Workbook Answers: 1 Physical Chemistry

WORKBOOK ANSWERS
AQA A-level Chemistry

Year 1 Topics
This Answers document provides suggestions for some of the possible answers that might be
given for the questions asked in the workbook. They are not exhaustive and other answers
may be acceptable, but they are intended as a guide to give teachers and students feedback.
1 Physical chemistry
3.1.1 Atomic structure
Fundamental particles
1a There is a concentration of positive charge in the atom / nucleus is positive  which
repelled the positive alpha particles / like charges repel. 
b The nucleus is very small. 
c The atom is mainly empty space. 
2 Both have electrons. 
Nucleus containing protons and neutrons in today’s model, no nucleus in plum pudding
model 
Electrons in shells / energy levels in today’s model, but scattered throughout in plum
pudding model 
No neutrons in plum pudding model, neutrons in today’s model 

Note that the command word compare means you must give similarities and differences.
3 a i The nucleus is small / atom is mainly empty space. 
ii The nucleus is positively charged / same charge as an alpha particle. 
b The nucleus is very dense / small / massive or The nucleus is positively charged. 
c Neutrons are neutral, so not attracted or repelled by the positive nucleus. 
They would all pass through. 
4 Protons and neutrons both have relative mass of 1. 
Proton positively charged, neutron no charge 
AQA A-level Chemistry Workbook Year 1 Topics 1

© Nora Henry, Alyn G. McFarland 2020 Hodder Education
Mass number and isotopes
5 A
The number of electrons depends on the atomic number. For aluminium, the atomic number is
13 hence an aluminium atom has 13 electrons. An aluminium ion is a 3+ ion so it has lost
3 electrons, hence it has 13 − 3 = 10 electrons.
6a
Atomic number 83
Mass number 209
Number of protons 83
Number of neutrons 126
Number of electrons 83
All correct 
The atomic number gives the number of protons, which is equal to the number of electrons so
there are 83 of each. The number of protons plus the number of neutrons gives the mass
number, 83 + 126 = 209
b Bismuth, Bi 
Using the atomic number of 83 and the periodic table, the element is bismuth, Bi.
7a Same electron configuration / same number of electrons in outer shell 
( 127× 95.91 ) + ( 129 ×2.49 ) +(131×1.60)

b Relative atomic mass =
100
12711.38
=  = 127.1 to 1 decimal place 
100
8a Cl(g) + e− → Cl+(g) + 2e− / Cl(g) → Cl+(g) + e− 
35 
b In a TOF spectrometer, the ions are accelerated to the same kinetic energy by an
electric field.  They then enter ion drift, where there is no electric field and they are
separated due to their different velocities;  smaller ions move faster than heavier ions.
The positively charged ions hit a negatively charged detector at different times due to
their different velocities and gain electrons from the plate.  The movement of
electrons creates a current which is recorded. The size of the current gives a measure
of the number of ions (abundance) hitting the plate. 

c
5 peaks in correct places  correct approximate heights 
d KE = ½mv2 = ½ × 35 × (1.19 × 106)2 = 2.478 × 1013 
2.478 × 1013 = ½ × 37 × v2 
v = 1.157 × 106 m s−1  = 1.16 × 106 m s−1 (3 sig fig) 
9 A
Lighter ions, which are accelerated by an electric field, reach the detector, which is a negative
plate, first.
10 D
The molecular ion peak is the one with the largest m/z value.
Electron configuration
11 a 1s1 
b 1s2 2s2 2p5 
c 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 
d 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 
e 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 
f 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2 
g 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 
h 1s2 2s2 2p6 
i 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 
j 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 
k 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 
l 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 

12 a Ca2+ 
b Br− 
c CaCl2 
d Mg3N2 
13 A
The alkali metals are Group 1 elements with one electron in the outer shell. It takes little energy
to remove this single electron from the outer shell, which is far from the attraction of the
nucleus.
14 C
The biggest difference in ionisation energies is between the third and fourth ionisation energies
(4000 kJ mol−1 to remove the third electron but 25000 kJ mol−1 to remove the fourth). This
suggests that the first three electrons are in an outer energy level and the fourth is in a filled
shell closer to the nucleus. This is a Group 3 element.
15 a i Rb(g) → Rb+(g) + e 
ii Decreases down the group. 
There is an increase in radius (and increased shielding) due to more shells. 
Hence there is less attraction of the outer electron to the nucleus. 
b i Increases across the period. 
There is an increase in nuclear charge. 
Shielding is similar, as the electron is being removed from the same shell. 
Outermost electron is held closer to the nucleus by the greater nuclear charge. 
ii Oxygen has a pair of electrons in a (2)p orbital. 
These repel. 
The electron configuration of O is 1s2 2s2 2p4. In one of the 2p orbitals, there is one pair of
electrons which repel, meaning that it takes less energy to remove one of these electrons than it
does for the electrons of nitrogen, which occupy one orbital each. Hence the ionisation energy is
slightly less for oxygen.
iii C+(g) → C2+(g) + e− 
iv Electron in carbon is removed from 2p orbital / higher energy orbital. 
or Electron in carbon is more shielded. 

The second ionisation energy requires removal of an electron from a positively charged ion. The
electron configuration of C+ is 1s2 2s2 2p1, hence the electron is removed from the 2p, which is
further from the nucleus and more shielded than the removal of an electron from the 2s in B +
(1s2 2s2).
Exam-style questions
1ai
Protons Neutrons Electrons

25
Mg 12 25 − 12 = 13 12 
26
Mg 12 26 − 12 = 14 12 

For an atom, the number of protons equals the number of electrons and equals the atomic
number. From the periodic table, the atomic number of magnesium is 12. The number of
neutrons is found by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number.
ii 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 

Magnesium has 12 electrons. The s subshell holds 2 electrons and the p subshell holds 6.
iii Relative abundance of third isotope = 100 − 10.11 − 11.29 = 78.60% 
25 ×10.11 ¿+ ( 26 ×11.29 ) +( y × 78.60) ¿

100
= 24.33 
252.75 + 293.54 + 78.60y = 2433

78.60y = 1886.71 
y = 24.00
y = 24 
The answer must be given to 2 significant figures, similar to the other mass number data.
iv Same number of electrons (in outer shell or orbital) / same electron configuration 
Isotopes are atoms of the same element and they have the same number of electrons in the
outer shell and, as a result, react in similar ways.
v Using an electric field 
To give all the ions a constant kinetic energy 
1 2
Kinetic energy = mv . If the particles all have the same kinetic energy, then the speed will
2
depend on the mass, and heavier particles will move more slowly than lighter particles and reach
the detector later.
25 ×10−3
vi Mass = 23
= 4.15 × 10−26 
6.022× 10
2 KE 2× 4.52 ×10−16
v2 = = = 2.178 × 1010 
m 4.15 ×10
−26
v=
√ 2 KE = 1.476 × 105 
m
d = vt
= (1.476 × 105) × (1.44 × 10−5)  = 2.125 m = 2.1 m (2 sig fig) 
b i Mg(g) → Mg+(g) + e− 
The first ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from one mole
of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous ions with one positive charge.
ii The electron is being removed from a positive ion and this therefore needs more
energy. 
The electron being removed is closer to the nucleus and held more tightly. 

The second ionisation energy is the energy for the change Mg+(g) → Mg2+(g) + e−. The electron is
being removed from a positive ion and is held closer to the nucleus. For first ionisation energy,
the electron is removed from the atom and is further from the nucleus.
iii Decreases down the group. 
There is an increase in radius (and increased shielding) due to more shells. 
Hence there is less attraction of the outer electron to the nucleus. 

3.1.2 Amount of substance
Relative atomic mass and relative
molecular mass and The mole and the
Avogadro constant
1 B
Dividing each mass by the Mr of the substance and multiplying by the number of atoms in one
molecule (44.0 and 3 for CO2, 18.0 and 3 for H2O, 16.0 and 5 for CH4 and 17.0 and 4 for NH3) gives
the relative number of moles of atoms. There is no need to multiply each by the Avogadro
constant. The greatest is 0.0375 for H2O though, which corresponds to 2.26 × 1022 atoms. Check
the rest to make sure you can work them out as some questions may require this skill.
(CO2 = 2.17 × 1022; CH4 = 2.11 × 1022; NH3 = 2.17 × 1022)
2 D
As the mixture contains 2 moles of Al3+ which is from 1 mole of Al2(SO4)3, this contributes
3 moles of sulfate ions so the remainder of the 5 moles of sulfate ions come from the sodium
sulfate, Na2SO4. 2 moles of sulfate ions from Na2SO4 means 4 moles of Na+ ions.
2.45
3a Number of oxygen atoms = × 6.022 × 1023 × 2 = 9.22 × 1022 
32.0
0.0500
b Number of oxygen atoms = × 6.022 × 1023 = 1.67 × 1021 
18.0
c Mass of ethanol = 1.50 × 0.790 = 1.185 g
1.185
Number of oxygen atoms = × 6.022 × 1023 = 1.55 × 1022 
46.0
45500
d Number of oxygen atoms = × 6.022 × 1023 × 4 = 1.22 × 1027 
90.0
4a Moles of caffeine = 9.12 × 1019/6.022 × 1023 = 1.514 × 10−4 
0.0294
Mr = = 194 
1.514 ×10−4
b H10N4O2 = 98
194 = (x × 12) + (10 × 1) + (4 × 14) + (2 × 16) = 12x + 98 so 12x = 96 and x =8 
The ideal gas equation

