutes a very important part of the circuit. Every electronic circuit requires power for its operation. Every function simple or complex is controlled by the power supply. Even a little variation in voltage can damage all the circuitry. So power supply is of prime importance in all the circuits. The power supply which we get is a.c. operating at 220Volts.But as our electronic circuits work only on d.c. therefore; we cannot employ direct usage of supply which we get : . In order to overcome this, we require various process namely transformation, rectification, smoothing or filtering and regulation. All these process using bridge rectifier are illustrated below

2.6.2 TRANSFORMATION:As already discussed the supply which we get is 220V A.C. supply. In order to decrease the magnitude of the voltage we make use of step down transformer. This transformer has more windings in the primary coil than in the secondary coil. So the voltage output at the secondary is an A.C. supply with magnitude less than 220V.

2.6.3 RECTIFICATION:As all the electronic circuits work on DC therefore this low voltage A.C. cannot be directly fed to our circuit. Thus a process of rectification is required. In this process, A.C. voltage is converted into D.C. voltage using two semiconductor rectifying diodes . Now as the two diodes D1 and D2 are connected in the opposite manner. Therefore one of the diode gets forward biased during the positive half of the a.c input and other gets forward biased during the negative half of the a.c. input. Thus during the positive half cycle rectification takes place through diode D1 (diode D2 being reverse biased, cannot rectify) and during the negative half cycle, the rectification takes place through the diode D2(diode D1 being reverse biased, cannot rectify). But as at least one of the diode always

35

remain in the conducting mode therefore both the halves of the a.c. input gets rectified and hence the name full wave rectifier.

2.6.4 SMOOTHING/FILTRATION:The output of the rectification process is a varying D.C. As the D.C. waveform cannot be varying so it means that rectification is not 100% efficient due to which there is still some component of the input A.C. present in the D.C. voltage which is responsible for the variation. So in order to remove this A.C. component we require filtration or smoothing of the signal. This can be done using an electrolytic capacitor of 2200uf. As the capacitor offers infinite impedance to the D.C. signal and Zero impedance to the A.C. signal therefore, it allows the A.C. component to pass through and blocks the D.C. component. This means it will filter out the D.C. component from the input signal. Thus the output of the process will be a pure D.C. supply as shown below: Now there is still some variation indicating that output D.C. voltage is not having constant magnitude. This is due to the capacitor used for filtration. Its time of charging and discharging are not equal due to which the filtration is not up to the mark. For making the output voltage assume a constant value we need a voltage regulator.

2.6.5 REGULATION:Voltage regulator is used for this purpose mainly from the series of 78- - of the transistor. For getting the constant output of 5 volts we make use of 7805 voltage regulator. This process takes place as shown below: This completes all the processes. Now we have a constant D.C. supply with us which can be fed to any electronic circuit without any problem

2.7 TRANSFORMER:
A "transformer" changes one voltage to another. This attribute is useful in many ways.

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A transformer doesn't change power levels. If you put 100 Watts into a transformer, 100 Watts come out the other end. [Actually, there are minor losses in the transformer because nothing in the real world is 100% perfect. But transformers come pretty darn close; perhaps 95% efficient.] A transformer is made from two coils of wire close to each other (sometimes wrapped around an iron or ferrite "core"). Power is fed into one coil (the "primary"), which creates a magnetic field. The magnetic field causes current to flow in the other coil (the "secondary"). Note that this doesn't work for direct current (DC): the incoming voltage needs to change over time - alternating current (AC) or pulsed DC. FIG 2.15 IRON CORE

The number of times the wires are wrapped around the core ("turns") is very important and determines how the transformer changes the voltage.

If the primary has fewer turns than the secondary, you have a step-up transformer that increases the voltage. If the primary has more turns than the secondary, you have a step-down transformer that reduces the voltage.

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If the primary has the same number of turns as the secondary, the outgoing voltage will be the same as what comes in. This is the case for an isolation transformer.

In certain exceptional cases, one large coil of wire can serve as both primary and secondary. This is the case with variable auto-transformers and xenon strobe trigger transformers.

2.7.1 STEP-UP TRANSFORMERS:FIG 2.16 STEP UP TRANSFORMER

A "step-up transformer" allows a device that requires a high voltage power supply to operate from a lower voltage source. The transformer takes in the low voltage at a high current and puts out the high voltage at a low current. Examples:

You are a Swiss visiting the U.S.A., and want to operate your 220VAC shaver off of the available 110 VAC. The CRT display tube of your computer monitor requires thousands of volts, but must run off of 220 VAC from the wall.

