4.1TheNatureofHeredity Heredityitselfistheprocessoftraitsbeingpassedfromparentstooffspring.Thereare severalimportanttermstounderstandbeforewespeakofasexualandsexual reproduction. Geneticsisthestudyofheredity.Geneticmaterialisatermthatdescribesallthe materialinanorganismthatcontainsthegeneticinformation.Inachromosomethat materialisreferredtoasDNA. AgeneisthesegmentofaDNAmoleculethatcontainscodesforaspecifictrait,whichis afoundatapreciselocationinthechromosome.Thatlocationiscalledthelocus. AsexualReproduction:theformofreproductioninwhichanewindividualisproduced fromasingleparentbycelldivision.Thismeansthatthecelldoesnotrequireapartner toreproduce.Thedaughtercellisanexactgeneticreplicaoftheparentcell. Theadvantagestoasexualreproductioninclude:theparentcelldoesnothavetoseeka mate,itdoesnothavetoformspecializedmatingtechniquesorhavespecial reproductiveorgans.

ns. SexualReproduction:Theproductionofoffspringfromthefusionoftwocells.Thesex cellsusuallycomefromtwodifferentorganisms.Theoffspringproducedfromtwo parentsisnotgeneticallyidenticaltoeither.Theycontainequalamountsofgenetic informationfromeitherparent. Advantagestosexualreproduction:ensuresdiversitywhichcanthenmaketheanimal adapttoachangingenvironment,orimmunetodiseases. Disadvantages:producingmatingcallsorhavingbrightlycolouredfeatherscanattracta matebutalsocanattractpredators.Sexisbiologicallycostlyandpotentiallyrisky. TheCellCycle Atalltimes,cellsaredoing oneoftwothings: 1.Growing 2.Dividing Thecellcycleisthispatternof growthanddivision. Interphase:GrowthconsistsoftheG1,SandG2phase.TheG1isthepreparationfor copyingDNA(rapidgrowth),Sisthesynthesis,oractualcopying,ofDNA.TheDNAat

GENETICS

thispointisintheformofchromatinandtheG2phaseisthepreparationforcell division. Mitoticphaseisthedivisionofthecell(eitherasexually[mitosis]orsexually[meiosis]). Thegeneticmaterialdivides. Cyokinesis:Divisionofthecytoplasmandorganellesintotwoseparatecells(daughter cells) CellDivision:Terms(Refertopg143) Chromatin:uncondensedformofDNA,longstrands(thisstageofDNAexistsin Interphase) Chromosomes:thecondensedformofDNAformsduringMitosis/Meiosis SisterChromatids:twoidenticalsisterchromatids(duplicatedduringInterphase)are attachedbythecentromeretoformachromosomeduringProphase Centromere:theattachingdevice Centrosome:Thestructurethatwillformspindlefibres Diploid:23Chromosomesdoubled=46.(2n) Haploid:23Chromosomessingle=23(n) Somatic:allcellsthatgrow(excludinggametes) Gametes:cellsusedspecificallyforfusionwithanothergamete(sperm+ovum=zygote) Humanshave23Chromosomes(doubled)=46.Theyhaveasetof23fromthemother, andasetof23fromthefather. 4.2CellDivisioninAsexualCells MitosisandCytokinesisformtheprocessofasexualcelldivision. Thegeneticmaterialinthenucleusofaeukaryoticcellisdividedequallyintotwonew nuclei.TherestofthecelldividesduringCytokinesis. ThepurposeofMitosisistoduplicatethe46singlestrandedchromosomes(into92)and thendividesoeachdaughtercellsisstill2n,or46chromosomes(diploid).Allsomatic cellsundergomitosis. Mitosis=PMAT(Prohpase,Metaphase,Anaphase,Telophase) 1. Prophase:thefirstphaseofmitosis.Thechromosomesreallystarttoform,the nuclearmembranedisappearsandspindlefibresareformedbythecentrioles. 2. Metaphase:Thespindlefibresalignthechromosomesinthemiddle. 3. Anaphase:thecentromeresdivideandthesisterchromatids(referredtoas chromosomesagain)separateandmovetooppositepolesofthecell.Thesame numberofchromosomesshouldbeateachside. 4. Telophase:thechromosomesbegintounwindbackintochromatin(strands). Thespindlefibresdissolveandthenuclearmembranereappears.Theresultis twodaughternuclei.

 Cytokinesis:Thecytoplasmoftheeukaryoticcelldividestoformtwonewcells.Cellthen reentersInterphase,andpreparestogothroughthisallagain!

