Preliminary Biology Mid-Course Exam Notes 2005 8.2.

1 (Practical Experiments: Estimating population by mark and recapture / Quadrat method / Transects) Characteristic Aquatic environment Terrestrial environment Viscosity-a measure of a Water has a high viscosity. This Air has a low viscosity; this makes mediums resistance to an makes it more difficult for it easier for organisms to move object moving through it organisms to move through it. through it. Surface temperatures on land vary The buoyancy of water offers Buoyancy-the amount of far more than in water. Daily and support to both animals and support experienced by an seasonal variations may be great. plants. It may help them to object immersed in a liquid or maintain their shape, and enables Temperatures beneath the ground gas. It is equal to the weight of do not vary so much. The ability to some organisms to function at the liquid or gas displaced avoid or tolerate heat gain and loss different temperatures. is important in land organisms. Atmospheric pressure decreases Pressure in water increases Pressure variation with height above sea level and rapidly with depth. Very few The earths pull of gravity also fluctuates over time. It may organisms live at great depths. varies pressure differences Changing depths rapidly may be affect breathing by animals and between the upper and lower flight. difficult for many organisms. layers in both air and water. At any one level pressure is constant. Some factors which determine the distribution and abundance of a species in each environment are weather and climate, abundance/distribution of light, topography, availability of space and necessary substances and number of competitors/predators Cell Organism Population Community Ecosystem Biosphere Photosynthesis- the process by which plant cells capture energy from sunlight (during the day) and use it to combine carbon dioxide and water to make sugars and oxygen CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2 Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen All living things ultimately depend on photosynthesis. The compounds plants make during photosynthesis provide nutrients and energy to organisms that consume plants. Organisms that consume the plant eaters gain the nutrients and energy from them, so both energy and materials are passed from organism to organism Some energy is used by the herbivore for the energy-requiring processes that are part of being alive, such as body heat, active transport, muscle contraction, digestion, nerve transmission and hormone production. Some is lost as organic matter in the faeces, urine and tissue. Some is used to build new organic matter in the herbivore as part of growth, maintenance and repair The process of cellular respiration is a complex chain of reactions. The following is a summary of these complex reactions: Glucose + oxygen sunlight carbon dioxide + water + energy In cellular respiration, glucose is oxidised and converted to carbon dioxide and water and energy is released. This is called aerobic cellular respiration ATP= Adenosine Triphosphate ADP= Adenosine Diphosphate

When ATP is broken down it becomes ADP, which creates energy. ATP ADP (releases energy) Sampling techniques: Technique Process Quadrat Take random sample areas and total count number in those areas and multiply them by the number of sample areas that cover the whole tested area Transect Draw 2D cross section of sample area and identify aspects of environment Mark recapture Organism, especially animals, marked or labelled in some way. Time passes by. The number of marked and unmarked animals recorded in 2 nd sample used to estimate population by a formula: (no. animals captured 1st no. of animals captured second) / no. of marked animals

PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com

8.2.2 Changes population dynamics that influences population estimates include birth rate, death rate and migration rate Growth rate (per unit time) = (births + immigration) (deaths + emigration) Decomposers recycle nutrients by breaking down organic matter and returning it to the soil where producers can make use of it, hence restarting the food chain Detritus is dead organic matter. Detritivores break down and consume detritus Predator-prey relationships show that population numbers for each fluctuate in direct proportion to each other. As prey population increases, so does predator population and hence that reduces the prey population and consequently reduces the predator population and then allows prey to increase population and this works as a cycle Interactions: Interaction Benefit Level Process Example An organisms, especially She-oaks shed needles to Allelopathy One species + a plant releases chemicals make the surrounding soil Other species more acidic, and this is a that inhibit or hinder growth of another species loss to other species Parasitism One species + An organism lives off a Ticks, mosquitos, fleas Other species host and steals the feed off blood of warm nutrients from it blooded animals Lichen (fungus) & algae. Mutualism One species + An organism helps Other species + another organism survive The fungus gives living support for the algae, because it needs that while the photosynthesis organism to help itself from the algae provides survive food for the lichen. A remora fish eats Commensalism One species + An organism lives off crustaceans growing on a Other species 0 another organism and shark and goes for a ride does not harm it at the same time Food chains and Food webs- Beginning with the capture of sunlight by primary producers, energy passes through food chains and webs - from producer to consumers. As it flows, energy is alternately stored and used to allow the life processes of all organisms to continue. However energy is lost along the way. Biomass pyramid- total mass of organic matter at each trophic level. The mass of each trophic level often decreases. Energy pyramid- energy input to each trophic level in a given area of an ecosystem over an extended period. The energy input of each trophic level often decreases. Often very similar to biomass pyramids An adaptation of an organism is a feature or trait that allows it to survive in its environment Structural adaptations relate to the organisms physical structure (e.g. thick fur coating) Physiological adaptations relate to the organisms bodily chemical function (e.g. skin colour change) Behavioural adaptations relate to the organisms response to environment (e.g. hibernation) Problems associated with inferring characteristics of organisms is that some characteristics are not always straightforward To correctly identify a feature as being adaptive, we need to know as much as possible about the environment and organism itself. Another way is to compare traits in different environments. This is especially useful if the same type of organism is living in contrasting environments Short term consequences of competition is that is reduces the chance of survival of all competitors for a limited resource and restricts the abundance Long term consequences of competition are that one species will eventually be driven out significantly or reduced in abundance Humans can hinder distribution and abundance by industry, agriculture, fire control, urbanisation, introducing species and flood control in dams

PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com

8.3.1 (Practical Experiment: The light microscope) Cell theory states that: 1. Cells are the smallest functioning units of life 2. All living things are composed of cells 3. All cells form from preexisting cells Cell theory contributors: 14 th century: magnifying glass spectacles by Italian works 1590: first compound microscope by Janssen brothers Mid 1600s: Hooke fist to observe cells in cork 1750s: Suggested that cells are basic units of life 1824: Idea advanced by Frenchman, Henri Dutochet 1827: Robert Brown discovered and described the nucleus 1838: Schleiden and Schwann propose formal hypothesis that cells make up parts of living things 1859: Rudoif Virchow proposed that cells always produce new cells by dividing 1877: Walter Flemming verified Virchows proposal by using biological stains and improved microscope lens. He named the process of cell division mitosis Evidence to support cell theory - Observations confirmed that plant material had an organised structure at a microscopic level - Discovery of unicellular organisms - Discovery that plant and animal cells contain a nucleus - Basic structural pattern of living things recognised - Concept of biogenesis - Opposing theory (spontaneous generation) disproved Various advances in technology have allowed for the development of the cell theory: Light microscope- allows for observation of cells Electron microscope- gives better resolution and magnification Resolution- ability to distinguish between various organelles Magnification- ability to see very small objects Stains- gives better resolution and shows transparent organelles in cells Spontaneous generation theory- belief that living things reproduced from mud or water or air The following organelles can be seen through a light microscope: Nucleus Cytoplasm Chloroplasts Cell membrane Cell wall Vacuoles The following organelles can be seen through an electron microscope: Mitochondria Ribosomes Golgi body Lysosomes Endoplasmic reticulum Structure and functions of organelles: Organelle Structure Description Function Cell membrane Thin physical barrier that contains Regulate flow of substances in and out of cell. pores and is semi-permeable Allows some substances to pass, but stops others Lysosomes Enclosed by single membrane. Enzymes break down older cell organelles. If a Smaller than mitochondria lysosome should rupture these would break down and destroy the cell Endoplasmic A network of membranes that run Forms a complex system of canals in which Reticulum through cytoplasm and can be substances are transported throughout the cell rough or smooth Nucleus Large and spherical Controls all activities of the cell Ribosomes Tiny spherical organelles Make proteins Plastids and Oval shaped organelles with double Make food through photosynthesis chloroplasts membrane Mitochondria Highly folded organelles with Provide energy for the cell double membrane Golgi bodies Long thin strands usually grouped Synthesis and complex proteins and carbohydrates together secretes various chemicals

PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com

8.3.2 Major substances in cells: ORGANIC = carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids INORGANIC = water, oxygen, mineral salts, other elements There is movement of molecules in and out of cells because cells need to absorb energy and release energy as waste products in order to survive and function The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure says that cell membranes are composed of about 40% lipid and 60% protein. The model states that the membrane is flexible and is a mixture of chemicals. The structure is selectively permeable and the structure accounts for the way that membranes allow materials to move across them by both passive and active means Diffusion is the random movement of particles from higher concentrations to lower concentrations until a state of equilibrium is reached. It is referred to as a passive process that occurs along a concentration gradient. Osmosis is diffusion of water Osmosis Diffusion term can be applied only to water term can be applied to all substances through a semi-permeable membrane does not have to be semi-permeable membrane occurs along a concentration gradient occurs along a concentration gradient passive process passive process The surface area to volume ratio affects the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells. The surface of the cell is used to control the rate of removal of wastes and absorption of nutrients. The decrease of the surface area to volume ratio means that efficiency of substances moving in and out of the cell will be limited. Substances need a large surface area to volume ratio to maintain the rate of substances moving in and out to maintain efficient rates of metabolism. As a result, cells cannot grow too big because the surface area to volume ratio will decrease significantly. Surface area increases by a power of 2, while volume increases by a power of 3

PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com