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2.7.2 STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMERS:-

FIG 2.17 STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

A "step-down transformer" allows a device that requires a low voltage power supply to operate from a higher voltage. The transformer takes in the high voltage at a low current and puts out a low voltage at a high current. Examples:

Your Mailbu-brand landscape lights run on 12VAC, but you plug them into the 220 VAC line. Your doorbell doesn't need batteries. It runs on 220 VAC, converted to 12VAC.

2.7.3 VARIABLE AUTO-TRANSFORMERS:

FIG 2.18 VARIABLE AUTO TRANSFORMERS

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A "variable auto-transformer" (variac) can act like a step-up transformer or step-down transformer. It has a big knob on top that allows you to dial in whatever output voltage you want.

2.7.4 SIGNAL TRANSFORMERS:

"Signal transformers" also take one thing in and transform it to another thing out. But in this case, the power levels are low, and the transformed thing carries some type of information signal. In most cases, these transformers are thought of as impedance matching.

2.8 STEPPER MOTOR:

A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide a full rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's position can be controlled precisely without any feedback mechanism (see Open-loop controller), as long as the motor is carefully sized to the application. Stepper motors are similar to switched reluctance motors (which are very large stepping motors with a reduced pole count, and generally are closed-loop commutated.) FIG 2.19 STEPPER MOTOR

40

Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit, such as a microcontroller. To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are thus aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a "step," with an integer number of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle.

2.9 EHT:
The transformer used in our project is known as Extra High Tension or Flyback Transformer.It is special transformer which was primarily designed to generate high current sawtooth signals at a relatively high frequency.It was invented as a means to control the horizontal movement of the electron beam in a cathode ray tube(CRT).Unlike conventional transformers a flyback transformer is not fed with a signal of the same waveshape as the intended output current.A convenient side effect of such a transformer is the the considerable energy that is available in its magnetic circuit.This can be

41

exploited using extra windings that can be used to provide power to operate other parts of the equipment. Unlike mains transformer,a flyback transformer is designed not just to transfer energy,but also to store it for a significant fraction of the switching period.This is achieved by winding the coils on a ferrite core with an air gap.The air gap increases the reluctance of the magnetic circuit and therefore its ability to store energy. The primary winding of the transformer is driven by a switch from a DC supply.When the switch is switched on,the primary inductance causes the current to build up in a ramp.When the switch is switched off,the current is forced to return quickly to zero.

2.10 H-BRIDGE:
A very popular circuit for driving DC motors (ordinary or gearhead) is called an Hbridge. It's called that because it looks like the capital letter 'H' on classic schematics. The great ability of an H-bridge circuit is that the motor can be driven forward or backward at any speed, optionally using a completely independent power source.

2.10.1 REQUIREMENT IN THE PROJECT:

H-Bridge acts as an interface between microcontroller and motor. It is formed using relays. relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical Circuit.

2.10.2 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING :

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An H-bridge design can be really simple for added protection and isolation. An H-bridge can be implemented with various kinds of components (common bipolar transistors, FET transistors, MOSFET transistors, power MOSFETs, or even chips). Physical motion of some form helps differentiate a robot from a computer. It would be nice if a motor could be attached directly to a chip that controls the movement. But, most chips can't pass enough current or voltage to spin a motor. Also, motors tend to be electrically noisy (spikes) and can slam power back into the control lines when the motor direction or the speed of the motor changes.

Specialized circuits (motor drivers) have been developed to supply motors with power and to isolate the other ICs from electrical problems. These circuits can be designed such that they can be completely separate boards, reusable from project to project. H-bridge which is sometimes called a "full bridge" is so named because it has four switching elements at the "corners" of the H and the motor forms the cross bar. The basic bridge is shown in the figure below: FIG 2.20 H-BRIDGE

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Of course the letter H doesn't have the top and bottom joined together, but hopefully the picture is clear.The key fact to note is that there are, in theory, four switching elements within the bridge. These four elements are often called, high side left, high side right, low side right, and low side left (when traversing in clockwise order). The switches are turned on in pairs, either high left and lower right, or lower left and high right, but never both switches on the same "side" of the bridge. If both switches on one side of a bridge are turned on, it creates a short circuit between the battery plus and battery minus terminals. This phenomenon is called shoot through in the Switch-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) literature. If the bridge is sufficiently powerful it will absorb that load and the batteries used will simply drain quickly. Usually however the switches melt. To power the motor, we turn on two switches that are diagonally opposed. In the picture shown below, FIG 2.21 WORKING OF H-BRIDGE

44

imagine that the high side left and low side right switches are turned on. The current flow is shown in green.The current flows and the motor begins to turn in a "positive" direction. If now high side right and low side left switched are turned on, current flows in the other direction through the motor and the motor turns in the opposite direction. If each switch can be controlled independently then such a bridge is called a "four quadrant device" (4QD). We have now built a small truth table that tells the state of each switch, which further tells what the bridge will do. As each switch has one of two states, and there are four switches, there are 16 possible states. However, since any state that turns both switches on one side on is "bad". There are in fact only four useful states (the four quadrants) where the transistors are turned on.

