ATOMIC STRUCTURE Momentum: p = h/ = mv; E = hc/ = hf, h = 4.136*10-15eV; 6.6176*1034 Js, 1eV = 1.

602*10-19J; KE = mv2 = hf - ; De Broglies: = h/p = h/mv; v = (2qV/m), Balmers 1/=R (1/nf2 - 1/ni2), R=1.097*107, longest when (1/nf2 - 1/ni2) min; Hydrogen, E= -13.6/n2 eV; Dipole Moment: = er0 (e=1.6*10^-19C, r0=equilibrium separation); %ionic = measured / ionic; Ionic Bond Potential Energy, En = -A/r + B/rn; Bonding Energy, E0 = -A/(A/nB)(1/1-n), A = (Z1e)(Z2e)/40, Z = valency, 0 = 8.85*10-12F/m; Energy Levels, En = -Z2Eo/n2, Z = atomic no., Eo = Initial Energy, n = level, Eo for Hydrogen = -13.6eV; Bonding Energy, Ed = -Utot = -(Ue+ E + Urep), Utot = disassociation energy, Ue= Electrostatic Potential = -ke2/ro, E = Ionization energy - Electron Affinity, k = 9*10-9Nm2/C2. ATOMIC BONDING Energy required during reaction to shift e- to higher energy states. E = p2 / 2m TYPES OF BONDING: Ionic - non-directional, high MP, brittle, elec & thermo insulators (bond via differently charged atoms, ions) Electron Affinity is the energy (eV) released by an atoms acquisition of an electron (add-anion is ve)

Vacancies:

Nv = #Vacancies, N = tot # atoms, T= temp(+273)K k = 1.38x10-23 JK-1 = 8.62*10-5 eV/K N Qv = Energy (vacancy)

= NA/AtWt

Solid Solutions: (types and factors affecting degree of dissolving) Substitutional: Atomic Size (15% diff); Crystal structure (same); slow Electronegativity (similar); Valency (solvent > solute) Interstitial faster ALLOY COMPOSITION Wt% = weight of element / total weight c1 = m1/ (m1 + m2) m = masses At % = moles of element / total moles c1 = n1 / (n1 + n2), n1 = m1 / At1 Conversions: c1 = c1A2 / ( c1A2 + c2A1); c1 = c1A2 / ( c1A2 + c2A1); c1 = c1A1 Cx = AyWx/( AyWx+ AxWy) Wx = AxCx/( AxCx+ AyCy) A=atomic mass W=wt% C=atm% Alloy Density: ave = 100/(c1/1 + c2/2) = 100/(c1/A1 + c2/A2) Alloy Atomic Mass: Aalloy = (c1A1 + c2A2)/100 STIFFNESS OF MATERIALS Strength: a material property ability to sustain/withstand stress Stress (Pa): = F/A; when a load or force is applied to a material; Strain: = L/L; deformation due to strain; E = / = S/ro, S = interatomic bond stiffness Stiffness: S = dF/dr gradient of atomic radius graph Composites: Vm + Vf = 1 Modulus: Ec = EfVf +Em( 1 Vf) Density: c = fVf + m (1 Vf) Toughness: Area under Stress/Strain Curve DISLOCATIONS [ Edge (grain ends) & Screw (shearing) ] movement causes plastic deformation (motion of large numbers of dislocations) Dislocation: a linear defect around which some atoms are misaligned Dislocation Density = dislocation length / unit volume (m-2 = m/m3) Slip: = crss/(coscos)max Applied stress; 90o to slip plane; slip

Covalent - directional (cannot pack together in a dense manner ->less), sharing of electrons Metallic - valence sea of e- , good conductors CONSEQUENCES: melting point: funcn of bonding energy; Stiffness: Modulus of elasticity, depends on gradient of F vs. Atomic separation graph; Electrical conductivity: metallic-good, covalent/ionic-insulator/semi-conductor; Thermal Expansion coeff: depends on shape of PE vs Atomic separation graph. CRYSTAL STRUCTURES Atomic Packing Factor = vol of atoms / vol of unit cell Type of Cell Coo A.P.F a:r rd# Body centred cubic BCC 8 0.68 a = 4R 3 Face centred cubic FCC 12 0.74 a = 2 2R