5 See Worked example on page 15.
6 B
pV 150000× 609× 10−6

n= = = 0.03664 mol
RT 8.31 ×300

1.25
Mr = = 34.1
0.03664
H2S has an Mr of 34.1.
0.0150
7 Moles of H2 = = 0.00750 
2
nRT 0.00750× 8.31 ×310
V= = = 1.84 × 10−4 m3 
p 105000
Volume of H2 = 184 cm3 
0.172
8 Moles of C6H12 = = 2.048 × 10−3 
84.0
nRT 2.048× 10−3 ×8.31 ×350
V= = = 4.963 × 10−5 m3 
p 120000
Volume of C6H12 = 49.6 cm3 
pV 125000× 150× 10−6

9a n= = = 7.051 × 10−3 mol 
RT 8.31× 320
Mass of N2 = 7.051 ×10−3 × 28.0 = 0.197 g 
b New total volume = V1
nRT 7.051×10−3 × 8.31× 315

V1 = = = 1.883 × 10−4 m3 
p 98000
V1 = 188.3 cm3 
Volume of flask Y = 188.3 − 150 = 38.3 cm3 
Empirical formula and molecular formula

10 Mass of calcium in the sample = 6.21 − (1.24 + 2.56) = 2.41 g ü
Ca P O
Mass/g 2.41 1.24 2.56
Ar 40.1 31.0 16.0
Moles 0.06 0.04 0.16
Ratio 1.5 × 2 = 3 1×2=2 4×2=8 ü
Empirical formula = Ca3P2O8 or Ca3(PO4)2 ü

x=2ü
11 Cü
Multiplying up the fraction to give whole numbers
C = 5 g and H = 1 g
C H
Mass/g 5 1

Ar 12.0 1.0
Moles 0.4167 1
Ratio 1×5=5 2.4 × 5 = 12
12 a
C H Cl
Mass/g 24.7 2.1 73.2
Ar 12.0 1.0 35.5
Moles 2.058 2.1 2.062
Ratio 1 1 1

Empirical formula = CHCl 
145.5
b =3
48.5
Molecular formula = C3H3Cl3 
13 a
C H O
Mass/g 0.720 0.0900 0.960
Ar 12.0 1.0 16.0
Moles 0.06 0.09 0.06
Ratio 1×2=2 1.5 × 2 = 3 1×2=2

Empirical formula = C2H3O2 
b Total mass = 0.720 + 0.960 + 0.0900 = 1.77 g 
1.77
Mr = = 118 
0.0150
118
=2
59
Molecular formula = C4H6O4 
Balanced equations and associated

calculations
14 C
24.75× 0.425
15 a Moles of KOH = 1000 = 0.01052 mol 

Ratio of KOH : H2SO4 = 2 : 1
0.01052
Amount (in moles) of H2SO4 = = 0.00526 mol 
2
Concentration of H2SO4 = 0.00526 × 40 = 0.210 mol dm−3 
b Weigh out 5.96 g of solid potassium hydroxide. 
Dissolve in 100–150 cm3 of deionised water. 
Transfer to a 250 cm3 volumetric flask. 
Wash container with deionised water into flask. 
Add deionised water until the bottom of the meniscus is on the line of the flask. 
Stopper and invert to mix solution. 
11.3× 0.126
16 a Moles of NaOH = 1000 = 1.4238 × 10−3 mol 
Moles of HCl in 25.0 cm3 = 1.4238 × 10−3 mol

Moles of HCl in 250 cm3 = 0.014238 mol 
50.0× 1.00
Moles of HCl added initially = = 0.05 mol 
1000
Moles of HCl which reacted with CaCO3 = 0.05 − 0.014238 = 0.035762 mol 
0.035762
Moles of CaCO3 = = 0.017881 mol 
2
Mass of CaCO3 = 0.017881 × 100.1 = 1.7899 g 
1.7899
Mass of CaCO3 in one tablet = = 0.3580 g = 358 mg 
5
b Mass of one tablet = 500 mg 
358
% of CaCO3 in one tablet = × 100 = 71.6 % 
500
17 a Weigh empty container (evaporating basin / crucible). 
Place hydrated copper(II) chloride in the container. 
Weigh container and hydrated solid. 
Heat, weigh and repeat. 
Continue until consecutive mass measurements are the same. 
1.96
b Moles of CuCl2 = 134.5 = 0.01457 mol 
Mass of water lost = 2.48 − 1.96 = 0.52 g 

0.52
Moles of H2O = = 0.02889 
18.0
Ratio of CuCl2 : H2O = 0.01457 : 0.02889 = 1 : 2, so x = 2 
0.450
18 a Moles of FeCl3.6H2O = moles of FeCl3 = 270.3 = 1.665 × 10−3 mol 
Moles of Cl− = 1.665 × 10−3 × 3 = 4.995 × 10−3 mol 
45.0 ×0.120
Moles of AgNO3 = moles of Ag+ = = 5.40 × 10−3 mol 
1000
AgNO3 is in excess. 
b Using moles of Cl−:

Moles of AgCl = 4.995 × 10−3 mol 
Mass of AgCl = 4.995 × 10−3 × 143.4 = 0.716 g 
6.00
19 a Moles of H2O = 18.0 = 0.3333 mol 
4.85
Moles of Mg3N2 = = 0.04807 mol 
1000
Moles of H2O required for 0.04807 mol of Mg3N2 = 0.2884 mol 
Water is in excess. 
Moles of Mg(OH)2 = 0.04807 × 3 = 0.1442 mol 
Mass of Mg(OH)2 = 0.1442 × 58.3 = 8.41 g 
34.0
b % atom economy = 208.9  × 100 = 16.3% 
3.25
20 a Moles of Cr(NO3)3 = 238.0 = 0.01366 mol 
0.01366
b Moles of H2O2 required = 2 × 3 = 0.0205 mol 
0.0205× 1000
Volume = = 35.3 cm3 
0.580
0.01366
c Moles of K2Cr2O7 = 2 = 6.83 × 10−3 mol 
Mass of K2Cr2O7 = 6.83 × 10−3 × 294.2 = 2.01 g 
1.42
d % yield = 2.01 × 100 = 70.7% 
e Not all crystallised / side reactions / incomplete reaction 
21 a Using titres 2 and 4 

Concordant results / ignore outliers 
b Uncertainty in titre = 0.05 × 2 = 0.1 cm3 
0.1
% uncertainty = × 100 = 0.6% 
16.8
c Lower concentration of hydrochloric acid 
Higher titre 
17.2× 0.120
d Moles of HCl = 1000 = 2.064 × 10−3 mol 
−3
2.064 ×10
Moles of Na2CO3 in 25.0 cm = 3
= 1.032 × 10−3 mol 
2
Moles of Na2CO3 in 250 cm3 = 0.01032 mol 
2.58
Mr of Na2CO3.xH2O = = 250.0 
0.01032
Mr due to water = 250.0 − 106.0 = 144.0 
144.0
x= =8
18.0
1 C
3000
Moles of Fe2O3 = 159.6 = 18.8 mol
300
Moles of C = 12 = 25 mol
Reactant in excess = Fe2O3
25
Moles of Fe formed = 3 × 4 = 33.33 mol
Mass of Fe formed = 33.33 × 55.8 = 1860 g = 1.86 kg
0.500
2a Moles of NaN3 = 65.0 = 7.692 × 10−3 mol 
Moles of Na = 7.692 × 10−3 mol
Mass of Na = 7.692 × 10−3 × 23.0 = 0.177 g 
−3
7.692×10
b Moles of N2 = 2 × 3 = 0.01154 mol 
nRT 0.01154 ×8.31 ×320

V= =  = 2.790 × 10−4 m3 = 279
p 110000
cm3 

314.7
3a % atom economy = 557.4  × 100 = 56.5% 
b Mass of benzene = 0.877 × 5.50 = 4.8235 g 
4.8235
Moles of benzene = = 0.06184 mol 
78.0
Theoretical yield, moles of 1,3,5-tribromobenzene = 0.06184 mol 
Theoretical yield, mass of 1,3,5-tribromobenzene = 0.06184 × 314.7 = 19.46 g 
11.58
% yield = × 100 = 59.5% 
19.46
Density = mass/volume where, if the density is given in g cm−3, the mass is in grams and the
volume is in cm3. Be careful that you understand the difference between a liquid and a solution.
A liquid is a pure substance. A solution contains a solute dissolved in a solvent. Density is used
to convert between the volume (in cm3) and mass (in g).
2.27
4a Moles of Ba(OH)2.8H2O = −3
315.3 = 7.20 × 10 mol 
7.20× 10−3
3
Moles of Ba(OH)2 in 25.0 cm = = 1.80 × 10−4 mol 
40
Moles of HCl required = 1.80 × 10−4 × 2 = 3.60 × 10−4 mol 
3.60× 10−4 × 1000

Volume of HCl required = = 18.0 cm3 
0.0200
21.7 ×0.0200
b Moles of HCl = 1000 = 4.34 × 10−4 mol 
−4
4.34 × 10
Moles of Ba(OH)2 in 25.0 cm =
3
= 2.17 × 10−4 mol
2
Moles of Ba(OH)2 in 1 dm3 = 2.17 × 10-4 × 40 = 8.68 × 10−3 mol 
2.27
Mr of Ba(OH)2.xH2O = −3 = 261.5
8.68 ×10
Mr of xH2O = 261.5 − 171.3 = 90.2
90.2
x= =5
18.0
5 Mass of MgSO4 = 27.26 − 24.25 = 3.01 g 
3.01
Moles of MgSO4 = = 0.025 mol 
120.4
Mass of H2O = 29.96 − 27.26 = 2.7 g 

