Protective

Relay
Principles

2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Protective
Relay
Principles
A n t h o n y F. S l e v a

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press
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2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sleva, Anthony F.
Protective relay principles / Anthony F. Sleva.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8247-5372-6 (alk. paper)
1. Protective relays. I. Title.
TK2861.S49 2009
621.317--dc22
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2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2008040966

Contents
Preface............................................................................................................... xiii
Author.................................................................................................................xv
Acknowledgments......................................................................................... xvii
1. Power System Components...................................................................... 1
1.1 Transmission Lines........................................................................... 1
1.2 Distribution Lines............................................................................. 5
1.3 Transformers.................................................................................... 10
1.4 Circuit Breakers............................................................................... 15
1.5 Buses................................................................................................. 16
1.6 Switchyards...................................................................................... 18
1.7 Fuses................................................................................................. 19
1.8 Substations....................................................................................... 22
1.9 Reclosers........................................................................................... 23
1.10 Generators........................................................................................ 24
2. Power System Subcomponents.............................................................. 27
2.1 Current Transformers..................................................................... 27
2.2 Voltage Transformers...................................................................... 31
2.3 Capacitive Coupled Voltage Transformers.................................. 32
2.4 Protective Relays............................................................................. 34
2.5 Control Relays................................................................................. 34
2.6 Master Trip Relays.......................................................................... 35
2.7 Programmable Logic Controllers................................................. 35
2.8 Insulators.......................................................................................... 35
2.9 Bushings........................................................................................... 36
2.10 Cable Terminators........................................................................... 36
2.11 Disconnect Switches....................................................................... 36
2.12 Air Break Switches.......................................................................... 38
2.13 Motor-Operated Air Break Switches............................................ 38
2.14 Ground Switches............................................................................. 39
2.15 Surge Arrestors................................................................................ 39
2.16 Sectionalizers................................................................................... 40
2.17 Batteries............................................................................................ 40
3. Abnormal Power System Conditions................................................... 41
3.1 Short Circuits................................................................................... 41
3.1.1 Three-Phase Faults............................................................ 42
3.1.2 Phase-to-Phase Faults........................................................ 44
3.1.3 Double Phase-to-Ground Faults...................................... 44
3.1.4 Single Phase-to-Ground Faults........................................ 45
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3.1.5 Turn-to-Turn Faults............................................................ 47

3.1.6 Winding-to-Winding Faults............................................. 47
3.1.7 Winding-to-Ground Faults............................................... 47
3.1.8 Plate-to-Plate Faults........................................................... 47
3.2 Overloads......................................................................................... 48
3.3 Overvoltage...................................................................................... 48
3.4 Undervoltage................................................................................... 49
3.5 Overfrequency................................................................................. 49
3.6 Underfrequency.............................................................................. 50
3.7 Open Phase...................................................................................... 51
3.8 Single Phasing................................................................................. 51
3.9 Phase Unbalance............................................................................. 52
3.10 Volts per Hertz................................................................................. 54
4. Short-Circuit Calculations...................................................................... 57
4.1 Symmetrical Components............................................................. 57
4.2 Positive Sequence Networks.......................................................... 59
4.3 Negative Sequence Networks....................................................... 60
4.4 Zero Sequence Networks............................................................... 60
4.5 Operators.......................................................................................... 61
4.6 Sequence Diagram ConnectionsThree-Phase Faults............. 63
4.7 Sequence Diagram ConnectionsPhase-to-Phase Faults........ 64
4.8 Sequence Diagram ConnectionsSingle Phase-toGround Faults.................................................................................. 65
4.9 Per-Unit Quantities......................................................................... 65
4.10 Sample Calculations....................................................................... 67
4.11 Sample CalculationsThree-Phase Faults.................................. 68
4.12 Sample CalculationsPhase-to-Phase Faults............................. 69
4.13 Sample CalculationsSingle Phase-to-Ground Faults............. 71
4.14 Sample CalculationsMutual Coupling..................................... 74
5. Protective Relay Functions..................................................................... 79
5.1 Time Overcurrent Relay (51).......................................................... 80
5.2 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay (50)......................................... 82
5.3 Overvoltage Relay (59).................................................................... 83
5.4 Undervoltage Relay (27)................................................................. 85
5.5 Distance Relay (21).......................................................................... 86
5.6 Differential Relay (87)..................................................................... 88
5.7 Directional Relay (67)..................................................................... 89
5.8 Underfrequency Relay (81)............................................................. 90
5.9 Overfrequency Relay (81)............................................................... 91
6. Protective Relay Functional Combinations........................................ 93
6.1 Voltage-Controlled Time Overcurrent Relay.............................. 93
6.2 Torque-Controlled Time Overcurrent Relay............................... 94
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6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12