E.g.

direction, crit resolved shear stress MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS Elastic region: where stress is proportional to strain no permanent deformation Yielding: onset of plastic deformation, where the strain does NOT recover Yield Strength: stress at which yielding or plastic deformation begins Proof Strength: stress after a specific amount of strain and measurable amount of plastic deformation Work Hardening: region of plastic deformation where the material gets harder with increasing plastic strain Tensile Strength: Also called UTS, maximum engineering stress achieved during the test Total elongation to failure: nominal strain to failure, after correcting for any elastic component of the strain (also tensile ductility) f = (Lf Lo)/Lo Necking: the non-uniform deformation behaviour that begins at the UTS and leads to the formation of a neck in the specimen Resilience: the capacity of a material to absorb energy during elastic deformation. Also, area under stress strain curve up to the yield point. Fracture Stress: the load at fracture divided by the cross-sectional area of the fracture Ductility: measure of plastic deformation to fracture (f) ductile vs brittle Toughness: Energy absorbed during the fracture of the material. Area of /

Cr, W, Mo Al, Cu, Au, Ag, Pb. Hex. close packed HCP 12 0.74 c a =1.6 3 Cd, Mg, Zn 3 Radius of Interstitial Atoms: FCC = (2-1)R, BCC = ((2/3)-1)R Density: = nA/VcNA, n= no. atoms/unit cell, A = atom wt, V = vol of unit cell, NA(atoms/mole) = 6.022x1023 Polymorphism (allotropy) a material with more than one crystal structure Single crystal: arrangement perfect throughout the crystalregular arrangement/lattice of atoms. Polycrystalline: collection of many differently orientated crystals-> grain boundaries. Directions for Planes (12) D = r/(n2+m2) = a(n2+m2) /(n2+m2) CRYSTAL DEFECTS Self-Interstitials: an atom from the crystal that occupies a normally non-occupied position; vacancies: gaps in lattice

Polycrystalline Materials: are stronger than single crystals because the different orientations of adjoining grains make it difficult to transmit slip (deformation) from one grain to the next Fatigue: failure of a material under dynamic fluctuating load (cyclic load): prevented by: lower the applied stress, eliminate stress concentrations (polishing), harden surface (carburizing), use steel(ferrous alloys have a fatigue limit), non-destructive testing for flaws, providing component redundancy.

Creep: time-dependent plastic strain of a material under constant load at elevated temp (T>0.4Tm) prevented by: high Tm , stability at high temp, high strength at temp, no grain boundaries ~90 o to applied stress. 4 stages: instantaneous deformation, primary stage- accelerates to constant, secondary stage-constant, tertiary stage-accelerates to creep rupture (fracture) Creep stress, temp.

WH = b = dislocation density Solid Solution Hardening: adding solute atoms to solvent crystals that do not fit into the lattice (overcome problem - supersaturated then rapid cool) Fobst = f ( Em), strain caused by degree of mismatch of foreign atoms SS = f ( Em) c c = [solute] Precipitation Hardening: sheared particles: P = f ( Vf, S, L); Vf = Volume fraction, S = size, L = Spacing Dispersion Hardening: when particles are impenetrable objects, upper limit of precipitation hardening SS impossible to shear: = b/L CONDUCTIVITY V=IR; resistivity =RA/l=VA/Il; electric field: = V/l = I/A Electron Drift Velocity: in a conducting wire, electric current is the result of the slow drift of negatively charged electrons that are accelerated by an electric field in a wire and then collide with the lattice ions. vd = e ; conductivity = 1/ =n|e|e; e = electron mobility( n = # of free electrons; current density J =E ; Resistivity: tot = t + i + d ; t = o + aT ; i = Aci(1 ci) ; d due to dislocations Plastic deformation raises due to the increased number of e- scattering dislocations. Thermal Affect on resistivity: Metals decrease resistivity/increase conductivity at lower temperatures (superconductors), Semiconductors decrease resistivity/increase conductivity at higher temperatures. for metals is small, for semiconductors is large. Thermal Conduction: the phenomenon by which heat energy is transported from high- to low-temperature regions of a substance H = q/t = kA(T2 T1)/L (J/s) k = thermal conductivity q=heat flux= -k(dT/dx) Band Structures: reflect the electrical properties of materials