2.7
Moles of H2O = = 0.15 mol 
18
0.15
x= =6
0.025

3.1.3 Bonding
Ionic bonding
1 A
Ammonium chloride is an ionic compound. Methane and water are molecular covalent
compounds and silicon dioxide is a macromolecular covalent compound.
2a 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 

Copper is a transition metal so loses its 4s electrons first and then one electron from the 3d
subshell.
Compound Formula
Copper(II) nitrate Cu(NO3)2 
Copper(II) sulfate CuSO4 
Copper(II) hydroxide Cu(OH)2 
c Ionic 
Strong attraction  between oppositely charged Cu2+ and Cl− ions 
3a Ionic bonding is the attraction between oppositely charged ions. 
Ionic lattice is a regular arrangement of ions. 
b Tl2SO4 
c Tl2O + H2O → 2TlOH 
4 B
The Mg2+ ion and the N3− ion both have the same electron configuration as Ne (1s2 2s2 2p6). Al3+
and O2− also have this electron configuration but the charges are 3+ and 2− as opposed to 2+
and 3−.
Nature of covalent and dative covalent

bonds
5 D
6a
b 1+ / + 

c Both contain a shared pair of electrons. 
Each atom in the bond donates one electron in a covalent bond. 
One atom in the bond donates both electrons in a coordinate bond. 
Molecule Number of Number of Number of

single double triple covalent
covalent covalent bonds
bonds bonds
N2 0 0 1 
NH3 3 0 0 
CH4 4 0 0 
C2H4 4 1 0 
CO2 0 2 0 
HCN 1 0 1 
8 B
There are a total of four single covalent bonds, one double covalent bond and one triple covalent
bond, meaning nine pairs of electrons shared between atoms.
Metallic bonding
9a 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 
Remember that copper has an unusual electron configuration. It has a more stable filled 3d
subshell. It does not end in 3d9 4s2.
b Contains positive metal ions and delocalised electrons 
Strong attraction between them / strong metallic bonding 

You must recognise that copper has metallic bonding and, as a result, there is a strong
attraction between positive metal ions and delocalised electrons that needs much energy to be
broken, resulting in a high melting point. Note that mentioning other types of bonding (such as
intermolecular forces, ionic or covalent bonding) in your answer will result in losing marks.

Note that the particles must be regularly arranged and there must be a + or 2+ (as shown here).
10 C

The metals will be better conductors of electricity than silicon. The more delocalised electrons,
the greater the electrical conductivity of the metal so aluminium, which has 3 electrons in its
outer energy level, has a greater number of delocalised electrons than sodium or magnesium.
11 D
Bonding and physical properties

12 C
Both diamond and graphite are giant covalent. Sodium chloride has ionic bonding between the
metal sodium ion and the non-metallic chloride ion, hence it has an ionic crystal structure.
Iodine is covalently bonded in molecules and has a molecular crystal structure.
13
Substance Type of Name of High or low Does it conduct

bonding crystal melting electricity?
structure point?
Magnesium chloride Ionic Ionic High When molten or dissolved 
Nickel Metallic Metallic High Yes 
Ammonia Covalent Molecular Low No 
Carbon dioxide Covalent Molecular Low No 
14 a Structure: giant covalent / macromolecular 
Bonding: covalent bonds between carbon atoms 
Weak intermolecular forces / van der Waals forces between layers 
High melting point: many strong covalent bonds need to be broken 
Good conduction: one electron per carbon is delocalised 
This electron can move and carry charge. 
b Little energy is needed to break forces. 
Weak intermolecular forces / van der Waals forces between the molecules 
When solid, carbon dioxide is a molecular crystal with weak van der Waals forces between the
molecules. These weak forces break below room temperature, and carbon dioxide is a gas.
15 a Ionic bonding 
Ionic lattice 
b K+ ion is larger than Na+ ion. 
Br− ion is larger than Cl− ion. 
Ionic bonding is stronger in NaCl compared to NaBr. 
Ionic bonding is stronger in KCl compared to NaCl. 
c Mg2+ and O2− ions are the smallest ions. 
2+ and 2− charges 

Ionic bonding is strongest between these ions. 
16 Bonding is metallic bonding and structure is metallic lattice. 
Which is the attraction between positive ions and delocalised electrons 
High melting point: Metallic bonding is strong. 
Requires substantial energy to break. 
Electrical conductivity: Delocalised electrons can move and carry charge. 
17 a B 
Low melting point / boiling point 
b C
Conducts electricity when solid and when liquid. 
c Does not conduct electricity. 
d A
Does not conduct electricity when solid but does when molten. 
Shapes of simple molecules and ions

18 C
The hydroxide ion OH− has 3 lone pairs of electrons and 1 bonding pair of electrons.
19 D
BeCl2 is linear (bond angle of 180°), BCl3 is trigonal planar (bond angle 120°), SiH4 is tetrahedral
(bond angle 109.5°) and SF6 is octahedral (bond angle 90°).
20 a Hydronium / hydroxonium / oxonium ion 
Molecule/ion Total Number of Number of Shape Bond

number of lone pairs of bonding pairs angle/°
electrons electrons of electrons
H2O 10 2 2 Bent 104.5
H3O+ 10 1 3 Pyramidal 107
    
c Ammonia 
21
Molecule/ion Shape Bond angle/°
SiCl4 Tetrahedral 109.5 
PH3 Pyramidal 107 
H2S Bent 104.5 
ClF2+ Bent 104.5 

AQA A-level
BCl3Chemistry WorkbookTrigonal planar 120  Year 1 Topics 18
AlH4− Tetrahedral 109.5 
PH4+ Tetrahedral 109.5 

22 a P has five electrons in its outer shell and shares five electrons with Cl (ten e − total in
outer shell) 
Five bonding pairs 
Electron pairs repel each other as far away as possible. 
Bonding pairs repel each other equally. 
Trigonal bipyramidal shape 
Bond angles 90° and 120° 
b i Bonding pairs = 3 
Lone pairs = 11 
The I atom has 3 bonding pairs of electrons and 2 lone pairs of electrons, but each Cl atom also
has 3 lone pairs of electrons.
ii T-shaped 
iii PCl4+: tetrahedral  four bonding pairs 

PCl6−: octahedral  six bonding pairs  bonding pairs repel each other equally 
Bond polarity and Forces between

molecules
23 A
For hydrogen bonds to form, hydrogen must bond with a polar O, N or F. In A there are no O, N
or F atoms.
24 B
Ignoring the noble gases, moving across a period, electronegativity increases and moving down
a group, it decreases.
25 a Induced dipole–dipole attractions / van der Waals forces 
Water molecules with correct partial charges 

Correct hydrogen bond between H and lone pair of O 
c Water: bent, so not symmetrical. 
Carbon dioxide: linear  equally polar bonds / dipoles cancel each other out. 
d Difference in electronegativity between H and O is small. 
e Water molecules are held further apart in ice than in liquid water as hydrogen bonds
are fixed. 
There is more space between the molecules. 
26 a
b Fluorine is more electronegative than iodine. 
c BF3: Trigonal planar  symmetrical  equally polar bonds / dipoles cancel 
ICl3: T-shaped  non-symmetrical  equally polar bond / dipoles do not cancel 
Substance Induced dipole- Permanent dipole- Hydrogen bonds

dipole attractions dipole attractions
IF3   
BF3  
e IF3, as stronger induced dipole–dipole attractions 
As larger molecule / more electrons 
Also permanent dipole–dipole attractions 
1a P4 + 6Br2 → 4PBr3 
b Covalent bonds between the atoms 
Weak intermolecular forces between the molecules 
Melting breaks the weak intermolecular forces between the molecules which does not
require much energy. 
Phosphorus tribromide is a compound between two non-metals, hence is a molecular crystal
with covalent bonding between the atoms and weak intermolecular forces between the
molecules. The weak intermolecular forces do not need much energy to break and so the melting
point is low.
c P has five electrons in its outer shell and shares three electrons with Br (eight e − total in
outer shell). 
Three bonding pairs and one lone (non-bonding) pair 
Electron pairs repel each other as far away as possible. 
Lone pairs repel more than bonding pairs. 

Pyramidal shape 
Bond angle 107° 
2a Li2CO3 + 2HBr → 2LiBr + CO2 + H2O 
b Ionic 
Strong attractions 
Between oppositely charged ions 
3a Shared pair of electrons 
b Ammonia: 10 
Hydrogen chloride: 18 
c Hydrogen chloride has induced dipole–dipole / van der Waals forces / London forces
and permanent dipole–dipole attractions between molecules. 
Ammonia has induced dipole–dipole / van der Waals forces / London forces and
hydrogen bonds between molecules. 
Hydrogen bonds are stronger than induced dipole–dipole attractions. 
d Strong ionic bonding 
Substantial energy required to break so high melting point 
107° 
4a Induced dipole–dipole attractions / van der Waals forces / London forces 
b i 8Mg + S8 → 8MgS 
ii
Substance Structure Bonding
Magnesium Metallic lattice Metallic bonding 
Magnesium sulfide Ionic lattice Ionic bonding 
iii Magnesium: delocalised electrons can move and carry charge 
Magnesium sulphide: ions / charge carriers cannot move and carry charge 
c i S has six electrons in its outer shell and shares six with F (twelve e − total in outer shell
of S); six bonding pairs 
Electron pairs repel each other as far away as possible; bonding pairs repel each other
equally. 
Octahedral shape 
Bond angle 90° 
ii


iii Molecule is symmetrical. 
Equally polar bonds / dipoles cancel each other out. 