2.11 PRESET AND SWITCHES: Electric switches:

An electric switch is defined as the device for making, breaking or changing connection sequence in an electric circuit, switch thus essentially consists of a fixed part and a moving contact. The two types of switches used in our circuit are:

Toggle Switch: This switch is mainly used for ON\OFF control of a.c.

mains or d.c. power supplies. These switches employ sliding contact system. The switch enclosure is accomplished by a lever. Commercially available toggle switches can be locking or non- locking type. Two and three position switches are available.

FIG 2.21 TOGGLE SWITCH

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Tactile Switch: tactile switch uses a clicking sound for distinctive feel to

make it easy to tell whether the switch is in on or off position. This is also known as a push to on switch. These switches have tendency to produce bounce when contact opens or closes. Bouncing duration increases with increase in operation time. FIG 2.22 TACTILE SWITCH

Preset:Preset is also a variable

resistance, just like the potentiometer, but different in construction and application. Preset is a service control, in contrast to potentiometer, which is a user control. Preset, therefore, is mounted directly on PCB. FIG 2.23 PRESET

2.11.1 REQUIREMENT IN THE PROJECT:

They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. For example to set the frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust presets.

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2.11.2 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:

In construction, preset has a carbon resistance track . The sliding contact is without the long spindle and the knob mounting facility. The sliding contact has just a provision of thin slot in middle. The sharp edge of screw driver is put in this slot in order to rotate the sliding contact over the resistance track. Preset has two end terminals A and B between which a resistance track is there. A sliding contact moves over this resistance track. This sliding contact is connected to terminal C. The sliding contact can be moved over the resistance track by putting the screw driver in the slot provided for this purpose. When the screw driver is rotated, the sliding contact moves over the resistance track. The rating of a preset is written on it by manufacturer. The rating is the maximum value of the resistance up to which the resistance can be varied. Thus, this rating is the resistance between end terminals.

2.12 DIODE:
A diode is a component that restricts the direction of flow of charge carriers. Essentially, it allows an electric current to flow in one direction, but blocks it in the opposite direction. Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. Circuits that require current flow in only one direction will typically include one or more diodes in the circuit design FIG 2.24 DIODE

47

Today the most common diodes are made from semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium. Most modern diodes are based on semiconductor p-n junctions. In a p-n diode, conventional current flows from the p-type side (the anode) to the n-type side (the cathode), but not in the opposite direction. Another type of semiconductor diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p-n junction.

FIG 2.25 DIODE SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

A semiconductor diode's current-voltage, or I-V, characteristic curve is shown below.

FIG 2.26 VI CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE

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When a p-n junction is first created, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the Ndoped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron is present) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, the hole vanishes and the electron is no longer mobile. Thus, two charge carriers have vanished. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator. However, the depletion width cannot grow without limit. For each electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a 'built-in' potential across the depletion zone.

49

If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator preventing a significant electric current. This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be 'turned on' as it has a forward bias.

2.12.1 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE:

Avalanche diodes: Diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes, and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes, but break down by a different mechanism, the avalanche effect. Tunnel diodes: These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling, thus allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. These diodes are also the type most resistant to nuclear radiation. FIG 2.27 SYMBOL OF TUNNEL DIODE

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Gunn diodes: These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built Light-emitting diodes (LEDs): In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. Laser diodes: When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical communication. Photodiodes: All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an undesired effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light blocking material. Photodiodes are intended to sense light(photo detector), so they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light). . FIG 2.28 SYMBOL OF PHOTODIODE

Varactor diodes: These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These are important in PLL (phaselocked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as

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those in television receivers, to lock quickly, replacing older designs that took a long time to warm up and lock. FIG 2.29 SYMBOL OF VARACTOR DIODE

Zener diodes: Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near zero.

FIG 2.30 SYMBOL OF ZENER DIODE

2.13 CAPACITOR :
Capacitor is another passive component used in electronic circuits. A capacitor construction consists of two metallic plates or films separated by a dielectric. The dielectric used can be paper, polyester, mica, ceramic or electrolyte.