FRACTURE AND FAILURE Ductile fracture proceeded by extensive plastic deformation; Brittle fracture proceeded by little or no prior plastic deformation result of rapid growth of pre-existing cracks or flaws in the material Occurs if Strain Energy released > Energy required to grow crack Energy to grow crack: Gc = (2/E)a, Gc = material property-energy needed to grow the crack, = applied stress, a = crack size Fracture Toughness: Kc = ( GcE ) Kc = (a) a = Kc2/(2) Preventing Brittle Fracture: Composites: cracks only grow to width of fibres (separated by matrix) stopped from reaching critical size (by stopping the crack at the interference between the two components) Transformation Toughening: Zirconia Ceramics, under forces at tip of advancing crack, tetragonal transforms to monoclinic, 4-5% > volume Change Microstructure: rounding STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS (METALS) Line dislocation linear region of higher energy has tension (t) = b2/2 Burgers Vector (b) one atomic diameter (displacement vector); = shear modulus Force exerted on dislocation by is F = bL, where L = length Grain Size Hardening: because the slips planes do not align, the stress must overcome the grain boundaries difficult to move slip from one grain to another need more stress as grain size decreases because # boundaries increases. GS = k/d d = grain diameter (size) Obstacle Hardening: impedes dislocation movement, Fobst = b2 sin = bL = ( b sin )/L L = obstacle separation (particles sheared when = 90o) Work Hardening: increase in strength with plastic deformation caused by interaction of dislocations with each other tensile stress creates more dislocations which become the obstacles

Metal Metal (poorer Insulator Semiconductor Cu conductor) Mg Glass Silicon

n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor (donate) (accept) Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductors: intrinsic are essentially pure materials whereas extrinsic have been doped with impurity atoms during manufacture to alter their electrical characteristics. Doping Si (4ve-s) with As(5ve-s) gives n-type or with Ga(3ve-s) gives p-type. Intrinsic: = n |e| e + p |e| h , n = p = n |e| (e + h) Extrinsic: n-type (n>>p): = n |e| e ; p-type (p>>n): = p |e| h VAN DER WAALS BONDING & ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE Electric dipole: a pair of charges with equal magnitudes and opposite signs Hooks Law: F=-kx x=cantilevers displacement, k=constant Resonance Frequency: m=mass of cantilever k=spring constant CERAMICS Properties: Mech Properties: High Tmelt, low electro & thermo conductivity, high Elastic mod, low desity, high compressive strength, low tensile strength, chemically inert, inexpensive Extremely difficult to deform, (Ionic & covalent bonding)

Conductivity:

electrical: low, except for molten ionic & solid electrolyte (hole carriers) thermal: low (no free electrons-tied up in interatomic bonding-covalent, but thermal vibration of atoms)