3.1.4 Energetics
Enthalpy change
1a CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) 
b Na(s) + ½Cl2(g) → NaCl(s) 
c CH3CH2CH2CH2OH(l) + 6O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(l) 
d K(s) + ¼O2(g) → ½K2O(s) 
e Mg(s) + N2(g) + 3O2(g) → Mg(NO3)2(s) 
2a 2C(s) + 2H2(g) → C2H4(g) 
b All three ΔH values are negative. 
c i +572 kJ 
ii −788 kJ 
iii +2822 kJ 
3a Enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is completely burned in oxygen under

standard conditions. 
b 298 K and 100 kPa 
c i Mg(s) + ½O2(g) → MgO(s) 
ii C2H6(g) + 3½O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) 
iii C2H4(OH)2(l) + 2½O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) 
Calorimetry
4a Heat energy (q) = 2021000 × 0.0232 = 46887.2 J 
q = mcΔT
46887.2 = 200 × 4.18 × ΔT 
ΔT = 56.1°C 
b Any two from: heat loss to surroundings / heat loss by evaporation / heat absorbed in
heating the beaker / incomplete combustion 
1.00
5 Moles of propanone = 58.0 = 0.01724 mol 
ΔT = 64.3 − 18.8 = 45.5°C 
q = mcΔT = 150 × 4.18 × 45.5 = 28528.5 J 
28528.5
ΔH = = −  1654.8 kJ mol−1 
0.01724 ×1000

Note that the final answer is negative as it is an exothermic reaction because the temperature
has increased.
6a
Axes labelled and scaled appropriately 
Two best-fit lines drawn 
Extrapolated to 4 minutes 
Initial temperature (20.4°C) and final temperature (15.9°C) 
ΔT = 4.5°C 
10.0
b Moles of KI = 166.0 = 0.06024 mol 
q = mcΔT = 50 × 4.18 × 4.5 = 940.5 J 
940.5
ΔH = = +  15.6 kJ mol−1 
0.06024 ×1000
c Heat exchange with surroundings or container / evaporation 
Applications of Hess’s law

8 A
The equation for the combustion is:
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
ΔH = 3(−394) + 4(−286) − (−104) = −2222 kJ mol−1

9 a i The enthalpy change in a reaction is independent of the route taken and depends only
on the initial and final states. 
ii CO(g) + ½O2(g) → CO2(g) 
b ΔH = −394 − (−110)  = −  284 kJ mol−1 
10 a 6C(s) + 7H2(g) → C6H14(l) 
b ΔH = 6(−394) + 7(−286) − (−4195)  = −171 kJ mol−1 
11 a C8H18(l) + 12½O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 9H2O(l) 
b −5476 = 8(−394) + 9(−286)  − ΔfH⦵ (C8H18) 
ΔfH⦵(C8H18) = −250 kJ mol−1 
12 a Oxygen gas is an element in its standard state. 
b ΔH = 2(−217) + 2(−297) − 2(−100)  = −828 kJ 
−828
Per mole of lead(II) sulfide = = −414 kJ mol−1 
2
Bond enthalpies
13 D
Bonds broken: (C=C) + 4(C–H) + 3(O=O) = 611 + 4(412) + 3(496) = 3747
Bonds made: 4(C=O) + 4(O–H) = 4(803) + 4(463) = 5064
ΔH = 3747 − 5064 = −1317 kJ mol−1
14 a Bonds broken: (I–I) + (Cl–Cl) = 151 + 242 = 393 kJ mol −1 
Bonds made: 2(I–Cl) = 2(212) = 424 kJ mol−1 
ΔH = 393 − 424 = −31 kJ mol−1 
b In their standard states, I2 and ICl are solids. 
c Bonds only occur in these molecules. 
15 a Bonds broken: 3(C–H) + (C–O) + (O–H) + 1.5(O=O)

= 3(412) + (360) + (O–H) + 1.5(496) = 2340 + (O–H) 
Bonds made: 2(C=O) + 4(O–H) = 2(803) + 4(O–H) = 1606 + 4(O–H) 
ΔH = −655 = 2340 + (O–H) − (1606 + 4(O–H)) 
−1389 = −3(O–H)
O–H = 463 kJ mol−1 
b Mean bond enthalpy values are not specific to the molecules in the reaction / averaged
over many molecules containing the bond. 
0.400
1a Moles of ethanol = 46.0 = 0.008696 mol 

q = mcΔT = 100 × 4.18 × 20.5 = 8569 J 
8569
ΔH = = −  985.4 kJ mol−1 
0.008696 ×1000
b Bonds broken: (C–C) + 5(C–H) + (C–O) + (O–H) + 3(O=O)
= 348 + 5(412) + 360 + 463 + 3(496) = 4719 
Bonds made: 4(C=O) + 6(O–H) = 4(C=O) + 6(463) = 4(C=O) + 2778 
ΔH = −1271 = 4719 − (4(C=O) + 2778) 
4(C=O) = 3212
C=O = 803 kJ mol−1 
c i The enthalpy change in a reaction is independent of the route taken and depends only
on the initial and final states. 
ii ΔH = 2(−394) + 3(−286)  − (−278)  = −1368 kJ mol−1 
2a Bonds broken: (C=C) + 4(C–H) + 2(O–H)

= 611 + 4(C–H) + 2(463) = 1537 + 4(C–H) 
Bonds made: (C–C) + 5(C–H) + (C–O) + (O–H)

= 348 + 5(C–H) + 360 + 463 = 1171 + 5(C–H) 
ΔH = −46 = 1537 + 4(C–H) − (1171 + 5(C–H))

C–H = 412 kJ mol−1 
b ΔH = −278  − (52 +(−286))  = −44  kJ mol−1
c All assumed to be gases when using bond enthalpy values / mean bond enthalpy
values are not specific to the molecules in the reaction / mean bond enthalpy values
are averaged across molecules containing the bond. 
3a

Two best-fit lines drawn 
Extrapolated to 4 minutes 
Initial temperature (19.2°C) and final temperature (31.7°C) 
ΔT = 12.5°C 
b NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O 
50.0× 2.00
c Moles of H2O = moles of NaOH  = 1000 = 0.100 mol 
d q = mcΔT = 100 × 4.18 × 12.5 = 5225 J 
5225
ΔH = =  −52.3 kJ mol−1 
0.1× 1000
e Heat loss to surroundings / heat loss by evaporation / heat loss to container 

3.1.5 Kinetics
1 D
2a 80 cm3 
b 46–50 s (any value in this range) 
Time period/s Change in volume of Rate of reaction in

gas in time period/cm3 time period/cm3 s−1
0–10 40 4
10–20 25 2.5
20–30 10 1
30–40 4 0.4
40–50 1 0.1
 
The volume of gas in the second time period (10–20 s) is calculated by subtracting the volume of
gas at 20 s from the volume of gas at 10 s, which is 65 − 40 = 25 cm3. This process continues for
the other time periods. The rate is calculated by dividing the volume of gas by the interval of the
time periods, which is 10 s, giving a rate in cm3 s−1.
d As reaction proceeds, rate of reaction decreases. 
Reactant particles are used up. 
Fewer successful collisions in successive time periods. 
e Curve labelled A starts at (0, 0) and stays higher than 25°C curve but levels off sooner
at 80 cm3. 
f Curve labelled B starts at (0, 0) and stays lower than 25°C curve but levels off later at
80 cm3. 
Examples of suitable graphs for e and f are given below.

3 B
4a No particles have zero energy. 
b Activation energy 
c Peak moved to the right and lower; crosses other curve once. 
d Many more particles with energy greater than the activation energy 
More successful collisions 
In a given period of time 
e Lower value 
5a B
b D
c A
d Peak moved to the left and higher; crosses other curve once 
1a Rate increases as particles pushed closer together 
More successful collisions 
In a given period of time 
b i 3 moles of gas on left of reaction 
2 moles of gas on right 
ii 66–70 s (any value in this range) 
iii Starts at 60 cm3; stays lower than the other curve; levels off earlier at 40 cm3 

iv Slope / gradient of graph = rate 
Gradient decreases as reaction proceeds 
Fewer reactant particles 
Fewer successful collisions in a given time 
v 15 cm3 O2 left over 
50 cm3 of NO2 formed 
Total volume = 65 cm3 
2a Emp = most probable energy 
Ea = activation energy 
b i Ea decreases. 
Emp and X do not change. 
ii Emp decreases and X increases. 
Ea does not change. 
iii X decreases. 
Emp and Ea do not change. 

Remember that the activation energy, Ea, is only affected by the addition of a catalyst. Emp and X
will change if the temperature changes. X changes if the number of particles changes, i.e. with a
change in concentration.