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It is the dielectric used in the capacitors on basis of which the capacitors are categorized. Therefore, capacitor can be of following types: Paper Capacitor Polyester Capacitor Mica Capacitor Ceramic Capacitor Electrolytic Capacitor The capacity ranges of these capacitors vary from type to type. Ceramic capacitors have usually very low capacitance with few pico farad rating. The electrolytic capacitors are high capacity ones, with capacity up to few thousand micro farads. The capacitors are also rated for maximum value of voltage which they can withstand. This maximum operating voltage is decided on basis of the breakdown voltage of the dielectric used between the plates. Breakdown voltage of a capacitor is the voltage at which the dielectric used ceases to be a dielectric, and starts conducting. This gives rise to short circuiting of the plates, and hence, the capacitor. The two types of capacitors used in our circuit are: Electrolytic Capacitor: FIG 2.31 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS

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 Disc Capacitor: FIG 2.32 DISC CAPACITORS

2.14 RESISTORS:

A resistor is a passive component. It introduces resistance i.e. opposition to the flow of current in a circuit. Resistors are used in electronic circuits for setting biases, voltage division, controlling gain, fixing time constants, matching and loading circuits, heat generation and related applications. Resistance is basic property of the conducting material as given

Where R is resistance L is length of conductor A is area of cross-section of the conductor is specific resistivity of the material

Thus, resistance depends upon physical dimensions of the resistor and resistivity of the conducting material used. Many applications of the resistors require fixed resistance, while sometimes, variable resistance is required which can be varied according to need. Depending on these, two types of resistors are available.

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 Fixed resistors Variable resistors Fixed resistors are those, for which the value of resistance is fixed, i.e., it can not be varied except the change creeping in due to age or environmental factors. Carbon composition resistors and wire- wound resistors are examples of fixed resistors. Variable resistors, on the other hand are those resistors, value of which can be varied by physically moving some control or supplying external energy. Presets and potentiometers are the examples of physically variable resistors. The color coding diagram of resistor is as follows:

FIG 2.33 COLOUR CODING SCHEME OF RESISTORS

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2.15 PULSE GENERATOR:

The 555 timer is one of the most remarkable integrated circuits ever developed. It comes in a single or dual package and even low power cmos versions exist - ICM7555. Common part numbers are LM555, NE555, LM556, NE556. The 555 timer consists of two voltage comparators, a bi-stable flip flop, a discharge transistor, and a resistor divider network.

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FIG 2.34 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF PULSE GENERATOR

2.16 OPTOCOUPLERS:
The Optocoupler is used in electronics, an opto-isolator (or optical isolator, optical coupling device, Optocoupler, photo coupler, or photoMOS) is a device that uses a short optical transmission path to transfer an electronic signal between elements of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver, while keeping them electrically isolatedsince the electrical signal is converted to a light beam, transferred, then converted back to an electrical signal, there is no need for electrical connection between the source and destination circuits.

2.16.1 APPLICATIONS:
Power supply regulators Digital logic inputs Microprocessor inputs

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2.17 TRANSISTOR:
In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals. A transistor is made of a solid piece of a semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much larger than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is used in radio, telephone, computer and other electronic systems. Some transistors are packaged individually but most are found in integrated circuits.

FIG 2.35 ASSORTED DISCRETE TRANSISTORS

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2.17.1 TYPES:
Transistors are categorized by: 1. Semiconductor material : germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide, silicon carbide, etc. 2. Structure: BJT, JFET, IGFET (MOSFET), IGBT, "other types" 3. Polarity: NPN, PNP (BJTs); N-channel, P-channel (FETs) 4. Maximum power rating: low, medium, high 5.Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, radio frequency (RF), microwave (The maximum effective frequency of a transistor is denoted by the term fT, an abbreviation for "frequency of transition". The frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields unity gain).

FIG 2.36 VARIOUS TYPES OF TRANSISTORS

PNP

P-channel

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NPN

N-channel

BJT symbol

JFET symbol

6. Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair 7. Physical packaging: through hole metal, through hole plastic, surface mount, ball grid array, power modules 8. Amplification factor hfe (transistor beta)

2.18 PCB MANUFACTURING :

Printed circuit board popularly known as PCB provides both physical, structure for mounting and holding electronic component as well as the electrical interconnection between components. A PCB consist of non non-conducting substrate upon which a conductive pattern or circuit is formed. Copper is the most prevalent conductor. Although nickel, silver UN un-lead and gold may also be used as etch resists or top level metal. When the electronic component is an electronic assembly, also called a printed circuit assembly (PCA). This assembly is the basic building block for all large electronic system. From toys to toaster to telecommunications. The various processes involved in fabrication of the plate

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2.18.1 CLEANING OF PLATE:

To start with, general purpose copper clad is selected of desired size according to the circuit layout. The plate is then washed with suitable solvent so as to remove any oxide grease or dirt.