4.3CellDivisioninSexualCells Theprocessofsexualcelldivisionismeiosis+Cytokinesis. Purposeofsexualreproduction:Theresultingdaughtercellshavehalfthenumberof chromosomesastheparentcells.Parentcellsarediploid(2n)anddaughtercellsare haploid(n).Thesehaploidcellswillundergoasimilarprocesstomitosistoproduce identicaldaughtercells.Thesearecalledgametesorsexcells.Afemalegamete (ovum)willfusewithamalegamete(sperm)toformazygotethathas(2n) Termstoknow: Homologouschromosomes:matchingpairsofchromosomes,similarinsizeandcarrying informationforthesamegenes.However,onechromosomemighthaveadifferent versionofthegene(egblueeyes)whereasitshomologouspairmighthaveanother version(eggreeneyes).Thesearecalledalleles. Autosomes:Chromosomes122inhumans SexChromosome:Chromosome23inHumansisthesexchromosome.Infemalesitis XX,andinmalesitisXY. Meiosis

 Meiosisismadeupoftwophases,eachwith8stages,separatedbyCytokinesis. MeiosisI:ProphaseI,MetaphaseI,AnaphaseI,TelophaseI MeiosisII:ProphaseII,MetaphaseII,AnaphaseII,TelophaseII MeiosisI ProphaseI:Dnacondenseintochromosomesfromchromatin. Homologouschromosomes(correspondingchromosomesfrommomand dad)synapseandcrossover,exchangeDNAfordiversity.Thelinedup chromosomesformatetrad.Thenuclearmembranebreaksdown,meiotic spindleformsandcentrosomesappearatthepolesofthesell.Thechromosomesattach tothespindlefibresatthecentromeres. MetaphaseI:Homologouschromosomes(eg.Ch1frommomandCh1from dad)lineupbesideeachotheralongthemetaphaseplate(centreofthe cell) AnaphaseI:Homologouschromosomesmovetooppositesideofthecell. TelophaseI:Cellbeginstopinchoff(cleavage)andmeioticspindlebreaksdown.The chromosomesdonotextend(differentthanmitosis),andthenuclearmembranedoes notreform. Cytokinesis:Organellesandcytoplasmaredividedamongdaughtercells,andthecell membranepinchesoff.Thesetwonewdaughtercellsarehaploid(n),becausetheyonly haveonesetofchromosomes. MeiosisII MeiosisIIisverysimilartoMitosisinthatittakesthedaughtercellsfromMeiosis1, whicharehaploid,butduplicatesof23chromosomes,anddividethemasexuallysothat eachnewcellhas23singlechromosomes,andishaploid. ProphaseII:Meioticspindlereformsandchromosomesreturntospindle MetaphaseII:Chromosomeslineupbeneathoneanotheralongthemetaphasicplate. AnaphaseII:Sisterchromatidsseparateandmovetopolesofthecell TelophaseII:Cellbeginstopinchoff,meioticspindlefibrebreaksdownand chromosomesextendbackintochromatin.Thenuclearmembranealsoreforms.

 Cytokinesis:Organellesandcytoplasmaredividedamongthedaughtercells.Thecell membranepinchesoff. BacktoInterphase:thecellsrestarttheirnormalactivities. TheDifferenceBetweenMitosis&Meiosis

Section4.4AbnormalMeiosisand/orFertilization Sometimeserrorscanoccurduringthedivisionprocess.Oneoftheseerrorsiscalled nondisjunction.NondisjunctioncanoccurinAnaphaseI,orAnaphaseII. NonDisjunctionoccurswhenhomologouschromosomesfailtomovetooppositepoles ofthecellduringmeiosis.Thisresultsinanabnormalnumberofchromosomesina daughtercell.Lookatfigure1onpage161.