3.1.6 Chemical equilibria,
Le Chatelier’s principle and Kc
Chemical equilibria and Le Chatelier’s
principle
2a Rates of forward and reverse reactions are equal. 
Concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. 
b 1.5 mol of gas forms 1 mol of gas. (1.5 mol of gas on left and 1 mol of gas on right) 
Position of equilibrium moves to the right to lower the pressure / oppose the increase in
pressure. 
Increases yield of NO2. 
c Forward reaction is exothermic. 
Position of equilibrium moves to the left to decrease the temperature / oppose the
increase in temperature. 
Decreases yield of NO2. 
d No effect 
Catalyst speeds up the rates of the forward and reverse reactions equally. 
3a A
Fewer moles of gas on the right-hand side / smaller gas volume on right-hand side 
pressure. 
b B
c D
Forward reaction is endothermic. 
Position of equilibrium moves to the right to decrease the temperature / oppose the
4a Haber process: 4 mol of gas forms 2 mol of gas. 
pressure. 
Contact process: 3 mol of gas forms 2 mol of gas.
pressure. 
b Activation energy for Haber process greater / nitrogen very unreactive 

Position of equilibrium moves to the left to lower the temperature / oppose the increase
in temperature. 
Lower temperature would give a low rate of reaction / 450°C is compromise

temperature giving a reasonable yield and rate. 
5a A system at equilibrium will respond to oppose any changes imposed upon it. 
b i Forward reaction is endothermic. 
Position of equilibrium moves to the right to lower the temperature / oppose the
ii 2 mol of gas forms 3 mol of gas. 
Position of equilibrium moves to the left to lower the pressure / oppose the increase in
pressure. 
iii No effect 
Catalyst increases the rates of the forward and reverse reactions equally. 
iv Position of equilibrium moves to the right to remove the added B / oppose the increase
in concentration of B. 
Equilibrium constant, Kc, for

homogeneous systems
7 D
The equilibrium constant, Kc, may have no units or units based on a positive or negative power
of mol dm−3. In this example, it is (mol dm−3)2 − (1 + 3) = (mol dm−3)−2 = mol−2 dm6.
8 D
Moles of A present at equilibrium = mol of B = 0.25
Moles of A which reacted = 0.75
Moles of C formed = 2 × 0.75 = 1.5
[C] 2 (1.5)2
=¿
Kc = [ A ] [B] (0.25)(0.25) = 36
2 4
[C] [D]
9a Kc = 2 3 
[ A ] [B ]
b i Moles of B which reacted = 2.1
2.1
Moles of A which reacted = × 2 = 1.4
3

Moles of A at equilibrium = 2.50 − 1.4 = 1.1 
Moles of C at equilibrium = 1.4 
Moles of D at equilibrium = 2.8 
1.1
ii Concentration of A at equilibrium = = 0.055 mol dm−3
20
0.90
Concentration of B at equilibrium = = 0.045 mol dm−3
20
1.4
Concentration of C at equilibrium = = 0.070 mol dm−3
20
2.8
Concentration of D at equilibrium = = 0.14 mol dm−3
20
All correct  (Each error −)
[ C]2 [D] 4 (0.070)2( 0.14)4

Kc =
[ A ] [B ] = (0.055) (0.045)  = 6.8  mol dm 
−3
2 3 2 3
c i 3E + 2F ⇌ G + 2H 
ii Endothermic 
Kc increases as temperature increases. 
10 a i 2x 
2
[HI ]
iiKc = [ H ¿¿ 2][ I 2 ]¿ 
2
(2 x )
¿
iii = ( 2−x ) (2−x ) = = 50 
2x
(
2−x
) = √ 50 = 7.07 
2x = 7.07 × (2 − x)
2x = 14.14 − 7.07x
9.07x = 14.14
14.14
x= = 1.56 
9.07
iv 2x = 3.12 
3.12
[HI] = = 0.624 mol dm−3 
5

1
b Kc = = 0.02 
50
11 a 7.5–8 minutes 
Concentrations no longer changing. 
Starts at origin. 
Increases steadily to 0.6 at between 7 and 8 minutes. 
[N ¿¿ 2]¿ ¿ ¿
c Kc =  mol dm−3 
(0.60)(1.20)2
d Kc = (0.40)2  = 5.4  (mol dm−3)
e Kc decreases. 
Forward reaction is exothermic. 
in temperature. 

[SO3 ]
1a Kc = ¿¿¿ 
(0.00164)
¿
b 4.2 × 10 =−2
( 0.145 ) ¿¿ ¿ 
2
0.00164
[O2] = ( )  = 0.073 mol dm−3 
0.145 ×4.2 ×10−2
in temperature. 
Kc decreases. 
d 1.5 mol of gas forms 1 mol of gas. 
pressure. 
Kc does not change. 
2a Moles of P which reacted = 1.40 − 0.85 = 0.55 
Moles of Q which reacted = 2 × 0.55 = 1.1 
Moles of Q at equilibrium = 2.00 − 1.1 = 0.90 
Moles of R formed = 1.1 
0.85
[P] = = 0.34 mol dm−3
2.50
0.90
[Q] = = 0.36 mol dm−3
2.50
1.1
[R] = = 0.44 mol dm−3
2.50
All 3 concentrations correct 
2
[R ]
2
b Kc = [ P ] [Q] 
2
(0.44)
c Kc = (0.34)( 0.36)2 = 4.4  mol dm 
−1 3
d No effect 
Kc not affected by changes in volume / pressure 
e [R] would decrease. 
3 mol of gas forms 2 mol of gas. 
Position of equilibrium moves to the left to oppose the increase in volume / larger
volume means lower concentration of gas. 

f Kc would be smaller. 
Forward reaction is exothermic. 

3.1.7 Oxidation, reduction and redox
equations
2 A
3 C

5a Oxygen is reduced. 
Oxidation state changes from −1 in H2O2 to −2 in H2O. 
b Iodine is oxidised. 
Oxidation state changes from −1 in KI / I− to 0 in I2. 
c Oxidation: 2I− → I2 + 2e− 
Reduction: H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e− → 2H2O 
d Hydrogen peroxide / H2O2 
Electron acceptor 
6 H2S S8 S2O32− SO2 SO42− 
Oxidation states: −2, 0, +2, +4, +6 
7a NO2− + H2O → NO3− + 2H+ + 2e− 
b Cr2O72− + 14H+ + 6e− → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O 
c Cr2O72− + 8H+ + 3NO2− → 2Cr3+ + 4H2O + 3NO3− 
Each error −
8a Potassium sulfate(IV) 
b SO32− + 2H+ + VO2+ → SO42− + H2O + V3+ 
c Half-equation 1 is oxidation as it loses electrons. 
Half-equation 2 is reduction as it gains electrons. 
d Potassium ions 
Chloride ions 
Compound Oxidation state of Cl

HOCl +1
HCl −1
NaClO +1
NaCl −1
NaClO3 +5

All correct 
Any single error 
More than one error 0

10 a Fe oxidation state changes from +2 in FeCl2 to +3 in FeCl3 / Fe2(SO4)3. 
Mn oxidation state changes from +7 in KMnO4 to +2 in MnSO4. 
Redox is oxidation and reduction occurring in the same reaction. 
b Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e− 
c Electron acceptors 
11
Compound/ion IUPAC name
NaClO4 Sodium chlorate(VII)
IO3− Iodate(V) (ion)
K2MnO4 Potassium manganate(VI)
Al(NO3)3 Aluminium nitrate(V)
BrO− Bromate(I) (ion)
N2O Nitrogen(I) oxide
SO3 Sulfur(VI) oxide
All correct 
Any single error 
More than one error 0

12 a Oxidation: Cu → Cu2+ + 2e− 
Reduction: NO3− + 4H+ + 3e− → NO + 2H2O / HNO3 + 3H+ + 3e− → NO + 2H2O 
b 3Cu + 2NO3− + 8H+ → 3Cu2+ + 2NO + 4H2O

or
3Cu + 2HNO3 + 6H+ → 3Cu2+ + 2NO + 4H2O
 (Each error −)
c N oxidation state changes from +5 in HNO3 to +2 in NO. 
Cu oxidation states changes from 0 in Cu to +2 in Cu 2+. 
1 a i HNO3 +5 NO2 +4 
ii HNO3 + H+ + e− → NO2 + H2O 

b i H2S + 8HNO3 → 4H2O + 8NO2 + H2SO4 
ii NO2: nitrogen(IV) oxide 
H2SO4: sulfuric(VI) acid 
2a Cr oxidation state changes from +6 in K2Cr2O7 to +3 in Cr2(SO4)3. 
Br oxidation state changes from −1 in KBr / Br− to 0 in Br2. 
b Oxidation: 2Br− → Br2 + 2e− 
Reduction: Cr2O72− + 14H+ + 6e− → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O 
c Cr2O72− + 14H+ + 6Br− → 2Cr3+ + 3Br2 + 7H2O

d Sulfate ions 
Potassium ions 
e Bromide ions / Br− 
3a Mn oxidation state changes from +7 in KMnO4 to +6 in K2MnO4. 
And to +4 in MnO2 
O oxidation state changes from −2 in KMnO4 to 0 in O2. 
b MnO4− + e− → MnO42− 
MnO4− + 4H+ + 3e− → MnO2 + 2H2O 