2.18.2 PCB LAYOUT:

A circuit is made considering following factor in mind:1. Position of component (properly spaced) 2. Inductive loop should be avoided. 3. The grounding system should be separated into grounds conductors. 4. Undesirable coupling should be avoided. 5. Power supply tracks should be of adequate width to withstand a possible shot circuit system. 6. Use of jumper should be minimum or avoided as far as possible. 7. It should be easy to connect to board to test equipment.

Considering these factors a layout is made. A mirror image of pattern is prepared and carbon copied onto the copper clad laminate with the help of sharp pencil or ball pointed pen and position of holes must be marked carefully. Then with fine brush and enamel mark trace as copied earlier. Then board is dried for at least four to six hours before developing.

2.18.3 DEVELOPING OF PCB (ETCHING):

In this all excessive copper is removed from the copper clad laminate, and only pattern is left behind developing is done in a solution of heated tap water and ferric chloride. To 61

100ml tap water around 30 to 40 gms of ferric chloride is added. A few drops of HCL may be added to speed up the process. The board with the copper side facing upward should be placed in a flat-bottomed plastic tray and the aqueous solution of ferric chloride poured. The etching process would take 40 to 60 minutes to complete depending upon the size of the PCB. Then board is washed under the running water and dried. The printed pattern should be clearly visible otherwise allow it to stand in the solution for some more time. The paint should be removed with the help of alcohol or period.

2.18.4 DRILLING:
For drilling the plate one can use high tensile steel bit of diameter 1 mm and following points should be kept in mind:FOR ICS;1. Always use IC bases, as direct soldering of IC may damage them. 2. The drilling of holes is in such manner so as to correspond to IC bases exact that no faces any problem in measuring the pins of the bases.

2.18.5 FOR OTHER COMPONENTS:1. The holes are exactly placed so that component fix exactly in the holes without any bending or stretching of leads of component. 2. For drilling of holes for fixing PCB in chassis always ensure that no copper line passes near the holes.

2.18.6 MOUNTING OF COMPONENTS:

All the components are according to the component assembly diagram are mounted in the appropriate holes.

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2.19 SOLDERING:
Soldering is a process of joining two or more metals at a temperature below their melting point using filter metal (solder) having melting point below 450 degree Celsius. Heat is applied to the metal parts, and the alloy metal is pressed against the joint, melts, and is drawn into the joint by capillary action and around the materials to be joined by wetting action. After the metal cools, the resulting joints are not as strong as the base metal, but have an adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and water tightness for many uses. Soldering is an ancient technique tat has been used practically as long as humans have been making articles out of metal. Soldering can be done in number of ways, including passing parts over a bulk container of melted solder (wave soldering), using an infrared lamp, or by using a point source such as an electric soldering iron, a brazing torch, or a hot-air soldering tool. Flux is usually used to assist in the joining process. Flux can be manufactured as part of solder in single or multi-core solder in which case it is contained inside a hollow tube or multiple tubes that are contained inside the strand of solder. Flux can also be applied separately from the solder, often in the form of paste. In some fluxes soldering, a forming gas tat is a reducing atmosphere rich in hydrogen can also serve much the same purpose as traditional flux, and provide the benefits of traditional flux in re-flow ovens through which electronic parts placed on a circuit board on a pad of solder cream are transported for a specific period of time. One application of soldering is making connections between electronic parts and printed circuit boards. Another is in plumbing. Joints in sheet metal objects such as cans for food, roof flashing, and drain gutters were also traditionally soldered. Jewelry and small mechanical parts are often assembled by soldering. Soldering can also be used to repair technique to patch a leak in a container or looking vessels. Soldering is distinct from welding in that the base materials to be joined are not melted, though the base metal is dissolved somewhat into the liquid solder this dissolution process results in the soldered joints mechanical and electrical strengths. Brazing is similar to soldering but uses higher melting temperature alloys, based on copper, as the filter metal. Hard soldering or silver soldering (performed with high temperature solder containing up to 40% silver) is also a form of brazing, and involves solders with melting points above 450 C.