Section5.1MendelianInheritance Termstoknow: Reviewchromosome,locus,andallele Gene:AsegmentofDNAthatprovidestheinstructionsforthebuildingandregulation ofafunctionalmoleculeinthecell. Homozygous/Heterozygous: Recallthatwespokeofhomologouschromosomes(1M1D).Homologous chromosomeshavethesamecharacteristicsandshape.Theyhaveacopyofeverygene inthatchromosome.Inonechromosomethegenemaybethesameordifferenttothe samegeneinanotherchromosome.Theversionofthegenesiscalledtheallele.Ifthe allelesarethesametheindividualissaidtobehomozygous,iftheyaredifferentthey aresaidtobeheterozygous. Genotype&Phenotype: Genotype:Thecombinationofallelesapersonhasatalocus.Forexample:Bb(B= browneyes,b=blueeyes) Phenotype:thephysicalcharacteristicsproducedbythegenotype(egBrowneyes) MendelsCrosses Mendel:amonkwhocrossedpeaplantsbecausetheyhavemanytraitswithtwo specificforms.Mendelcouldseehowtheyappearedordisappearedinprogeny.First, Mendelhadtoproducedpeaplantspurebredforspecifictraitsforconsistency. Mendelcrossedapurebredwithanotherpurebredthathadadifferentcharacteristic. Thesetwoplantswerecalledhisparentalgeneration,orPgeneration.Thehybrid offspringofthePgenerationcrosswerethefilialgeneration,orF1generation.The offspringonlydifferedfromeachotherthroughonecharacteristic,makingthem monohybrid. TheresultsofMendelsfirstcrossrevealedthatoneofthetwotraitscompletely disappeared.WhenMendelallowedtheF1generationofplantstocross,andproduce F2,henoticedthatthedisappearingtraitreappeared.HemeasuredtheratiooftheF2 crosstobe3:1(3beingthetraitthatappearedinF1,1beingthedisappearingtrait). MendelsconclusionledtothefirstlawofMendelianInheritance LawofSegregation:Foreachcharacteristic(suchasflowercolour)anorganismcarries twofactors(genes),onefromeachparent.Parentorganismsonlydonateonecopyof eachgeneintheirgametes.Duringmeiosis,thetwocopiesofeachgeneseparate(or segregate,hencelawofsegregation)

Thequestionis,inheterozygousindividuals(recallaboveapairofhomologous chromosomeswithdifferentalleles)whichalleleisexpressed? Theanswerisbasedondominance&rececessivenessofalleles: DominantAllele:Theallelethat,ifpresent,isalwaysexpressed. RecessiveAllele:Theallelethatisexpressedonlyifitisnotinthepresenceofthe dominantallele.Theindividualmustbehomozygousfortherecessiveallele. Inthegenotype,thedominantalleleisrepresentedbyanuppercaseletter(egbrown eyes=B)andtherecessivealleleisrepresentedbyalowercaseletter(egblueeyes=b) E.g.anindividualcouldbe: 1. Heterozygous(Bb) 2. HomozygousforDominantAllele(BB) 3. HomozygousforRecessiveallele(bb) Inoptions1&2,theindividualwillhavebrowneyes,becausetheDominantAlleleis present.Inoption3theindividualwillhaveblueeyes,becausetherecessivealleleisnot maskedbyanydominantone. ThePunnettSquare ThePunnettSquareisadiagramthatsummarizeseverypossible combinationofeachallelefromeachparent.Itisthetooltodetermine theprobabilityofasingleoffspringhavingaparticulargenotype.For example,inthediagramtotheleft,theratiowouldbe:1GG:2Gg:1gg HereisanexamplePunnettSquareproblem:(Pg.189) Twoheterozygousyellowseedplants(Yy)arecrossed.Determinethegenotypeand phenotyperatiosoftheF2generation. 1. Defineyouralleles.Y=yellowseed,y=greenseed. 2. Determinethegenotypesoftheparents(YyxYy) 3. Determinethepotentialgameteseachplantcouldproduce:Plant1:Y,yPlant2: Y,y Y y 4. ConstructthePunnettSquare 5. Determinetheratioofgenotypesamongtheoffspring: Y YY Yy 1YY:2Yy:1yy y Yy yy 6. Determinetheratioofphenotypesamongtheoffspringof thecross: 3YellowSeed:1Greenseed

5.2:VariationsinHeredity IncompleteDominanceandCodominance Mendelsexperimentshadprovedthattheblendingtheory(notreq.forexam)was wrong.Hehaddiscoveredcompletedominance:oneoftheallelesisexpressed,despite thepresenceoftheotherallele. IncompleteDominance:Neitheralleledominatestheother.Bothhaveaninfluenceon thephenotypeoftheindividual.(Eg.Purebredwhiteflowersmixedwithpurebredred flowersproduct1red,2pinkand1white) Codominance:Bothallelesareexpressedfullytoproduceoffspringwithathird phenotype(Redbullcrossedwithawhitecowproduces1redcalf,2roancalvesand1 whitecalf) 5.3SexLinkageFollowingtheXandYChromosomes(ReadthisChapter) Sometraitsareonlyfoundonthesexchromosomes.Somedisordershaverecessive allelesthatarefoundontheXchromosome.MenhaveanXYchromosomebuttheY cannotmasktheXchromosome,thereforehewillhavethedisorder. 5.7MultiTraitInheritance DihybridCrosses Mendeldecidedtodotestcrossesonplantswithtwotraits.Forexample: Mendelcrossesahomozygousround,yellowplantwithahomozygouswrinkled,green planttoproduce: RY RY ry RrYy RrYy ry RrYy RrYy Aheterozygousindividualfortwocharacteristicswillproducefourpossiblegametes.For example:RrYycanproduce:RY,Ry,rY,ry.Inadihybridheterozygouscross,allfourof thosepotentialgametesmustbecrossed. InMendelsexperimentshediscoveredthataheterozygousxheterozygouscross producedthephenotypicratioof9:3:3:1. Practicemonohybrid,dihybrid,incomplete&codominanceandsexlinkagebyredoing thePunnettSquaremajorassignment.