2 Inorganic chemistry
3.2.1 Periodicity
Classification and Physical properties of
Period 3 elements
1 C
2 D
3 S8 molecules have a larger Mr than Cl2 molecules. 
Hence there are stronger van der Waals forces between the molecules and so they are
held more tightly together and need more energy to break. 
4 Silicon is a giant covalent structure and more energy is needed to break the many
strong covalent bonds  than is needed to break the weaker metallic bonds  in
aluminium.
5a The energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms
to form one mole of gaseous ions with a single positive charge. 
b Outer electrons in p orbitals 
c Al(g) → Al+(g) + e 
d i Increased nuclear charge / more protons  electrons removed from same shell / similar
shielding  and so outer electron held closer to nucleus.
ii Pair of electrons in 3p  repulsion between the electrons in this pair 
e Atomic radius decreases. 
Number of protons increases. 
Similar shielding  so outer electron is held closer to nucleus by greater charge.
f Greater ionic charge / more protons 
Stronger attraction between ions and delocalised electrons 

3.2.2 Group 2, the alkaline earth
metals
1 B
2a Ba2+ 
CO32− 
b Barium is a very reactive element. 
c Ba(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) 
d MgSO4 
e It is taken as a ‘barium meal’ as it absorbs x-rays and allows the gut to be seen. / It is
insoluble and so, although toxic, is safe to use. 
f In magnesium the delocalised electrons are closer to cations, as the cation has fewer
electron shells and is smaller. 
Hence there is a stronger attraction between the cations and the delocalised electrons
and stronger metallic bonding. 
g i It contains sulfate ions / would form a white precipitate. 
ii To remove carbonate ions which would also precipitate out. 
iii Ba2+ + SO42− → BaSO4 
3a Increases 
More shells 
More shielding  so less attraction by nucleus on outer electrons
b i Increases 
ii Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + 2H2 
Calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble. 
c Decreases 
More shells of electrons 
More shielding  less nuclear attraction for outer electron
d Decreases 

3.2.3 Group 7 (17), the halogens
Trends in properties and Uses of
chlorine and chlorate(I)
1 A
2 D
3 Dissolve in water , add a few drops of silver nitrate and then some dilute ammonia
Sodium chloride: white precipitate  which is soluble in dilute ammonia 
Sodium bromide: cream precipitate  which is insoluble in dilute ammonia 
4a NaCl + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HCl 
b Br− ions are bigger than Cl− ions. 
Therefore Br− ions are more easily oxidised / lose an electron more easily. 
c i Purple vapour / gas

(White solid goes to) black or black-grey or black-purple solid.
Bad egg smell
Any two 
ii The iodide ion(s) lose (an) electron(s). 
iii Oxidation state of S changes from +6 to −2. 
H2SO4 + 8H+ + 8e− → H2S + 4H2O 
5a Cl2 + 2I− → 2Cl− + I2 
Solution changes from colourless to brown. 
b i 2NaOH + Cl2 → NaCl + NaClO + H2O 
Products are sodium chloride, sodium chlorate(I) and water. 
ii Cl2(g) + H2O(l) ⇌ HCl + HClO 
Products are hydrochloric acid and chloric(I) acid. 
6a Silver nitrate solution followed by dilute ammonia solution 
White precipitate which dissolves in ammonia 
Cream precipitate 
b Any soluble chloride / bromide / iodide 
White / cream / yellow precipitate 
Remains colourless 
c Any soluble sulfate 

Remains colourless 
White precipitate 
7 C
1 B
2 B
3a Mg + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + H2 
b Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2 
Used in antacid / indigestion tablets 
c i TiCl4 + 2Mg → Ti + 2MgCl2 
Titanium is reduced. 
The oxidation number of titanium decreases from +4 to 0: a decrease in oxidation

number. 
ii Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2 
The magnesium sulfate is soluble and the Ti solid can be filtered off. 
4a A: Bromide  Ag + + Br− → AgBr 
B: Sulfate  Ba2+ + SO42− → BaSO4 
C: Chloride  Ag+ + Cl− → AgCl 
b To remove any carbonate ions which may interfere with the test. 
c Magnesium / calcium 
5a Decreases 
Number of shells / atomic radius increases and shielding increases. 
Less nuclear attraction on bonding electrons 
b i Increases 
Ions are bigger. 
Outer electron further from attraction of nucleus 
ii Concentrated sulfuric acid 
c i Increases 
ii Colourless  to brown solution 
Cl2 + 2KI → I2 + 2KCl 

3 Organic chemistry
3.3.1 Introduction to organic chemistry
Nomenclature
1
A Pentane 
B 1,3-dichloropropane 
C 2-chloropropane 
D (2-)methylpropane 
E 2-chloro-2,3,3-trimethylpentane 
F 3,3-dichloro-2,2,4-trimethylhexane 
G 2-bromo-1-chloro-3-ethylpentane 
H Propan-2-ol 
I Propanal 
J Pentan-3-one 
K Butanoic acid 
L Propene 
M But-2-ene 
N 4-bromobutanoic acid 
O Propan-1-ol 
P (2-)methylpropene 
Q (2,2-)dimethylpropane 
R Buta-1,3-diene 
2a

d
3a CnH2n+1OH 
b CnH2n+2 
c CnH2n 
4a C5H12 C5H12 
b C4H8O2 C2H4O 
5a Butane  alkane 
b But-1-ene  alkene 
c Propanoic acid  carboxylic acid 
d Butan-1-ol  alcohol 
e Pentan-2-one  ketone 
f Propan-2-ol  alcohol 
Isomerism
6a C6H13  CnH2n+2 
b 2,2,3,3,4,4-hexamethylhexane  chain 
7 C
8 C
9a Pent-2-ene 
 for each labelled structure
10 For each part  for completely correct name; allow  for correct E/Z.
a E-1-bromo-2-chloropropene 
b Z-1-chlorobut-1-ene 

c E-1-hydroxy-5-methylhex-2-ene 
d Z-1-bromo-1,2-dichloroethene 
1 B
2 B
3 B
4a C=C  OH / hydroxyl 
Z E
c Lack of rotation about the C=C bond 
d Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different
structural formulae. 
5 The right-hand carbon of the double bond has a C attached which has a higher atomic
number than H  so the CH2Br has higher priority. 
The left-hand carbon of the double bond has a carbon attached in each group, so
consider the atoms one bond further away. The C H H from the top propyl group are
attached to one carbon and have higher atomic number than the H H H  attached to
the carbon of the methyl group. The propyl group has priority. 
The highest priority groups, –CH2CH2CH3 and –CH2Br, are on the same side so it is a Z
isomer. 
(Z)-1-bromo-3-methylhex-2-ene. 
6a Propanal CH3CH3CHO 
Propanone CH3COCH3 
b Prop-2-en-1-ol
or prop-1-en-2-ol 

3.3.2 Alkanes
Fractional distillation of crude oil and
Modification of alkanes by cracking
1 C16H34 → 2C2H4 + C4H8 + C8H18 
High pressure 
High temperature 
2a C8H18 → C2H4 + C3H6 + C3H8 
Propane 
Zeolite 
b i Petroleum / crude oil 
Fractional distillation 
ii Octane has a higher Mr and more electrons. 
Hence it has stronger van der Waals forces between the molecules. 
3a Both break down large alkanes by breaking C–C bonds. 
Catalytic cracking and thermal cracking both take place at high temperature. 
Thermal cracking takes place at high pressure and catalytic cracking at a slight
pressure. 
Catalytic cracking uses a zeolite catalyst. 
Thermal cracking produces a high percentage of alkenes and catalytic cracking

produces aromatic hydrocarbons and motor fuels. 
b Shorter-chain molecules are in more demand / have higher value. 
Combustion of alkanes
4 C
5a Propane C3H8 Butane C4H10 
b They have the same general formula. 
They show similar chemical properties / they show a gradual change in physical
properties from propane to butane. 
c CnH2n+2 
d Saturated: only contains single C–C bonds / there are no C=C bonds. 
Hydrocarbons: contain carbon and hydrogen (atoms) only. 
e Propane / because it has the lower Mr. 

And it has weaker van der Waals forces between its molecules. 
f C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O 
g C4H10 + 4½O2 → 4CO + 5H2O 
h Sulfur dioxide 
SO2 + CaCO3 → CaSO3 + CO2 
Neutralisation 
i Nitrogen(IV) oxide: The pressure and high temperature  in the combustion engine
cause the normally unreactive nitrogen in the air to react with oxygen. /
N2 + 2O2 → 2NO2 
Harm caused: react with unburned hydrocarbons to produce smog / dissolve in water to
form acid rain. 
Carbon: incomplete combustion of fuel 
Harm caused: carbon particulates exacerbate asthma / cause respiratory problems. 
Chlorination of alkanes
6 B
7 C
8 D
9a C6H12 + Cl2 → C6H11Cl + HCl 
b i Cl2 → 2Cl• 
ii UV light 
iii Cl• + C6H12 → C6H11• + HCl 
C6H11• + Cl2 → C6H11Cl + Cl• 
iv React with each other / bond together. 
10 a This question is marked using levels of response.