Crystal structure: Ionic: ionic charges and ionic radii determine crystal structure Covalent: # valence e- and hybridization determine crystal structure Thermal Shock: Cooling surface tension, Heating surface compression =ET -- TSR = f k/E f = fracture toughness, k = thermal resistivity = thermal expansion coefficient Thermal Expansion: L=L.T. =therm exp coefficient DIFFUSION # Vacancies: see crystal defects Diffusion heat assisted mass transfer down concentration gradient Mechanisms: Substitutional requires vacancies and depends to some extent on the number of vacancies Interstitial requires heat to squeeze though matrix between atoms substantially faster than substitutional J = -D(dC/dx) J = net flux of atoms across area (kg m-2s-1) Diffusion Coefficient: D = Do e (-QD/kT) QD = activation energy, Do = T dependent k decrease QD increase rate of diffusion Ficks Law: x/(2 Dt) = const x=distance from surface Cx=concentration at x Cs=constant surface conc. Conduction in ceramics: Vacancy conduction, migration of ions through diffusion .from doping POLYMERS
Long covalent carbon bonds macromolecules, composed of mer units. Types of polymers: linear, branched, crosslinked, network Size: Homopolymer has one type of mer, copolymer has more then one type of mer. Types of copolymers: random, alternating, block, graft. Shape: dependant on the arrangement of the carbon bonds in the backbones, usually angles of 109o. Structure: Linear, branched, cross-linked, network Amorphous polymers random; crystalline polymers regular molecule packing (more likely linear polymers) Mechanical Properties: much lower E.mod than metals, Ductile & sensitive to strain rate and temp. 3 types behaviour: Brittle (elastic to fracture), Plastic (stressstrain curve similar to metal) & Elastomer (rubber like behavior with large recoverable strains produced at low stress levels). ->criteria: amorphous, mol chains naturally coiled and kinked in the unstressed state, coiled chains readily straighten out under low stresses, onset of plastic deformation must be delayed-crosslinks. Low Tmelt: molecules held together by van der waals forces

Factors affecting mechanical behaviour of polymers: Molecular Wt no change in E.mod, increases tensile strength Degree of Crystallinity increases E.mod, rigidity and tensile strength Extent of crosslinking reduces plastic deformation, favours elastomeric behaviour Thermoplastic polymers: reversibly soften when heated and harden when cooled Thermosetting polymers: become permanently hard on heating via the formation of covalent crosslinks between adjacent molecular chains and they do not soften on subsequent heating Viscoelasticity: the behavior of a polymer where it is both viscous under constant load and elastic under short loads. = (d/dt); = viscosity of material. Creep: continued deformation of a material with time under a costant stress Ec(t) = o/t Ec(t) = creep modulus; o = constant ; t strain at time t Stress Relaxation: the reduction in stress with time at a constant strain ER(t) = t/o increase (o t) decrease ER(t) CORROSION & DEGRADATION Ceramics are relatively resistant to environmental attack Metals can lose material by dissolution in liquids or in moist environments (corrosion) or by the formation of a non-metallic scale/film (oxidation). Polymers (only degrade not electrochemical) can degrade through dissolution or swelling in a liquid solvent, under electromagnetic radiation, such as ultraviolet light, and by changes in their molecular structures at high temperatures. Principle of giving and taking electrons: Metals: (lose e-) electrochemical reaction (metals with a +ve emf electrode potential are CATHODIC) if 2 dissimilar materials are put in contact with each other, the more anodic with be preferentially oxidized. Galvanic series listing of metals/allows reactivity. The less reactive metal will be cathodic and will not corrode. Sacrificial Anode more anodic metal the preferentially corrodes. Cathodic protection apply external voltage becomes cathodic and no corrosion Corrosion Rate: conductivity (of water, etc); passivity (non-conducting, non-porous film) Forms:

Stress/Strain Curve for three different

polymers, brittle, plastic and elastomers Glass Transition temperature: the temperature below which thermally assisted motion of molecular chains slows down sufficiently (or ceases) and the polymer becomes rigid and brittle. To<TG; below TG Brittle; increase crosslinking increase TG

Prevention: Passivation (Al, Stainless); Coatings (inert / sacrificial anode); Cathodic (attachment of a voltage) Polymer degradation: physical, not electrochemical; Forms: Chemical Attack(rupture of covalent bonds) ; Dissolution (removal of chains [up mol wt., cross-link, lower temp]); Swelling (liquid [lower temp, up mol wt.]); Radiation (breaks chains [can cause cross-links])
MATERIALS PROCESSING Metals: easy wrought, machined, welded, bolted Polymers: avg soft at high temp extruded & molded, glued, mechanically fastened Ceramics: very difficult to process powder process

MATERIALS SELECTION Introduction, improvement or failure of material 5 attributes: 1. Function (what it has to do); 2. Shape/Appearance (external and internal, what it looks like); 3. Manufacturing method or process; 4. Material (ensures that the function is met); 5. COST!! Define the Properties you want and eliminate inferior materials iterative process, use materials databases LIGHT Electromagnetic waves: are caused by accelerating charges E = cB; c = 1/ ( o o)=3*108 m/s; o = 4 x 10-7 ; o = 8.85 x 10-12