Linkage&Recombination Linkage:whentwogenesarefondonthesamechromosome Recombination:WhenchromosomescrossoverduringProphase1,thegenesare switchedaroundandthereisareassortmentofthegenesoneachchromosome.The percentrecomb.Isthepercentthatthetwogenescoverswitching (PracticeProblemsonthis) EVOLUTION Section7.1BiologicalChangeOverTime Mutations Theoriginalsourcesofgeneticvariationaremutations,whicharechangesingenetic information.Mutationscreatenewgenesthatprovideacontinualsupplyofnewgenetic information.Wemustalsounderstandthetermfitness.Fitnessistheanimalsability toreproduce. Mutationscanhappenfortworeasons: 1.Theexposuretoexternalstimuli 2.ErrorduringthecopyingofDNA Therearethreetypesofmutations: 1. Neutralmutations:mutationsthatdonotreallyeffecttheorganism 2. Harmfulmutations:mutationsthatdecreasetheindividualsfitness 3. Beneficialmutations:mutationsthatincreasetheindividualsfitness.Beneficial mutationsarefavouredbynaturalselectionandaccumulateovertime. Mutationsarethesourceofnewallelesinapopulation.Thefrequencyofalleleswill changeduetoselectionofallelesbasedonfitness. 7.4TheEvidenceforEvolution CharlesDarwin:DarwinwasamarinebiologistwhowasinvitedbytheBeagletogoona voyagetotheGalapagosIslands.Hediscoveredmanythingsthere. Observation1:PatternsofBiogeography Biogeographyisthestudyofthegeographicdistributionoforganismsbasedonboth livingspeciesandfossils. DarwinsObservation:Speciesthatliveclosertogetherbutindifferentenvironments aresimilar,whereasspeciesthatlivefatherapartbutinsimilarenvironmentsareless similar.

 Hypothesis:Similaritybetweenspeciesisduetothefactthatallofthesespeciesare derivedfromasmallnumberofancestralspecies. Observation2:Homologousvs.AnalogousFeatures Observation:Certainorganismshadhomologousfeatures (similarstructure,differentfunction),whereascertain organismshadanalogousfeatures(differentstructure, similarfunction) Exampleofhomologousfeature Anexampleofanalogousfeaturesisdovevs.butterflywings Hypothesis:Organismswithhomologousfeatureslikelyshareamorerecentcommon ancestorthanorganismswithanalogousfeatures. Observation3:VestigialFeatures Observation:Certainorganismshadfeaturesthathadnousefulpurposebutwere homologoustofullyfunctioningstructuresinrelatedspecies (e.g.hipboneinwhales) Hypothesis:Speciescomefromancestorsthatonceusedthesefeatures. Observation4:ArtificialSelection&Evolution Darwinfoundthatallofthespecieshadinheritedvariationsthatcanbeselectedforto changethespeciesindesirableways. 7.5OntheOriginofSpecies Darwinpublishedabook,OntheOriginofSpecies,in1859thatdescribedevidencethat specieshadevolved,anditalsooutlinedatheoryofhowtheyevolved. DarwinsTheoryofEvolutionbyNaturalSelection 1. Individualswithinaspeciesvaryinmanyways 2. Variabilitycanbeinherited 3. Generationsproducefarmoreoffspringthancansurviveandpassontheir variations 4. Populationsinspeciestendtoremainstableinsize