Indicative chemistry content:
Level 3 All stages are covered and each Stage 1: states and explains the condition.
(5–6 stage is generally correct and
UV light is the condition.
marks) virtually complete. Answer
communicates reasoning It is needed to break the Cl–Cl bond.
coherently and shows a logical Stage 2: describes initiation and
progression through the propagation.
mechanism with correct
equations. Chlorine radicals are formed.
Substitution as one atom (H) is replaced by
Level 2 Two stages are covered or parts another (Cl).
(3–4 of three stages (if two stages are
marks) covered, they must be complete Initiation: Cl2 → 2Cl•

for 4 marks).
Level 1 One stage is covered or parts of

(1–2 two stages (if one stage is
marks) covered, it must be complete for
2 marks).
Propagation: Cl• + C12H26 → C12H25• + HCl
C12H25• + Cl2 → C12H25Cl + Cl•
Stage 3: describes termination and the
production of C24H50.
Termination: any two radicals combine
b 6  1- / 2- / 3- / 4- / 5- / 6-chlorodecane 
c C12H26 → 2C2H4 + C8H18 
Octane 
1a C3H8 + Br2 → C3H7Br + HBr 
UV light / high temperature 
2-bromopropane 
c Initiation:  Br2 → 2Br• 
Propagation:  Br• + CH3CH2CH3 → CH3CH2CH2• + HBr 
CH3CH2CH2• + Br2 → CH3CH2CH2Br + Br• 
Termination:  CH3CH2CH2• + CH3CH2CH2• → CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
or Br• + Br• → Br2

or CH3CH2CH2• + Br• → CH3CH2CH2Br 
2a Molecular formula: C10H22 
Empirical formula: C5H11 
b Fractional distillation 
c C10H22 + 10½O2 → 10CO + 11H2O 
d C10H22 + 31NO → 10CO2 + 15½N2 + 11H2O 
Platinum or rhodium 
e CH3SH + 3O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + SO2 
3 C

3.3.3 Halogenoalkanes
Nucleophilic substitution
1a Propan-1-ol  CH3CH2CH2Cl + NaOH → CH3CH2CH2OH + NaCl 
b Propanenitrile  CH3CH2Cl + KCN → CH3CH2CN + KCl 
c Butylamine  CH3CH2CH2CH2Br + NH3 → CH3CH2CH2CH2NH2 + NaBr 
d Butan-2-ol  CH3CH2CHICH2 + NaOH → CH3CH2CH(OH)CH3 + NaI 
e Butanenitrile  CH3CH2CH2Cl + KCN → CH3CH2CH2CN + KCl 
2a The reaction is exothermic, and adding concentrated acid slowly with stirring controls
the reaction and prevents dangerous spitting. 
b Bromine 
The solid potassium bromide reacts with the concentrated sulfuric acid to form
hydrogen bromide which is further oxidised by the concentrated sulfuric acid to form
bromine. 
c Anti-bumping granules 
d Repeated boiling of a liquid and condensing of the vapour 
e Bromobutane / organic liquids / butanol is flammable. 
f To remove acidic impurities 
g Use a separating funnel. 
Shake 
Invert and release the pressure periodically. 
Allow to settle, remove stopper and run off bottom layer – discard the aqueous layer. 
h To remove water 
i CH3CH2CH2CH2OH + H2SO4 + KBr → CH3CH2CH2CH2Br + KHSO4 + H2O 
3a Breaking up molecules by reaction with water 
b Equal amounts of each halogenoalkane are placed in separate test tubes in a water
bath at 50°C. A test tube containing a mixture of ethanol and aqueous silver nitrate is
heated in the same water bath. 
When all tubes reach the same temperature, equal volumes of the mixture are added to
each halogenoalkane and the clock is started. 
The halogenoalkane is hydrolysed and halide ions are released. 
The halide ions react with the silver ions in silver nitrate and form a precipitate.
Iodoethane forms a precipitate fastest, then bromoethane and then chloroethane. 
The time taken for a precipitate to form in each test tube is recorded. 
The C–I bond is weakest / lowest bond enthalpy. 

Elimination
4a In ethanol 
b Elimination 
c Propene 

Base / accepts H+ 
Ozone depletion
5a A species with an unpaired electron 
b UV light 
CCl4 → CCl3• + Cl• 
c Cl• + O3 → O2 + ClO• 
ClO• + O3 → 2O2 + Cl• 
The Cl atom / radical:

 does not appear in the overall equation
 is regenerated
 is unchanged at the end
 has not been used up
 provides an alternative route / mechanism

Any two 
d Ozone absorbs UV radiation which can cause sunburn / cancer / ageing of skin. 
e Butane cannot produce chlorine radicals. 

1 C
2 B
3a 1-iodobutane 
The C–I bond has the lowest bond enthalpy / weakest bond. 
Bond enthalpy decreases down the group with increasing size of the halogen atom. 
b CH3CH2CH2CH2Br + NaOH → CH3CH2CH=CH2 + NaBr + H2O 
But-1-ene 
c Elimination 

d It has the same molecular formula but a different structural formula. 
e 2-methylbut-1-ene 
2-methylbut-2-ene 
f CH3CH2CH2CH2Br + NaOH → CH3CH2CH2CH2OH + NaBr + H2O 
Butan-1-ol 
g Nucleophilic substitution 

h The halogen is more electronegative than the carbon. 
The electrons in the covalent bond are attracted more to the halogen and form a partial
negative charge on the halogen. 
4a Dichlorodifluoromethane 
b CF2Cl2 → CF2Cl• + Cl• 
c O2 → 2O• 
O2 + O• → O3 
d Cl• + O3 → O2 + ClO• 
ClO• + O3 → 2O2 + Cl• 

3.3.4 Alkenes
Structure, bonding and reactivity and
Addition reactions of alkenes
1a C3H6 + H2SO4 → C3H7OSO3H 
Propylhydrogensulfate 
b CH3CHCHCH3 + Br2 → CH3CHBrCHBrCH3 
2,3-dibromobutane 
c C3H6 + HBr → C3H7Br 
Bromopropane 
d CH3CHCHCH2CH2CH3 + Br2 → CH3CHBrCHBrCH2CH2CH3 
2,3-dibromohexane 
2 A
3a But-1-ene:
Butane:
b The double bond is a centre of high electron density  and can undergo attack by
electrophiles. 
Bromine becomes polarised / forms an induced dipole / becomes δ +/ δ−. 
c Bromine water 
Orange to colourless / decolourises 
d i CH3CHCHCH3 + Br2 → CH3CHBrCHBrCH3 
2,3-dibromobutane 
ii Electrophilic addition 


e Major product: 2-bromobutane 
Minor product: 1-bromobutane 
E Z
Addition polymers
4 Poly(but-2-ene) 
5a
Fluoroethene 
d Poly(chloroethene) 
e Plasticiser 

f They do not have a reactive C=C. 
1 C
2 C
3 A
4a A: 1-bromopropane 
B: Propan-1-ol 
C: Propene 
D: 2-bromopropane 
b Step 1: NaOH(aq)  Nucleophilic substitution 
Step 3: NaOH in ethanol  Elimination 
Step 4: HBr  Electrophilic addition 
d Step 1 
Step 4 
5a CH2=CHCl + NaCN → CH2=CHCN + NaCl 
b Molecular formula: C3H3N 
Empirical formula: C3H3N 
ci


ii It contains a C=C which can break and allow molecules to add on. 
6a Isoprene 
Limonene 
b C5H8 
c C5H8 
d i Bromine water decolourises. 
ii C5H8 + 2Br2 → C5H8Br4 
iii

3.3.5 Alcohols
Alcohol production
1a C6H12O6(aq) → 2CH3CH2OH(aq) + 2CO2(g) 
b Yeast produces an enzyme which converts glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide. 
A temperature of 35°C. The enzyme in yeast works best around this temperature.
Above this the enzyme is denatured, below this the reaction is too slow.
Air is kept out to prevent the oxidation of the ethanol formed to ethanoic acid (vinegar).

c i Fractional distillation 
ii C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O 
d i A carbon-neutral activity is one which has no net annual emissions of carbon dioxide to
the atmosphere. 
ii Mention any process: for example, harvesting, planting, transport of materials, distilling
the ethanol solution, producing fertilisers for crops. 
The specified process burns (fossil) fuel, which releases CO 2. 
iii It is a renewable resource. 
iv It uses up land which could be used for crops for food / production of crops is slow. 
e i Electrophilic addition 

ii Excess ethene or excess steam / water or remove the ethanol as it forms or recycle
the ethane 
60 atm pressure 
600 K temperature 
Oxidation of alcohols and Elimination

2 a i CH3CH2CH2CH2OH + 2[O] → CH3CH2CH2COOH + H2O 
ii CH3CH(CH3)CH2OH + 2[O] → CH3CH(CH3)COOH + H2O 
iii CH3CH(OH)CH3 + [O] → CH3COCH3 
b Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) 
c 2-methylpropan-2-ol 

Tertiary  / no hydrogen atom on central carbon 
3 D
4a CH3CH2CH2CH2OH  butan-1-ol 
CH3CH(OH)CH2CH3  butan-2-ol 
b CH3CH2CH2COOH
CH3CH2CH2CHO
CH3COCH2CH3
All 3 correct  2 correct 
2-methylpropan-2-ol 
5 CH3CH2CHO propanal  CH3COCH3 propanone 
Warm  with Fehling’s solution / Tollens’ reagent / acidified potassium dichromate( VI)