E=electric field, B=Magnetic field E = Eo sin(kx t+); f = 1/t = /2; k = 2f /c; = 2r; T = 2/ ; c = /k; = c/f = 2/k; Eo = Amplitude(V/m) Snells Law: n1Sin 1 = n2Sin 2; 1n1 = 2n2; c = sin-1(n2/n1) Reflected Intensity: IR = Io (n1 n2)2/(n1 + n2)2 {I = |amplitude|2} 2 For EM: I=1/2*c00E0 (I=intensity; c0=c; 0=8.85*10-12)

Skip Distance: Ls = d[(n1/ (nosin ))2 1 ], modes: ((d/)NA)2 GLASS

# reflections = 1/Ls

Non-crystalline solid, similar to crystalline ceramics (70SiO2 + 10 CaO + 15Na2O {wt %}) Failure usually occurs via thermal shock or impact where the surface is put in tension and cracks grow. Oxide compounds are added to lower the Tmelt Metals and ceramics can be added during heating then cooling very rapidly. Transparent: clear, can be seen through, no diffraction Translucent: lets light through, however cant be seen through (distorted) Opaque: does not let light through at all Anti-reflective: utilizes destructive interference (wavelength is 1/2 behind when reflected)

Designing Material using Aluminium Alloy Low density, high electrical and thermal conductivities, resistance to corrosion via formation of Al2O3 layer upon contact with O2, highly ductile, Low melting temperature. Cold working and alloying increase mechanical strength but diminish resistance to corrosion, also harden with time. Alloy with copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese and zinc. Can also use precipitation hardening with MgZn2. Lower weight with transport reduces fuel consumption therefore cost and emissions. Aluminium Lithium allows used in aircraft and aerospace industry - low density, high specific moduli, excellent fatigue and low temperature toughness properties.

OPTICS Interference: E1+E2 = Eo12 + Eo22 + 2 Eo1Eo2 cos(kx1 kx2) Youngs Double slit: Max (Antinodal): d sin = n = dy/L; Min (Nodal): dsin = (n - ) = dy/L; distance between maxima: y = L/d y = L tan

Revolutionary Material (Fullerenes) For a long time, the only elemental forms of carbon were known to be graphite and diamond, however in 1985, another complete structure of carbon was discovered in the small carbon fragments blown out of giant red stars. To recreate this, two scientists subjected graphite to a high energy pulsed laser beam. The result was C60 more commonly known as bucky balls. This form of carbon as well as other larger forms were called the fullerenes, named after R Buckminster Fuller who was the first to propose the shape of the geodesic dome: a combination of 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons giving 60 vertices and 32 faces or more simply, the shape of a regular soccer ball. It was found that these fullerenes were extremely stable as well as being electrically and thermally insulative. As a result of this new discovery many new ideas have arisen such as the prospect of new pharmaceuticals, lubricants, storage devices such as for Hydrogen as well as many applications in nanotechnology. Therefore, fullerenes are but one developing compound which will have a great impact on our lives.
2.1 The yield strength of a material is (b) the stress at the onset of plastic flow 2.2 Which statement is most correct? (d) Fatigue only occurs under dynamic loading conditions 2.3 The fracture toughness

Kc = a , where (a)

is the applied stress and a is

Single Slit Experiment Max (Contructive): d sin = (n+ ) = y/L; Min (Destructive): d sin = n = y/L;

Interference for thin films: Destructive 2d = (m+ ) Constructive 2d = m Division of wavefront: reflected waves: max 2ndCos = (p+); min 2ndCos = p: Transmitted waves are opposite. NB: when light changes

medium there is a 1 phase shift. Anti-reflective coating: thickness of coating: 2ndCos = @ = 90o d = /4n1 OPTICAL FIBRES
Advantages: larger bandwidth (transfer more info per time interval), lighter, not susceptible to electromagnetic interference Disadvantages: not as easily interfaced with electrical equipment, cost of replacing copper is more than just adding more copper