Logic-Controlled Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay................. 94

Torque-Controlled Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay............... 95
Logic-Controlled Overvoltage Relay............................................ 95
Logic-Controlled Undervoltage Relay......................................... 95
Logic-Controlled Distance Relay.................................................. 96
Current-Supervised Distance Relay............................................. 96
Logic-Supervised Differential Relay............................................ 96
Current-Supervised Differential Relay........................................ 97
Current-Supervised Underfrequency Relay............................... 97
Dual Underfrequency Relays........................................................ 97

7. Zones and Regions of Protection.......................................................... 99

7.1 Zones of Protection......................................................................... 99
7.1.1 Relay Characteristics and Applied Setpoint................ 101
7.1.1.1 Overcurrent Relays.......................................... 101
7.1.1.2 Distance Relays................................................. 102
7.1.1.3 Differential Relays............................................ 103
7.1.2 Instrument Transformer Location, Connection,
Polarity, and Ratio............................................................ 103
7.1.2.1 Overcurrent Relays.......................................... 103
7.1.2.2 Distance Relays................................................. 104
7.1.2.3 Differential Relays............................................ 104
7.1.3 Control Scheme Logic..................................................... 105
7.1.4 Power System Configuration.......................................... 105
7.2 Regions of Protection.....................................................................111
7.2.1 Relay Characteristics and Applied Setpoint.................113
7.2.1.1 Overvoltage Relays...........................................113
7.2.1.2 Undervoltage Relays.........................................115
7.2.1.3 Underfrequency Relays....................................115
7.2.1.4 Overfrequency Relays......................................116
7.2.1.5 Unbalanced Voltage Relays..............................117
7.2.2 Instrument Transformer Location, Connection,
Polarity, and Ratio.............................................................117
7.2.2.1 Overvoltage Relays...........................................117
7.2.2.2 Undervoltage Relays.........................................117
7.2.2.3 Underfrequency Relays....................................117
7.2.2.4 Overfrequency Relays......................................117
7.2.2.5 Unbalanced Voltage Relays..............................118
7.2.3 Control Scheme Logic......................................................118
7.2.4 Power System Configuration...........................................118
8. Physical Characteristics of Protective Relays................................... 123
8.1 Electromechanical Relays............................................................ 123
8.2 Solid-State Relays.......................................................................... 125
8.3 Microprocessor-Based Relays...................................................... 126
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8.4
8.5

Relay Operation............................................................................. 126

Relay Packaging............................................................................ 127