No change in propanone 
Red precipitate / silver mirror / green in propanal 
6a
b Hydrogen bonds can form  between the lone pair on O of diol and polar hydrogen in
water  or vice versa
c Primary 
d Sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate(VI) / Fehling’s solution / Tollens’ regent 
HO(CH2)6OH + 4[O] → HOOC(CH2)4COOH + 2H2O 
7a 3-methylbutan-2-ol 
b i Elimination / dehydration 
ii
c 3-methylbutan-2-one 
8a Concentrated phosphoric acid 
b C6H11OH → H2O + C6H10 

c Anti-bumping granules 
d Mixture heated with still head containing a thermometer. 
Water-cooled condenser connected to the still head and collecting vessel. 
Collect sample at the boiling point. 
e Pour distillate into a separating funnel and shake with sodium carbonate solution. 
Periodically, invert separating funnel and open tap. 
Discard aqueous layer and cyclohexene collected. 
f Add a drying agent, e.g. anhydrous calcium chloride, and shake. 
When cyclohexene goes clear, remove calcium chloride by filtration under reduced
pressure. 
1a Same molecular formula but different structural formula 
b Butan-1-ol 
c i K2Cr2O7 
ii CH3CH2CH2CHO 
Butanal 
iii CH3CH2CH2COOH 
Butanoic acid 
d i CH3CH2CH2CH2OH + 2[O] → CH3CH2CH2COOH + H2O 
ii Orange to green 
e 2-methylpropan-2-ol 
64.9 13.5 21.6

f Moles C = = 5.4; moles H = = 13.5 ; moles O = = 1.35 
12 1 16
Ratio 5.4 : 13.5 : 1.35 
4 : 10 : 1
2 C
3a Concentrated sulfuric acid 


3.3.6 Organic analysis
Identification of functional groups by
test-tube reactions
1 A
A is an aldehyde, so reacts with Fehling’s solution and Tollens’ reagent.
2 D
D is a tertiary alcohol, so will not be oxidised with acidified potassium dichromate( VI) solution.
3a Warm with acidified potassium dichromate(VI). 
With pentan-1-ol, the solution changes from orange to green. 
With 2-methylpentan-2-ol, the solution remains orange. 
b Bromine water 
With cyclohexene, the bromine water changes from orange to colourless. 
With cyclohexane, the bromine water remains orange. 
c Warm with Fehling’s solution / Tollens’ reagent. 
With butanal, Fehling’s solution changes from a blue solution to form a red precipitate /
Tollens’ reagent changes to form a silver mirror. 
With butanone, Fehling’s solution remains blue and Tollens’ reagent shows no change.

d Add solid sodium carbonate. 
With butanone, no effervescence is observed. 
With butanoic acid, effervescence is observed. 
4a C=C: Use bromine water. 
Orange solution changes to colourless. 
CHO: Use Fehling’s solution / Tollens’ reagent. 
Blue Fehling’s solution gives a red precipitate / Tollens’ solution forms a silver mirror. 
b Propenal / prop-2-enal 
c i Add solid sodium carbonate. 
Effervescence with E but not with D 
ii Propenoic acid / prop-2-enoic acid 
iii Oxidation 

Mass spectrometry and Infrared
spectroscopy
5 B
All of the others have major fragments with an m/z ratio of 45 such as CH2CH2OH+, COOH+ and
CH3CH(OH)+.
6 (2 × N) and (1 × O): 2(14.00307) + 15.99491 = 44.00105 
Propane is C3H8 = 44.0; carbon dioxide is CO2 = 44.0 
Dinitrogen oxide is N2O = 44.0 
They have the same Mr (to 1 decimal place) and give the same molecular ion peak. 
The molecular ion value gives the relative molecular mass – it is 44.00105. To show that this is
N2O, simply add together the precise relative atomic mass values of (2 × N) and (1 × O).
2(14.00307) + 15.99491 = 44.00105. You then need to calculate the relative atomic mass of each
of these molecules using the relative atomic masses given to 1 decimal place in your periodic
table:
Propane is C3H8 → (3 × 12.0) + (8 × 1.0) = 44.0
Carbon dioxide is CO2 → (1 × 12.0) + (2 × 16.0) = 44.0
Dinitrogen oxide is N2O → (2 × 14.0) + (1 × 16.0) = 44.0
They have the same Mr (to 1 decimal place) and would give the same molecular ion peak.
7a A: O–H
B: C–H
C: C=O
D: C–O
b Compound Z 
8a A: Pent-1-ene 
B: Pentan-2-ol 
C: 2-methylbutan-2-ol 
D: 2-methylbutanoic acid 
E: Butanone 
F: 2-methylbutanal 
b Bromine water 
Orange solution changes to colourless. 
c Compound F 
Aldehyde group 
d Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) 

With B, it changes from orange to green. 
With C, it remains orange. 
B is a secondary alcohol (which is oxidised) and C is a tertiary alcohol (which cannot be

oxidised). 
e Compound D 
Others have a lower Mr. 
9 A is ethanol  as it has a broad OH absorption between 3230 and 3550. 
B is ethanoic acid  as it has an OH absorption (acid) between 2500 and 3000 and a
C=O absorption between 1680 and 1750. 
C is propanone  as there is no OH absorption but a C=O absorption at 1680–1750. 
1 C
2a C3H6O 
c O–H absorption / C–O absorption / no C=O absorption with prop-2-en-1-ol 
C=O absorption / no O–H absorption / no C–O absorption with propanal 
d Comparison with database of spectra / fragmentation pattern 
e i Changes from orange to colourless 
ii
2,3-dibromopropan-1-ol 
3 The broad 3350 peak indicates an alcohol. 
70.6
Moles C = = 5.88 
12.0
13.7
Moles H = = 13.7 
1.0
15.7
Moles O = = 0.98 
16.0
5.88 13.7 0.98
Ratio: = 6.0; = 14.0; = 1.0 so C6H14O 
0.98 0.98 0.98

m/z = Mr = 102 = (C6H14O)n = 102n
n = 1 so the molecular formula = C6H14O 
Hexan-1-ol 
Hexan-2-ol 
Hexan-3-ol 
4a Repeated heating to evaporate a liquid and cooling to condense a vapour 
Vapour escapes from the liquid mixture, condenses and returns to the liquid mixture
where it is in contact with the oxidation agent again. 
This ensures complete oxidation of propanol and any propanal formed. 
b CH3CH2OH + H2O → CH3COOH + 4H+ + 4e− 
c Orange to green 
d Change the apparatus for distillation. / Use a still head containing a thermometer with
the condenser horizontal. 
Collect sample at the boiling point of propanal. 
e Propanal: Add Tollens’ reagent and warm.  Silver mirror 
or
Add Fehling’s solution  Red precipitate 
Absence of propanoic acid: Add sodium hydrogencarbonate or sodium carbonate 
No effervescence observed 
fi C=O absorption  C–H absorption 
ii O–H absorption / C–O absorption for propanoic acid / different fingerprint region 


Workbook Answers: 1 Physical Chemistry

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WORKBOOK ANSWERS

AQA A-level Chemistry

b The nucleus is very small. 

c The atom is mainly empty space. 

2 Both have electrons. 

No neutrons in plum pudding model, neutrons in today’s model 

3 a i The nucleus is small / atom is mainly empty space. 

ii The nucleus is positively charged / same charge as an alpha particle. 

c Neutrons are neutral, so not attracted or repelled by the positive nucleus. 

They would all pass through. 

4 Protons and neutrons both have relative mass of 1. 

Proton positively charged, neutron no charge 

AQA A-level Chemistry Workbook Year 1 Topics 1

7a Same electron configuration / same number of electrons in outer shell 

( 127× 95.91 ) + ( 129 ×2.49 ) +(131×1.60)

AQA A-level Chemistry Workbook Year 1 Topics 2

5 peaks in correct places  correct approximate heights 

d KE = ½mv2 = ½ × 35 × (1.19 × 106)2 = 2.478 × 1013 

v = 1.157 × 106 m s−1  = 1.16 × 106 m s−1 (3 sig fig) 

b 1s2 2s2 2p5 

c 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 

d 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 

e 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 

f 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2 

g 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 

h 1s2 2s2 2p6 

i 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 

j 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 

k 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 

l 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 

AQA A-level Chemistry Workbook Year 1 Topics 3

ii Decreases down the group. 

There is an increase in radius (and increased shielding) due to more shells. 

Hence there is less attraction of the outer electron to the nucleus. 

b i Increases across the period. 

There is an increase in nuclear charge. 

ii Oxygen has a pair of electrons in a (2)p orbital. 

iii C+(g) → C2+(g) + e− 

iv Electron in carbon is removed from 2p orbital / higher energy orbital. 

or Electron in carbon is more shielded. 

Protons Neutrons Electrons

AQA A-level Chemistry Workbook Year 1 Topics 4

ii 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 

iii Relative abundance of third isotope = 100 − 10.11 − 11.29 = 78.60% 

25 ×10.11 ¿+ ( 26 ×11.29 ) +( y × 78.60) ¿

252.75 + 293.54 + 78.60y = 2433

v Using an electric field 

To give all the ions a constant kinetic energy 

AQA A-level Chemistry Workbook Year 1 Topics 5

iii Decreases down the group. 

There is an increase in radius (and increased shielding) due to more shells. 

Hence there is less attraction of the outer electron to the nucleus. 

AQA A-level Chemistry Workbook Year 1 Topics 6

The ideal gas equation

pV 150000× 609× 10−6

AQA A-level Chemistry Workbook Year 1 Topics 7

pV 125000× 150× 10−6

b New total volume = V1

nRT 7.051×10−3 × 8.31× 315

Volume of flask Y = 188.3 − 150 = 38.3 cm3 

Empirical formula and molecular formula

Empirical formula = Ca3P2O8 or Ca3(PO4)2 ü

AQA A-level Chemistry Workbook Year 1 Topics 8