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2.19.1 DESOLDERING & RESOLDERING:

Due to the dissolution of the base metals into the solder, solder should never be reused. Once the solders capacity to dissolve base metal has been achieved, the solder will not properly bond with the base metal and a cold solder joint with a hard and brittle crystalline appearance will usually be the t\result. It is in good practice to remove solder from a joint prior to resoldering desoldering wicks or vacuum desoldering equipment can be used. Desoldeing wicks contain plenty of flux that will lift the contamination from the copper trace and any device leads that are present. This will leave a bright, shiny, clean joint to be resoldered. The lower melting point of solder means it can be melted away from the base metal, leaving it mostly intact though the outer layer will be tinned with solder. Flux will remain which can easily be removed by abrasive or chemical processes. This tinned layer will allow solder to flow into a new joint, as well as making the solder flow very quickly and easily.

2.19.2 SOLDERING TOOLS:

Hand-soldering tools include the electric soldering iron, which has a variety of tips available ranging from blunt to very fine to chisel heads for hot-cutting plastics, and the soldering gun, which typically provides more power, giving faster heat-up and allowing larger parts to be soldered. Hot-air guns and pencils allow rework of component packages which cannot easily be performed with irons and guns.

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FIG 2.37 SOLDERING IRON

Soldering torches are a type of soldering device that uses a flame rather than a soldering iron tip to heat solder. Soldering torches are often powered by butane [10] and are available in sizes ranging from very small butane/oxygen units suitable for very fine but hightemperature jewelry work, to full-size oxy-fuel torches suitable for much larger work such as copper piping. Common multipurpose propane torches, the same kind used for heat-stripping paint and thawing pipes, can be used for soldering pipes and other fairly large objects (but not electronics,) either with or without a soldering tip attachment; pipes are generally soldered with a torch by directly applying the open flame.

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A soldering copper is a tool with a large copper head and a long handle which is heated in a blacksmith's forge fire and used to apply heat to sheet metal for soldering. Typical soldering coppers have heads weighing between one and four pounds. The head provides a thermal mass, which can store enough heat for soldering large areas between re-heating the copper in the fire. FIG 2.38 SOLDERING TOOLS

The larger the head, the longer the working time it affords. Historically, soldering coppers were a standard tool used in auto bodywork, although body solder has been mostly superseded by spot welding for mechanical connection and non-metallic fillers for contouring. Toaster ovens and hand held infrared lights have been used to reproduce production soldering processes on a much smaller scale.

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Wire brush, wire wool and emery cloth are commonly used to prepare plumbing joints for connection. Electronic joints rarely require mechanical cleaning, though copper traces with a dark layer of oxide passivation (due to aging), as on a new prototyping board that has been on the shelf for about a year or more, may need to be polished to a shine with steel wool before being soldered.For PCB assembly and rework, alcohol and acetone (one or the other) are commonly used with cotton swabs or bristle brushes to remove flux residue. A heavy rag is usually used to remove flux from a plumbing joint before it cools and hardens. A fiberglass brush can also be used. Some fluxes for electronics are designed to be stable and inactive when cool and do not need to be cleaned off, though they still can be if desired, while other fluxes are acidic and must be removed after soldering to prevent corrosion of the circuits. A heat sink, such as a crocodile clip, can be used to prevent damaging heat-sensitive components while soldering. The heat sink limits the temperature of the component body by absorbing and dissipating heat (reducing the thermal resistance between the component and the air), while the thermal resistance of the leads maintains the temperature difference between the part of the leads being soldered and the component body so that the leads become hot enough to melt the solder while the component body remains cooler.

2.19.3 SOLDERING DEFECTS:

Soldering defects are solder joints tats are not soldered correctly. These defects may arise when solder temperature is too low. When the base metals are too cold, the solder will not flow and will ball up, without creating the metallurgical bond. An incorrect solder type (for example, electronics solder for mechanical joints or vice versa) will lead to a weak point. An incorrect or missing flux can corrode the metals in the joint. Without flux the joint may not be clean. A dirty or contaminated joints leads to a weak bond. A lack of solder on a joint will make the joint fail. An excess of solder can create a solder bridge which is a short circuit. Movement of metals being soldered before the solder has cooled will make the solder appear grainy and may cause a weakened joint.

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Soldering defects in electronics can lead to short circuit, high resistance in joints, intermittent connections, components overheating and damage circuit boards. Flux left around integrated circuits leads will lead to inter-lead leakage. It is a big issue on surface mount components and causes improper device operation as moisture absorption rises. In mechanical joints, defects lead to joint failure and corrosion.