9. Setting Considerations.......................................................................... 131

9.1 Power System Configuration and Operation............................ 131
9.1.1 Mutual Coupling.............................................................. 133
9.1.2 Ground Bank Action....................................................... 135
9.2 Power System Requirements....................................................... 140
9.3 Maximum Short-Circuit CurrentFault in Protected
Zone.................................................................................................141
9.4 Maximum Relay Short-Circuit CurrentFault in
Adjacent Zone................................................................................ 142
9.5 Minimum Relay Short-Circuit CurrentFault in
Protected Zone.............................................................................. 142
9.6 Fault Current Ratio....................................................................... 143
9.7 Relay Sensitivity............................................................................ 145
9.8 Circuit Loading............................................................................. 146
9.9 Relay Coordination....................................................................... 151
9.10 Directionality................................................................................. 152
9.11 Accuracy of Calculations............................................................. 153
9.12 Device Accuracy............................................................................ 154
9.13 Circuit-Breaker Operating Times............................................... 155
9.14 Transient Overreach..................................................................... 155
9.15 Cold Load Inrush.......................................................................... 157
9.16 Redundancy................................................................................... 159
9.17 Relay Drift...................................................................................... 159
9.18 Security........................................................................................... 160
9.19 Arc Flash Hazard.......................................................................... 160
9.20 Circuit Breaker-Failure Detection and Isolation.......................161
9.21 Free-Standing CT Flashover Detection.......................................162
9.22 Switchable Settings........................................................................162
9.23 Recovery Voltage Inrush...............................................................162
10. Protection and Control Schemes......................................................... 163
10.1 Alternative Protective Relay Trip Logic..................................... 171
10.2 Supervised Protective Relay Logic............................................. 173
11. Protective Relay Coordination............................................................. 175
11.1 Instantaneous Current Relays..................................................... 175
11.2 Time Overcurrent Relays..............................................................176
11.2.1 Maximum Current Flow with Normal Fault
Clearing..............................................................................176
11.2.2 Maximum Current Flow When a Remote Circuit
Breaker Fails to Open...................................................... 177

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11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8

11.2.3 Maximum Ratio of Through Current for

Restricted Faults on Each Remote Line........................ 177
11.2.4 Maximum Ratio of Through Current for
Restricted Faults on Each Remote Line and
Remote Circuit Breaker Fails to Open.......................... 178
Instantaneous Voltage Relays...................................................... 178
Time-Delayed Voltage Relays...................................................... 179
Instantaneous (Zone 1) Impedance Relays................................ 179
Time-Delayed (Zone 2 or Zone 3) Impedance Relays.............. 180
Instantaneous Frequency Relays................................................ 180
Time-Delayed Frequency Relays................................................ 181

12. Distribution-Line Protection: Radial Lines...................................... 183

12.1 Distribution-Line Protection Philosophy.................................. 184
12.1.1 Time Overcurrent Phase Relays.................................... 185
12.1.2 Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relays.................... 185
12.1.3 Time Overcurrent Ground Relays................................. 185
12.1.4 Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relays................. 186
12.2 Setpoint Margin Considerations................................................. 186
12.3 Distribution-Line Protection....................................................... 188
12.4 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup SettingLoad
Capability....................................................................................... 191
12.5 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup SettingLoad
Capability....................................................................................... 191
12.6 Low Set Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup
Setting............................................................................................. 192
12.7 Low-Set Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relay
Pickup Setting............................................................................... 192
12.8 High-Set Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup
Setting............................................................................................. 193
12.9 High-Set Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relay
Pickup Setting............................................................................... 196
12.10 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting
Sensitivity Check........................................................................... 197
12.11 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup SettingTime
Delay............................................................................................... 197
12.12 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting
Upstream Coordination............................................................... 204
12.13 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting
Sensitivity Check........................................................................... 205
12.14 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup SettingTime
Delay............................................................................................... 206
12.15 Time Overcurrent Relay Ground Pickup Setting
Upstream Coordination............................................................... 207