Fibrescope Resolving Power: RP (lines/mm) = 500/d(m) Optic of propagation: c = sin-1(ncladding/nfibre); numerical aperture: NA = (n12-n22)

the crack 2.4 In fibre reinforced composite materials, the modulus of the fibre is usually greater than that of the matrix. Thus for a given strain, the stress in the fibre is (d) greater than that in the matrix 2.5 Because the fracture strength of a ceramic in tension is usually much lower than the yield strength, the yield strength of a ceramic (b) is measured in compression 2.6 The best way to strengthen a metallic electrical conductor, such as copper or aluminium is to use (c) grain size hardening 2.7 The atomic bonding in buckminster fullerine, C60 (carbon bucky balls) is (c) covalent 2.8 Diffusion in a polycrystalline material is generally faster along a grain boundary than the interior because (b) concentration gradients are generally greater in the grain boundary 2.9 Read the following statements carefully: I Diffusion generally results in the migration of a solvent down its concentration gradient II In general the diffusion rate is proportional to the magnitude of the concentration gradient (c) I and II 2.10 The charge carriers in solid electrolytes are usually (c)anions 2.11 In order to be readily cast, a metal should have (d) all the above a low melting point, a low viscosity, a small freezing range 2.12 The type of process used to shape a material determines the final properties of the material This statement is (c) sometimes true 2.13 Plasticisers are high molecular weight liquids such as dioctyl phthalate which are added to thermoplastics to increase their flexibility. They function by increasing the distance between adjacent chains, thereby reducing the effects of intermolecular forces and the tendency to crystallisation. Plasticisers generally: (b) decrease the glass transition temperature 2.14 Increasing the molecular weight of a polymer will (b) not effect the modulus 2.15 The best way to prevent external water storage tank corroding is: (b) use galvanic protection 2.2 The proof stress is (b) the stress to cause a specific amount of strain 2.4 In which of the following applications is creep important (c) steam turbine 2.7 Ceramics generally have lower coefficients of thermal expansion then metals do but are more susceptible to thermal shock because they also usually have (b) high modulus and low fracture strengths 2.10 Which of the following statements is true: (d) in order to be readily cast, a metal should have a lower melting point and high viscosity 2.11 Some rubber components are vulcanised ( a non-reversible chemical reaction carried out at elevated temperatures in which 1-5% of sulphur is added to form cross links between adjacent polymer chains). Should vulcanisation be carried out (a) before the component is formed into its final shape? 2.13 Glass is often tempered thermally but can also be tempered chemically, where the network modifier (typically sodium, Na) in the outer surface is selectively replaced by ions which put the surface into compression. The most effective element to use would be (c) aluminium 2.15 A critical property that a design engineer always needs to consider in selecting an appropriate material is (d) all of the above stiffness, strength, cost. 2.1 Elastic deformation (c) is determined by the stiffness of the bonds 2.4 Grain size hardening occurs because (a) extra energy is required to move dislocations from one crystal to another 2.5 In which of the following applications is fatigue a critical design parameter ? (c) a plane 2.6 The structure and characteristics of a polymer is determined by (d) all of the above molecular weight, shape of molecules, arrangement of molecules 2.7 Diffusion involves (a) migration of species to reduce differences in concentration

2.8 The Glass Transition temperature is the temperature where (d) a polymer is changed from a rubbery to a rigid state 2.9 Which statement is correct? (a) Ductility is the ability to deform plastically 2.10 Metallic corrosion is (d) a chemical reaction consisting of two parallel reactions that release and consume electrons 2.11 Fracture toughness determines (c) the combination of critical stress and crack size 2.12 The tensile strength is the point where (b) necking begins 2.14 Which statement is correct? (c) strength is increased when the distance between particles is reduced 2.2 Toughness is (b) the total energy absorbed on breaking a sample 2.3 Hookes law is (b) only valid when deformation occurs by stretching bonds 2.5 Which statement is true? (c) The dislocation density can be reduced by heat treatment 2.11 At a given stress the critical crack size for copper is much larger than for steel because (d) copper has a larger fracture toughness than steel