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CHAPTER-3 TESTING OF COMPONENTS 3.1 TESTING OF RESISTORS:

Resistors can be easily tested using multimeter in resistance range. The idea is to measure the resistance of the resistor and compare this measured value with the color coded value. If the measured value matches the co lor coded value, resistor is OK, and otherwise it is not. The steps involved in measurement of the resistance are as follows. Switch ON the multimeter and point selector switch in section. Connect the leads to V/ and COM sockets. Select the lowest range in section with the selector switch. Connect the tips of the leads to both the leads of the resistor. If the resistance of the resistor is in the selected range, then the resistance value

will be displayed, otherwise over range will be displayed. If over range is displayed, switch the selector switch to next higher value and

repeat till value is displayed. range. The range can also be directly selected depending on the co lour code value. For an open resistor, over range will be displayed in even the highest selected

3.2 TESTING OF CAPACITORS:

There are two types of capacitors used: Electrolytic capacitor Ceramic capacitor

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A capacitor can be tested using a multimeter by measuring its resistance and also, by measuring their voltages after charging. Following are the steps for testing a capacitor. Set the multimeter to highest resistance range using the selector switch. Connect the probe tips to capacitor leads. Any lead can be connected to any lead

except for the electrolytic capacitor. For electrolytic capacitor, care should be taken that black lead is connected to the lead marked (-) on the capacitor, and red to other. The multimeter should show increasing resistance, which increases ultimately to

attain over range for a good capacitor. On analog multimeter, this phenomenon can be seen as first the pointer deflecting to right and then returning slowly increase to infinite resistance for a good capacitor. If the multimeter shows zero or low resistance which is not increasing, then the

capacitor is fully short or partially short, respectively. If the multimeter shows open circuit, it means capacitor is open. If resistance of the capacitor increases, but do not attain over-range or infinite

resistance, that means capacitor is leaky.

Capacitor can also be tested by measuring the charged voltage across the capacitor. For this method, following steps are followed. Connect the capacitor leads across a DC voltage source of voltage less than the

maximum voltage ratings of the capacitor. Allow the capacitor to remain in contact for a few seconds, ensuring that the

capacitor charges to the full DC voltage of the source. Now, disconnect the DC voltage source, and measure the voltage across the

capacitor leads with the help of multimeter on V-setting. For a good capacitor, this voltage should be equal to the DC source voltage across which the capacitor was connected. 70

If the multimeter shows zero voltage, that means capacitor is either short or

open. That is why the capacitor had been unable to charge. If the multimeter measures voltage less than the DC source voltage across which

the capacitor was connected, then it means that the capacitor is leaky. That is why the charge has leaked, and consequently the voltage has dropped. The charge Q and voltage V of a capacitor are related as

Q =CV i.e. or QV VQ

Where C = capacity of capacitor. The above relation shows that the voltage across a capacitor increases with charge, and vice versa. Therefore, measuring voltage across a charged capacitor can be the method to test the capacity or charge retaining capability of the capacitor. Therefore, lesser voltage than applied initially means that charge has leaked.

3.3 TESTING OF PRESETS:

The testing of preset is exactly like that of potentiometer, because it is also a variable resistor just like potentiometer. The steps for testing preset are: Select resistance section of multimeter and measure resistance between end

terminals A and B. It should be equal to rated value. Measure the resistance between terminals A and C. When the sliding contact is

turned towards A, the resistance reading on multimeter should go on decreasing up to 0. And when sliding contact is turned away from terminal A, the resistance reading should go on increasing up to maximum of rated value.

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 versa.

Repeat the same as above between terminals B and C. The resistance resistance

should decrease when sliding contact is turned towards terminal terminal B. And vice

3.4 TESTING OF DIODES:

Following are the steps for testing of a p-n junction diode: inputs. Testing the individual input voltages at both these pins. Testing the differential voltage between inverting and non inverting

The differential voltage measured between the two input pins should not be more than few mill volts. The individual voltages can be tested between the input pins and the ground. These should be as per the circuit requirements or equal to applied voltages at these pins. If these voltages are not as expected then, these input pins should be disconnected from the circuit, and the circuit voltages should be checked again. If the circuit voltages are OK, then the IC input pins are short. And if the circuit input voltages are not OK, and then check the previous circuit for fault. When the input voltages have been checked to satisfaction, then the output of the

OP AMP should be tested. If the output voltage is zero or less than as expected, then the output should be opened and the output of OP AMP should be checked again. If the output is not as per requirement, then the op amp is faulty. But if the output voltage is OK now, then it means that the next circuit following the OP AMP is faulty. The IC base in which the OP AMP is mounted should also be tested for the

continuity with the IC pins i.e., the contacts between the IC pins and the solder points of the IC base should be proper.