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Contents

13. Distribution-Line Protection: Network Lines.................................. 213

13.1 Networked Distribution-Line Protection Philosophy..............214
13.1.1 Time Overcurrent Phase Relays.....................................214
13.1.2 Definite Time Overcurrent Phase Relays..................... 215
13.1.3 Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relays.................... 215
13.1.4 Time Overcurrent Ground Relays................................. 215
13.1.5 Definite Time Overcurrent Ground Relays.................. 215
13.1.6 Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relays................. 215
13.2 Setpoint Margin Considerations..................................................216
13.3 Distribution-Line Protection....................................................... 218
13.4 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup SettingLoad
Capability....................................................................................... 218
13.5 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup SettingLoad
Capability....................................................................................... 221
13.6 Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting........ 221
13.7 Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting..... 224
13.8 Definite Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting......... 225
13.9 Definite Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting..... 225
13.10 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting
Sensitivity Check........................................................................... 226
13.11 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup SettingTime
Delay............................................................................................... 226
13.12 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting
Upstream Coordination............................................................... 227
13.13 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting
Sensitivity Check........................................................................... 229
13.14 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup SettingTime
Delay............................................................................................... 231
13.15 Time Overcurrent Relay Ground Pickup Setting
Upstream Coordination............................................................... 231
14. Transmission-Line Protection.............................................................. 235
14.1 Phase Distance Relays.................................................................. 236
14.2 Ground Distance Relays............................................................... 246
14.3 Overcurrent Ground Relays........................................................ 247
14.4 Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relays.............................. 250
14.5 Time Overcurrent Ground Relays.............................................. 251
14.6 Directional Unit Sensitivity for Ground Faults........................ 254
14.7 Current-Polarized Ground Relays.............................................. 254
14.8 Voltage-Polarized Ground Relays............................................... 255
14.9 High-Speed Relaying Schemes................................................... 255
14.9.1 Permissive Overreaching Scheme................................. 256
14.9.2 Directional Comparison Blocking Scheme.................. 257
14.9.3 Direct Underreaching Transfer Trip Schemes............. 258
14.9.4 Direct Transfer Trip Schemes......................................... 259
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14.10 Line Differential Scheme............................................................. 260

14.11 CT Saturation................................................................................. 261
15. Transformer Protection......................................................................... 263
15.1 Transformer External Fault Protection...................................... 271
16. Bus Protection......................................................................................... 275
16.1 Overcurrent Bus Differential...................................................... 275
16.2 Bus DifferentialQuick Trip Settings....................................... 276
16.3 Bus DifferentialTime Overcurrent Settings.......................... 277
16.4 High-Impedance Bus Differential.............................................. 279
16.5 Sensitivity for Bus Faults.............................................................. 284
17. Breaker Failure Relaying...................................................................... 285
17.1 Remote Breaker Failure ProtectionPhase Distance
Relays.............................................................................................. 285
17.2 Remote Breaker Failure ProtectionOvercurrent Ground
Relays.............................................................................................. 286
17.3 Remote Breaker Failure ProtectionWatt-Type Ground
Relays.............................................................................................. 287
17.4 Local Breaker Failure ProtectionTraditional......................... 287
17.5 Control Elementary Diagram...................................................... 291
17.6 Control Elementary Diagram...................................................... 293
17.7 Local Breaker Failure Protection for Transformer
Protection....................................................................................... 296
18. Capacitor Protection............................................................................... 299
18.1 Neutral Current Monitoring........................................................ 301
18.2 Midpoint Voltage Monitoring..................................................... 303
19. Shunt and Series Reactor Protection.................................................. 307
20. Grid Protection........................................................................................ 315
20.1 Voltage Issues................................................................................. 315
20.2 Undervoltage ProtectionGrid Protection................................316
20.3 Undervoltage ProtectionLoad Protection.............................. 317
20.4 Overvoltage ProtectionGrid Protection................................. 319
20.5 Overvoltage ProtectionLoad Protection................................ 320
20.6 Frequency Control........................................................................ 322
20.7 Underfrequency Relaying............................................................ 324
20.8 Overfrequency Relaying.............................................................. 329