InferencesfromhisTheory: Individualswithinapopulationcompeteforresources,andsomeindividualswillinherit characteristicsthatgivethemabetterchanceofsurviving. Theoveralltheoryisthatovertimethepopulationchanges,asadvantageousheritable characteristicsbecomemorecommongenerationaftergeneration. 8.1NaturalSelection PatternsofSelection StabilizingSelection: Thisistheselectionforthemostcommonphenotypespresentinapopulation,because thespeciesisalreadywelladaptedtoitsenvironment.Selectionpressureactsto maintaintheevolvedstate. DirectionalSelection:Selectionforindividualswithlesscommonvariationsofatrait. Thespeciesmovestoanewenvironment.Lesscommonvariantsareselectedforanin efforttoadapttothenewenvironment. DisruptiveSelection: Thisisselectionforindividualswithvariationsateitherextremeofatrait.Variantsat bothendsofthespectrumareselectedforinanefforttoadapttothenew environment. SexualSelection: Thisisselectionforthetraitsthatinfluencethematingsuccessofanindividual.Sexual selectionleadstosexualdimorphism,ordifferencesinphysicalappearancebetween maleandfemale. Evolutionisoftenacompromiseamongselectivepressures.Forexample,colourful peacockfeathersaregoodformatingbutmakethepeacockmoresucceptibleto predators. CumulativeSelectionistheaccumulationofmanysmallevolutionarychangesovertime. Thisresultsinsignificantnewadaptationsrelativetotheancestralspecies.Refertopage 330inthetextbookforexamples. EvolutionaryChangewithoutSelection Notallevolutionarychangesaretheresultofnaturalselection.Somechangesoccurin thegeneticmakeupofapopulationthatarenotinfluencedbythetraitsofindividuals. Thesechangesreducegeneticdiversityinapopulation.

GeneticDrift:Changestoallelefrequencyasaresultofchance.Thesechangesare muchmorepronouncedinsmallpopulations 1. BottleneckEffect:events(catastrophes)resultinarandom,drasticreductionina populationsize,leadingtosignificantchange,inrelativeallelefrequencywithin thepopulation. 2. TheFounderEffect:afewindividualsfromalargerpopulationleavetoestablish anewpopulation,leadingtosignificantchangesinrelativeallelefrequency. GeneFlow:Peoplefromanexistingpopulationleaveandimmigrateintoanother population.Thischangesthegenefrequencies. 8.2Speciation Thequestionis:howdoesanewspeciesgethereinthefirstplace? Microevolution:isthegradualchangeinallelefrequenciesandphenotypictraitsin populationsandspecies.Continuedmicroevolutionovertimecaneventuallyleadtothe formationofanewspecies. Speciation:istheformationofacompletelynewspeciesthroughprogressive microevolution Whatisaspecies? Aspeciesisdefinedasanygroupoforganismsthatisabletointerbreedundernormal conditions.Speciescanoftenbedifferentiatedbasedondifferencesinphysical characteristics.Speciescanalsobedifferentiatedbytheirreproductiveisolating mechanisms. ReproductiveIsolatingMechanisms RIMisthebehavioral,structuralorbiochemicaltraitsthatpreventsmembersof differentspeciesfromreproducing.Therearetwotypes: 1. Prezygotic(Preventmatingorfertilization) 2. Postzygotic(Preventdevelopmentofazygoteintoahealthyadult) PrezygoticIsolatingMechanisms EcologicalIsolation:squirrelspeciesoccupydifferenthabitats Temporalisolation:Plantspeciesbloomatdifferenttimes BehavioralIsolation:spiderspeciesusedifferentbehaviorstoattractmates MechanicalIsolation:membersofthesamespeciesonlyopenpollensacsofplant species GameticIsolation:clamspeciesonlyrecognizetheirowngametes PostzygoticIsolatingMechanisms ZygoticMortality:Fertilizedzygotesformseparatespeciesanddonotreachmaturity Hybridinviability:hybridoffspringarebornbutdieearly Hybridinfertility:hybridoffspringarebornandreachadulthoodbutareinfertile.

Speciation anyeventthatcausesthereproductiveisolationoftwopopulations 1. AllopatricSpeciation:Populationsbecomegeographicallyseparatedfromone another 2. SympatricSpeciation:Populationsbecomegeneticallyisolatedfromoneanother throughmutationsbutremaininthesamelocation 8.5Macroevolution Macroevolution:largescaleevolutionarychangesleadingtotheproductionofnew generaoreventaxa(species) Gradualism:Atheorythatattributeslargeevolutionarychangesinspeciestothe accumulationofmanysmallandongoingchangesandprocesses PunctuatedEquilibrium:Thetheoryattributesmostevolutionarychangesduetorapid spurtsofchangefollowedbylongperiodsoflittle,ornochange