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3.5 TESTING OF IR LED:

The testing procedure for an LED is as follows:

Select a lowest resistance range of the multimeter. Connect red lead of multimeter to anode of LED (longer lead) and black lead to

the cathode (shorter lead) so as to forward bias the LED. The multimeter should read low resistance. This resistance will be higher than that

of a regular diode. If the multimeter is showing open, then switch to next higher range. This is because the voltage in the multimeter leads may not be enough to forward bias the LED. At higher range, this voltage increases, and diode gets forward biased. When this happens, the diode also starts glowing. Now reverse bias the diode by connecting red lead to cathode and black lead

anode. The multimeter should show open at all ranges, or nearly infinite resistance. If the multimeter has diode testing facility, then, during forward biasing, a good

LED should show a forward voltage drop ranging from 1.5 volt to 3 volts. And during reverse biasing, it should show open.

3.6 TESTING OF SWITCHES:

To test the microswitch, it is pressed. If its two pins show contunity with the multimeter, then it is OK.

3.7 TESTING OF PHOTOSENSOR :

The photo sensor is tested as:

The sensor is placed in front of a light source. Then multimeter leads are touched with its two leads. 73

If it shows continuity, then OK.

3.8 TESTING OF ICS :

All ICs have no testing. But they can still be tested for VCC and GND pins.

Multimeter leads are attached to VCC and GND pins of the controller. If resistance between them is very less, then it is short. The multimeter will show continuity between these two pins.

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CHAPTER-4 SOFTWARE TOOLS:

4.1 Orcad
For circuit designing .We first make schematic in it.This in turn creates lay out of PCB.

4.2 Keil
For compiling. Microcontroller understands hex files. But as hex files are very complicated therefore we make use of the software keil. Programming in keil makes use of C or Assembly language which are easily programmable. Keil on its own converts these files to hex files.

4.3 Proload
After the formation of hex file we need to insert this hex file into the micro controller so that it executes the program written in the keil. For this purpose we make use of proload.

4.4 PROGRAM CODE:

ORG ooH MOV Po,@ooH CHITRA:JNB P1.o,VED1 SETB Po.o MOV P2,@o1H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o2H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o4H

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CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o8H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o1H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o2H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o4H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o8H CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CLR Po.o MOV P2,@o8H CALL DELAY

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MOV P2,@o4H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o2H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o1H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o8H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o4H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o2H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o1H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@ooH CALL DELAY CHITRA1:JNB P1.1,VED SETB Po.o MOV P2,@o8H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o4H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o2H CALL DELAY

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MOV P2,@o1H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o8H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o4H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o2H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o1H CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CALL DELAY CLR Po.o MOV P2,@o1H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o2H

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CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o4H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o8H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o1H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o2H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o4H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@o8H CALL DELAY MOV P2,@ooH CALL DELAY JMP CHITRA DELAY: MOV Ro,@1oo H2: H1: MOV R1,@1oo DJNZ R1,H1

DJNZ Ro,H2 RET END

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CHAPTER-5 APPLICATIONS

1)Can be used by Army to solve terrorist-hostage situation.

2)Can be used as a security measure for protection of residential areas.

3)Can be employed in Border Areas.

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CHAPTER-6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

6.1 CONCLUSION : We would like to conclude from the results that the project is working in the same manner as was desired and is generating the same output as was thought before the beginning of the project. The main problems that was faced by us were in making the layout, as interfacing of various components.We also encountered some problems in the programming area,as some of our requirements or output didnt match the programming done initially. Further, there is a lot scope in the expansion of our project. 6.2 FUTURE SCOPE: Our project can be expanded in future to meet the large scale needs of our security forces.With the help of suitable transformers and added circuitery we can a voltage of around 15 lakh volts,which is of much more practical importance. We mught also try to integrate this set up with a robotic system so that it becomes more portable and the potential danger which might be encountered while operating the project can be overcome.

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CHAPTER-7 REFERENCES
[1] Kenneth J. Ayala, "The 8051 Microcontroller Architecture Programming and Applications", Penram International Publishing, 2nd Edition.pp. 54-75. [2] Muhammad Ali Mazidi and Janice Gillispie Mazidi, "The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded System", Prenpice/Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., US edition 2000.pp. 37-52. [3] www.wikipedia.com [4] www.webopedia.com [5] www.howstuffworks.com [6] www.AllDatasheetsArchive.com [7] www.tech_faq.com [8] www.williamson_labs.com

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