Metabolism of Carbohydrates

The Energy Metabolism of Glucose Entry of other Carbohydrates into Glycolysis Pyruvate Metabolism Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates Regulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism
1!

Metabolism of carbohydrates

2!

Carbohydrate metabolism

Energy metabolism of glucose

Disaccharides anabolism Glycogen (animals) Starch (plants) catabolism phosphogluconate pathway Glucose glycolysis ATP + NADH + H+ gluconeogenesis Pyruvate Lactate anaerobic,muscles aerobic Acetyl CoA

anaerobic,yeast Ethanol

Ribose-5-phosphate + NADPH + H+
3! 4!

Glycolysis

First five reactions of glycolysis

ATP ADP glucose glucose-6-P

6 carbon stage Requires energy

ATP ADP

fructose-6-P fructose-1,6-bisP

glyceraldehyde-3-P
5!

dihydroxyacetone-P
6!

Reactions of glycolysis
NAD+ NADH + H+ ADP ATP glyceraldehyde-3-P 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate 3-phosphoglycerate 2-bisphosphoglycerate ADP ATP phosphoenolpyruvate pyruvate
7!

Overall glycolysis
glucose 2 ADP + 2 PO4= + 2 NAD+!
10 enzymes!

Pi

3 carbon stage Double this since two pyruvate are made.

2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 H2O + 2 ATP!

H2O

8!

Entry of other carbohydrates into glycolysis

Entry of other carbohydrates into glycolysis

maltase

invertase (bacteria) sucrase (animals) lactase

9!

10!

Entry of other carbohydrates into glycolysis

Entry of other carbohydrates into glycolysis

11!

12!

Entry of other carbohydrates into glycolysis

Pyruvate metabolism

Galactose
galactokinase

Glucose-6-phosphate
Phosphoglucomutase

Galactose-1-phosphate
galactose-1phosphate uridyl transferase

Glucose-1-phosphate
UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase

UDP-galactose -4-epimerase

UDP-galactose

UDP-glucose
13! 14!

Fermentation

Lactate fermentation

15!

16!

Alcohol fermentation
Used by anaerobic bacteria to obtain additional energy from glucose.

Biosynthesis of carbohydrates

17!

18!

Biosynthesis of carbohydrates
Skeletal muscles Glycogen glucose-6-P exercise glucose-6-P pyruvate lactate rest glucose glucose-6-P mitochondria pyruvate lactate
Pyruvate

Gluconeogenesis
Phosphoenolpyruvate Oxaloacetate

Blood

Liver Glycogen glucose-6-P

Pyruvate

Stage I
Lactate Pyruvate

Malate

Malate

Phosphoenol pyruvate Pyruvate

Oxaloacetate

Oxaloacetate

Muscles lack enzyme needed to convert pyruvate to glucose-6-P. Must be sent to liver.
19!

20!

Gluconeogenesis
Glycogen UDP-glucose

Gluconeogenesis
The process is sometimes called reverse glycolysis but that is a misnomer. Only seven of the ten steps in glycolysis are reversible. The three steps to be bypassed are:
1. glucose + ATP glucose-6-phosphate + ADP fructose-1,6 -bisphosphate + ADP

Stage III
ATP Glucose
Pi HO 2

Glucose-1-phosphate + UDP Glucose-6-phosphate Fructose-6-phosphate ATP

Pi HO 2

Stage II

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate 3-Phosphoglycerate 2-Phosphoglycerate Phosphoenolpyruvate

21!

3. fructose-6-phosphate + ATP

10. PEP + ADP

pyruvate + ATP
22!

Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis

23!

24!

Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis
Fructose-6-phosphate
ATP phosphofructokinase Pi fructose-1,6bisphosphatase H2O

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

25!

gluconeogenesis
26! 28! 30!

glycolysis

Gluconeogenesis

Synthesis of disaccharides and polysaccharides

glucose-6phosphatase

glucose-6-phosphate + H2O

glucose + Pi

27!

Activation of glucose and galactose

Synthesis of UDP-galactose

29!

Synthesis of glycogen
Glucose, activated and tagged by attachment of UDP, is added to the nonreducing ends of an existing glycogen. Glycogen synthase catalyzes the formation of a new ! (1 4) glycosidic linkage.
UDP-glucose + (glucose)n + H2O

Synthesis of starch
Similar to glycogen formation except glucose is activated by ADP, not UDP. Starch synthase catalyzes the addition of glucose to an existing starch molecule by formation of ! (1 4) glycosidic linkage. ADP-glucose + (glucose)n (glucose)n+1 + ADP
31! 32!

(glucose)n+1 + UDP

Synthesis of lactose
This disaccharide is actively synthesized in the mammary glands of mammals. It is produced by combining activated galactose with glucose using lactose synthase. A "(1 4) linkage results. UDP-galactose + glucose UDP + lactose
33!

Synthesis of sucrose
Sucrose is present in most fruits and vegetables. It is produced by a two step process.
UDP-glucose + fructose-6-phosphate sucrose-6phosphate synthase

H2O phosphatase sucrose + Pi

sucrose-6-phosphate + UDP

34!

Synthesis of cellulose
Cellulose- major structural polysaccharide in cell walls of plants and some bacteria. Its synthetic route is similar to starch except a "(1 4) linkage is produced. UDP-glucose or GDP-glucose + (glucose)n

Regulation of glycolysis

UDP or GDP + (glucose)n+1

35! 36!

Regulation of glycolysis
feedback inhibition

glucose

glucose 6-phosphate fructose 6-phosphate fructose 1,6-bisphosphate

phosphoenolpyruvate pyruvate
37!