2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Preface
This introductory book for protective relay applications is based on notes
prepared for courses presented for the Lehigh Valley Section of IEEE,
for the Center for Power System Study at Lehigh University, and for the
University of WisconsinMilwaukee School of Continuing Education.
With the introduction of microprocessor-based relays, many traditional
application considerations are somewhat hidden in the hundreds of pages
of documentation that accompany new relays. The purpose of this book
is to provide a reference that can be used to understand basic protective
relay setting considerations.
Short descriptions of key power system components have been included
to enable understanding of selected components. Sample calculations
have been provided to illustrate items that need to be considered when
developing settings for a wide variety of protective relay applications. My
goal was to develop a book that can be used by engineers and technicians
when selecting protective relaying schemes, specifying protective relay
setpoints, and reviewing protective relay actuations. This includes simple
overcurrent schemes, undervoltage and overvoltage schemes, underfrequency and overfrequency schemes, bus differential relaying, transformer
differential relaying, phase distance relay applications, and communication aided relaying.
During my professional career, I had the opportunity to work with
major investor-owned utilities in rural areas and in major metropolitan
areas, with rural electric agencies, with cooperative electric utilities, and
with railway systems, dredging operations, coal mines, and a wide variety of heavy power industrial systems. This book is an attempt to capture
salient protective relay considerations learned during a long and diverse
protective relaying career.
Anthony F. Sleva

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Author
Anthony F. Sleva holds a BSEE from Penn State University. He worked
for Pennsylvania Power & Light Company in the relay section of System
Operations, where he developed settings for protective relays used for
distribution line, transmission line, transformer, bus, motor, generator,
and capacitor protection. He subsequently worked in substation engineering, nuclear plant engineering, and drafting services at PP&L before
expanding his horizons and accepting employment with Altran Solutions
in Cranbury, New Jersey, where he worked as manager of electrical engineering and directed the development of studies, drawings, and specifications for clients throughout the northeastern and middle Atlantic United
States. Sleva is currently employed by Pike Electric, where he directs the
development of studies, drawings, and specifications for clients throughout the western United States.
Sleva has developed protective relay schemes and protective relay setpoints for high voltage, medium voltage, and low voltage systems and
equipment used in open air, enclosed, and underground applications.
He has developed specifications, procured, witnessed factory acceptance
tests, supervised installation, and approved field acceptance tests for a
wide variety of electrical components including circuit breakers, transformers, switchgear, air break switches, and substations in addition to
his extensive experience with protective relaying systems. In addition
to his work with investor-owned electric utilities, rural electric utilities,
and cooperative electric utilities, Sleva has provided engineering services for independent power generators, distributed generation providers,
dredging operations, mining operations, railway systems, and standby
generator vendors (emergency, standby, and peak shaving applications).
His experience also includes short-term assignments as a system operator in a power control center and as a substation repairman in distribution substations. He has extensive knowledge of power system operations,
power system security, and equipment performance characteristics.
Sleva is an ad hoc instructor at the University of WisconsinMilwaukee,
where he has been presenting courses in protective relaying applications,
understanding power systems, motor theory and applications, and substation design since 1996. He is a senior member of IEEE, a member of
IEEEs Power System Relay Committee, a former member of IEEEs Nuclear
Power Engineering Committee, and a licensed professional engineer.

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2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Acknowledgments
During everyones professional career, some individuals are so helpful,
that they leave an indelible mark. Id like to recognize the following people for what they gave to me:
Phoebe Tomko, high school math teacher (deceased), for convincing
my parents that enrolling in electrical engineering at Penn State
University was a good thing.
Professor C. B. Holt (deceased), for lighting the spark by introducing
me to symmetrical components.
Raymond J. Fernandez, PE, for taking the time to develop my protective
relaying skills and for providing the inspiration for my lifes work.
Thomas J. Domin, PE, for taking the time to develop my understanding of power system design and operations, for working
with me to develop effective communication skills, and for continuous mentoring.
Donald A. Reimert, for taking the time to discuss every difficult
problem Ive encountered and for providing practical insights to
obscure technical considerations.
Eileen Sleva, for sharing my life and my enthusiasm for electrical
power systems.

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2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC