Ancient History Egyptology Notes

Shabti

Radan al Qasimi

In Ancient Egyptian burial it was important that the deceased had a workforce to carry out their every day tasks in the underworld so they would not have to dirty their hands. Originally in high-ranking Old Kingdom burials servants were buried with their masters. It is not known if these were sacrifices, or people honored with a resting place beside their King when they died. This practice died out in later periods and a magical substitute for the servants were included. These included wooden models and stone, wood or faience 'Shabti' figures. It was thought that magic spells would enable these models to come to life and serve the wishes of the deceased. Shabti figures provided a workforce for use in the afterlife. Some burials contained several hundred figures, often equipped with tools for working the fields. Typically 'Overseer' shabtis were also included to keep the magical workforce in check.

Spell 6 of 'The Book Of The Dead' instructs the Shabti as follows... O Shabti, If 'the deceased' be summoned To do any work which has to be done in the realm if the dead To make arable the fields, to irrigate the land or to convey sand from East to West; "Here I Am", you shall say,"I Shall Do It".

The tomb of Tutankhamun contained dozens of Shabti figure, varying greatly is size and detail. The examples shown here are in the Luxor Musuem but in Cairo there are large cabinets containing row after row of these figures. Many of the Tutankhamun shabtis appear to have different facial features, perhaps adding strength to the theory that the burial provisions were put together from various sources including components intended for someone else, possibly Smenkhkare

Wooden models were included to provide the deceased with provisions in the afterlife. These models typically included butchers, bakers, brewers, boats, livestock and concubines. Many of these survive today. The Royal Museum of Scotland has a complete set of models from the tomb of a lady called Mertetes.

http://www.akhet.co.uk/shabti.htm

FUNERARY STATUETTES

The ancient Egyptians believed that the hereafter was not a place totally devoid of hardship. Just as in life, many would be required to provide agricultural labour in the afterlife. From the late Middle Kingdom until the Graeco-Roman Period, those who could afford it would take to the grave one or more funerary statuettes to carry out the farming duties for them. Terms for them include - shabti, shawabti and ushabti. In the l8th Dynasty the statuettes started to combine the mummiform figure of the deceased with agricultural or other implements. The inscriptions on the statuettes quote Chapter 6 from the Book of the Dead and direct the figure to carry out tasks for the deceased. O shabti, allotted to me, if I be summoned or if I be detailed to do any work which has to be done in the realm of the dead; if indeed obstacles are implanted for you therewith as a man at his duties, you shall detail yourself for me on every occasion of making arable the fields, of flooding the banks or of conveying sand from east to west; "Here am I," you shall say. An increase in the number of funerary statuettes can be detected in the Ramessid Period; in the Late Period there were often large numbers of them in the tomb of one person - sometimes one for each day of the year, plus another 36 overseers - making a total of 401. In fact, even much earlier, Tutankhamun's tomb was equipped with 413 shabti figures - the extra 12 were monthly overseers. The appearance of shabtis gradually changed in some ways over time and the following are some of the features that help distinguish in what period the figures were manufactured: Dark hard stone probably - Middle Kingdom or 25th Dynasty, not later than 26th Dynasty; Wood if very crude, end of l7th and early l8th Dynasties; at any rate not later than New Kingdom; early wooden shabtis resemble wooden pegs; Tools depicted on the figures began to appear from the mid-l8th Dynasty, although some figures were still made without tools as well; Baskets were held in front in the l8th Dynasty and moved to the back from the l9th Dynasty; Polychrome (red, blue/green, yellow, black) decoration on a white background was used on some shabtis around the end of l8th Dynasty and in the Ramessid Period; Flat back and/or head fillet are found from the 3rd Intermediate Period; Small pedestals and back pillars made their appearance from the mid-26th Dynasty.

http://homepage.powerup.com.au/~ancient/shabtis1.htm

The ushabti: An existence of eternal servitude

The ancient Egyptians lived lives of obligations: the king, responsible for the world order and minor concerns like proper Nile floods and the welfare of his people, had to perform the ceremonies necessary before the respective gods; his servants, the noblemen, scribes and priests, served the king by shouldering most of his responsibilities, at times even impersonating him before the gods; while the common people were duty-bound to do the bidding of the royal administrators. Ushabti of King Taharka Petrie Museum website These duties did not cease with death. The after-life was not a place which ran itself. The fields still had to be ploughed, the wheat reaped, the bread baked and the beer brewed: the deceased were going to be kept very busy. Fortunately for the rich and powerful not used to manual labour, stand-ins could be bought for as little as two hundredths of a deben, though one surmises that those who could afford the best the country could produce would not be satisfied with personal substitutes as cheaply made as these. The answer to their prayers for release from eternal drudgery was a little statuette called an ushabti [6], variously also referred to as shawabti (in the Thebaid) and shabti [2]. Nor did the less well-off fancy an eternity of toil. During the New Kingdom there were still few of these, such as the workman Setau from Deir el Medina who expected his ushabti to answer "Here I am!" just as the ushabtis of his deceased superiors did when these were called to labour in the fields of the underworld and build irrigation ditches there. Some think that the name of the ushabti stems from the Egyptian word for answer, as the ushabti was expected to answer the call to duty since the early days of the Coffin Texts: O ushabti, if I am called upon, if I am appointed to do any work which is done on the necropolis .... even as the man is bounden, namely to cultivate the fields, to flood the riverbanks or to carry the sand of the East to the West, then speak thou 'Here am I!' Coffin Text 472 A. Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs: An Introduction, p.32 others doubt that this is the source of the name. These first 'answerers' may have been virtual, as the oldest ushabti figurines, crude, uninscribed, often nude representations of the deceased, that were found, date to the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, [8] some time after their mention in the Coffin Texts [3]. When they became part of the tomb equipment they had the shape of mummies with their arms folded across their chest, and they were inscribed with the titles and names of their owners. Spells were written on ushabtis from the late Middle Kingdom onwards. Strictly speaking, only those figurines intended to perform the duties of the deceased are considered to be ushabtis. They need not have the form of mummies, as some New Kingdom ushabtis wearing everyday clothes prove. If at the beginning the ushabti represented the deceased, later it came to be perceived more and more as a servant and during the late New Kingdom was referred to as Hm, i.e. servant or slave. Placed in coffins since the 19th dynasty a text, from which the following passage is an

excerpt, calls on the gods to protect the deceased who had died miserably, killed by his brother and who had nobody to protect him. According to this spell the ushabtis were seen as slaves offered to Osiris by the deceased and not as his alter egos, but separate from him, and his right to receive service from them stemmed from the fact that he had bought them: Behold the ushabtis, the slaves, men and women, they belong to your majesty, Osiris, they were all his slaves when they were on earth, it is he who acquired them. Make him direct them at the right moment, make them work in his (i.e. the deceased's) stead, at any time one remembers him. J. Cerny, Le caractre des Oushebtis d'aprs les ides du Nouvel Empire, BIFAO 41 (1942), p.119 This development of demotion was accompanied by an ever-increasing number of ushabtis being placed in tombs. In the tomb of Seti I Belzoni found more than 700 ushabtis. At the height of this proliferation during the Third Intermediate Period many tombs contained one worker ushabti for every day of the year and 36 overseer ushabtis, each 'responsible' for ten labourers. These overseers, recognizable by the way they kept one arm pressed against the side of the body while there was a flail in the other hand, became rare during the Late Period, though the number of ordinary ushabtis remained high until it declined under the Ptolemies. The simple act of buying ushabtis and placing them in the tomb was not always deemed to be sufficient to ensure their obedience. Neskhons, wife of the High Priest Pinodjem II under the 21st dynasty, acquired an unspecified number of faience ushabtis, and offered her purchase to the oracle of Amen for approval: The contents of the writing placed before Amen-nesti-tawi of the temple of the solar obelisk in the year 5, 4th month of summer, day 2: Amen-nesti-tawi of the temple of the solar obelisk, the great god, says in two copies of the writing which attest: Concerning all which they have paid to the makers of faience for the ushabtis made for Neskhons, daughter of Tahenthoth, in copper, clothing, loaves of bread, cakes, fish likewise as all that has been paid to them (i.e. the makers) for them (i.e. the ushabtis) and will also be paid to them for them, the makers of faience are paid by this (this) being the payment for their value. The Roger and McCullum tablets J. Cerny, Le caractre des Oushebtis d'aprs les ides du Nouvel Empire, BIFAO 41 (1942), p.110 Wooden lid of ushabti box, inscribed Khaemwaset New Kingdom Source: Petrie Museum website, UC16398

Ushabtis were between about 10 and 30 cm tall. They were made of various materials: wax, wood, clay, hard stone like granite, but most often of faience. [7] When numbers of ushabtis were big they were frequently kept in decorated wooden ushabti-boxes or in painted pottery jars [4][5].

1: Uninscribed Middle Kingdom figurine made of alabaster (Petrie Museum UC18822) 2: Wooden 19th dynasty mummy figurine in coffin, with an inscription on the front (UC10724) 3: Faience overseer ushabti, 22nd dynasty (UC29961) 4: Pottery ushabti, 21st dynasty (UC39988) 5: 18th dynasty ushabti made of black granite (UC40327) 6: Glazed ushabti carrying tools, beautifully worked and inscribed, 26th dynasty (UC28053) 7: Overseer ushabti holding flail, 4th century CE (UC28669) During the first millennium BCE embalmment became ever more popular, albeit in a debased form which people who were not wealthy could afford. Together with this sprang up an industry supplying grave goods at reasonable prices. Low quality ushabtis were massproduced and buried. They are among the most numerous artefacts to survive from ancient times.

[2] In the same passage from the 6th chapter of the so-called Book of the Dead the papyrus BM EA 10477 (pNu), dating to the 18th dynasty, and the papyrus London BM 10793, written during the 21st dynasty, both composed in traditional Middle Egyptian, have different forms of the word, the former prefers ushabti (wSb.tj) and the latter - found at Deir el Bahri shawabti (SAwAb.tj): O ushabtis (SAwAb.tj), when Osiris NN, justified, is made to perform any work which is being done there in the realm of the dead (Xr.t nTr), as the onus (sDb) is apportioned to a man according to his share, you shall say "Behold him!" being detailed off at any time in order to plant the fields, water the river banks (or) to ship sand (Saj) to the West or to the East. pLondon BM 10793 The onus apportioned are the duties all men have to perform, at least in theory. sDb has the meaning of obstacle, impediment, evil, harm etc. Concerning the sand (Saj) shipped East and West it has been suggested that this refers to fertilizer. [5] Peet 1912, pl.XX [6] Images of people (and of gods for that matter) were not just depictions of those people, but, essentially, they were these people themselves. This magical thinking led to the destruction of images of people one wanted to hurt (cf. Heka, the Magic of ancient Egypt). It may also have played a part in bringing about the demotion of the ushabti from representation of the deceased to servant separate from his master who thus did not have to perform his duties even through his image. [7] Shaw 2003, p.170 [8] Shaw 2003, p.182 Bibliography: Carol Andrews, Amulets of Ancient Egypt, University of Texas Press, 2001 E. A. Wallis Budge, Amulets and Superstitions, , Oxford University Press, 1930

J. Cerny, Le caractre des Oushebtis d'aprs les ides du Nouvel Empire, BIFAO 41 (1942) Sergio Donadoni ed., The Egyptians, University of Chicago Press, 1997 A. H. Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs: An Introduction Amanda-Alice Maravelia, Two Faience Shabtis from the Egyptian Collection at the Benaki Museum, in Mouseio Benaki, 2, 2002 [2003], pp. 19-24 A. G. McDowell, Village Life in Ancient Egypt: Laundry Lists and Love Songs, Oxford University Press, 2002 Thomas Eric Peet, The Cemeteries of Abydos. Part 2. 1911-1912 Geraldine Pinch, Magic in Ancient Egypt, University of Texas Press, 1995 Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press 2003

http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/religion/ushabti.htm

Outline - The ushabti funerary figurines were placed in tombs among the grave goods and were intended to act as substitutes for the deceased - They covered the floor around a sarcophagus, and were sometimes grouped and placed inside elegant boxes - They were used extensively starting from the Middle Kingdom until the end of the Ptolemaic Period 2000 years later. - All social classes in ancient Egypt had Ushabti figurines buried with them, the difference being in their craftsmanship, material and numbers Purpose - The figurines "answered" for the deceased person during his judgment in the Hall of Maat - They also worked as slaves and performed all the routine chores of daily life for its master, , allowing them to live an afterlife of relaxation. Production- The number of figures buried with the deceased varied considerably, and their number also increased over time. While in earlier periods there might be very few buried with the deceased The tomb of Tutankhamen in the 18th Dynasty had 365 ushabti placed, one for each day of the year, plus another 48 overseers, making a total of 418 - During the Ptolemaic Period ushabti manufacture this sprang up as an industry for supplying grave goods at reasonable prices. - Low quality ushabtis were mass-produced and buried in huge numbers, ushabtis are the most numerous of all ancient Egyptian antiquities to survive Characteristics - Ushabtis were mostly mummiform, but occasionally they were fashioned as servants with baskets, sacks, and other agricultural tools - They were sometimes made of terracotta, wood and stone, but the most common material was faience. - The great mass of cheaply made ushabtis for the common people tombs became standardized, and was made from single molds with little detail. - The ushabti figures were usually inscribed with the name of the deceased to ensure that only he could command them - Ushabti inscriptions contained the 6th chapter of the Book of the Dead Size Most ushabtis were of minor size between about 10 and 30 cm tall. http://www.aldokkan.com/art/ushabti.htm

Ra

Ra Ra i t anci nt Egyptian sun god. By t Fi t Dynasty he had become a major deity in ancient Egyptian religion, identi ied primarily with the midday sun. The meaning of the name is uncertain, but it is thought that if not a word for 'sun' it may be a variant of or linked to words meaning 'creative power' and 'creator'
The chief cult centre of Ra was Heliopolis (called Iunu, " lace of Pillars", in Egyptian), [2] where he was identified with the local sun-god Atum. Through Atum, or as Atum-Ra he was also seen as the first being and the originator of the Ennead, consisting of Shu and Tefnut, Geb and Nut, Osiris, Set, Isis and Nephthys. In later Egyptian dynastic times, Ra was merged with the god Horus, as Re-Horakhty ("Ra, who is Horus of the Two Hori ons"). He was believed to rule in all parts of the created world the sky, the earth, and the underworld. He was associated with the falcon or hawk. When in the New Kingdom the god Amun rose to prominence he was fused with Ra as AmunRa. During the Amarna Period, Akhenaten suppressed the cult of Ra in favour of another solar deity, the Aten, the deified solar disc, but after the death of Akhenaten the cult of Ra was restored. The cult of the Mnevis bull, an embodiment of Ra, had its centre in Heliopolis and there was a formal burial ground for the sacrificed bulls north of the city. All forms of life were believed to have been created by Ra, who called each of them into existence by speaking their secret names. Alternatively humans were created from Ra's tears and sweat, hence the Egyptians call themselves the "Cattle of Ra." In the myth of the Celestial Cow it is recounted how mankind plotted against Ra and how he sent his eye as the goddess Sekhmet to punish them. When she became blood thirsty she was pacified by mixing beer with red dye.

In one of his many forms, Ra has the head of a falcon and the sun-disk of Wadjet resting on his head.

God of the Sun

Rol To the Egyptians, the sun represented light, warmth, and growth. This made the sun deity very important and the sun was seen as the ruler of all that he created. The sun disk was either seen as the body or eye of Ra. Ra was thought to travel on two solar boats called the Mandjet (the Boat of Millions of Years), or morning boat and the Mesektet, or evening boat. These boats took him on his journey through the sky and the underworld. When Ra traveled in his sun boat he was accompanied by various other deities including Sia (perception) and Hu (command) as well as Heka (magic power). Sometimes members of the Ennead helped him on his journey,

including Set who overcame the serpent Apophis and Mehen who defended against the monsters of the underworld. Apophis, an enormous serpent tried to stop the sun boat's journey every night by consuming it or by stopping it in its tracks with a hypnotic stare. In the evening the Egyptians believed that Ra set as Atum or in the form of a ram. The Mesektet or Night boat would carry him through the underworld and back towards the east in preparation for his rebirth. These myths of Ra represent the sunrise as the rebirth of the sun by the sky goddess Nut, thus attributing the concept of rebirth and renewal to Ra and strengthening his role as a creator god. Relationshi to other gods

Ra and Amun, from tomb of Ramses IV. As with most widely worshiped Egyptian deities, Ra's identity was often combined with other gods. Amun and Amun-Ra Amun was a member of the Ogdoad, representing creation energies with Amaunet, a very early patron of Thebes. He was believed to create via breath, and thus was identified with the wind rather than the sun. As the cults of Amun and Ra became increasingly popular in Upper and Lower Egypt respectively they were combined to create Amun-Ra, a solar creator god. The name Amun-Ra is reconstructed as [*ri u]). It is hard to distinguish exactly when this combination happened, but references to Amun-Ra appeared in pyramid texts as early as the fifth dynasty. The most common belief is that Amun-Ra was invented as a new state deity by the (Theban) rulers of the New Kingdom to unite worshipers of Amun with the older cult of Ra around the eighteenth dynasty. Atum and Atum-Ra Atum-Ra (or Ra-Atum) was another composite deity formed from two completely separate deities, however Ra shared more similarities with Atum than with Amun. Atum was more closely linked with the sun, and was also a creator god of the Ennead. Both Ra and Atum were regarded as the father of the deities and pharaohs, and were widely worshiped. In older myths, Atum was the creator of Tefnut and Shu, and he was born from ocean Nun. Ra-Horakhty In later Egyptian mythology, Ra-Horakhty was more of a title or manifestation than a composite deity. It translates as "Ra (who is) Horus of the Hori ons". It was intended to link Horakhty (as a sunrise-oriented aspect of Horus) to Ra. It has been suggested that Ra-Horakhty simply refers to the sun's journey from hori on to hori on as Ra, or that it means to show Ra as a symbolic deity of hope and rebirth. (See earlier section: Ra and the sun). Khepri and Khnum Khepri was a scarab beetle who rolled up the sun in the mornings, and was sometimes seen as the morning manifestation of Ra. Similarly, the ram-headed god Khnum was also seen as the evening manifestation of Ra. The idea of different deities (or different aspects of Ra) ruling over different times of the day was fairly common, but variable. With Khepri and Khnum taking precedence over sunrise and sunset, Ra often was the representation of midday when the sun reached its peak at noon. Sometimes different aspects of Horus were used instead of Ra's aspects.

Iconography Ra is represented in a variety of forms. The most usual form was a man with the head of a hawk and a solar disk on top, a man with the head of a beetle (in his form as Khepri), a man with the head of a ram, a ram or beetle and also a phoenix, heron, serpent, bull, cat, lion and other creatures.[3]

Worship

Ra on the Solar boat The chief cult centre of Ra was Heliopolis (called Iunu, "Place of Pillars", in Egyptian),[2] where he was identified with the local sun-god Atum. Through Atum, or as Atum-Ra he was also seen as the first being and the originator of the Ennead, consisting of Shu and Tefnut, Geb and Nut, Osiris, Set, Isis and Nephthys. His local cult began to grow from roughly the second dynasty, establishing Ra as a sun deity. By the fourth dynasty the pharaohs were seen to be Ra's manifestations on earth, referred to as "Sons of Ra". His worship increased massively in the fifth dynasty, when he became a state deity and pharaohs had specially aligned pyramids, obelisks, and solar temples built in his honour. The first Pyramid Texts began to arise, giving Ra more and more significance in the journey of the pharaoh through the underworld. The Middle Kingdom saw Ra being increasingly combined and affiliated with other chief deities, especially Amun and Osiris. During the New Kingdom, the worship of Ra became more complicated and grander. The walls of tombs were dedicated to extremely detailed texts that told of Ra's journey through the underworld. Ra was said to carry the prayers and blessings of the living with the souls of the dead on the sun boat. The idea that Ra aged with the sun became more popular with the rise of The New Kingdom. Many acts of worship included hymns, prayers, and spells to help Ra and the sun boat overcome Apep. Though worship of Ra was widespread, his cult center was in Heliopolis in Lower Egypt. Oddly enough, this was the home of the Ennead that was believed to be headed by Atum, with whom he was merged. The Holiday of 'The Receiving of Ra' was celebrated on May 26 in the Gregorian calendar. The rise of Christianity in the Roman empire caused an end to the worship of Ra by the citi ens of Egypt,[4] and as Ra's popularity suddenly died out, the study of Ra became purely for academic knowledge even among the Egyptian priests.[5]

http://en.wi ipedia.org/wi i/Ra

. Khepri at sunrise

Ra-Horakhty a noon

Atum at sunset and night

Title The Sun god Cult CenterHeliopolis GenderMale ConsortDivine Cow Hathor Sons and DaughtersThoth The god of wisdom Shu the god of Air Tefnut the goddess of moisture The lioness goddess Sekhmet and her sister Bastet Patron - Dominiongod of light - life - heat - supreme judge Dedicated templestemples In Heliopolis (not survived time) - Karnak temple AppearanceMan with hawk head Headdress with a sun disk Greek equivalentApollo Historical Developments Ra was one of the most important god since Pre-Dynastic Period - The only important god who was worshiped with consistency through all history - Father and the King of All gods, - One Of The Creators of the World along with Ptah and Amun - Pharaohs of the Old Kingdom venerated Him as their family patron, and called themselves "sons of Ra" in official titles and constructed sun- temples and pyramids. - His popularity in Egypt was immanent as sunlight itself, continued throughout history, even great Names as Amun and Ptah had to "share the spotlight" with him - In Amun's case, during the New Kingdom, a composite Name Amun -Ra was created to avoid slighting either cult, - He lives within the actual physical disk of sun, described in myth as the " boat of Millions of Years" which rises and sets each day, riding from horizon to horizon on the back of Night, and traversing during the hours of darkness the underworld where his enemies reside. Daily Journey - Ra takes three manifestations 1. Khepri Every day at sunrise Ra emerged from a blue lotus flower, only to immediately transform into Khepri Khepri is the morning manifestation of Ra represented by the sacred scarab Since the scarab beetle lays its eggs in dung, from which they emerge having been born, the ancient Egyptians believed that scarab beetles were created from dead matter. Beetles pushed the ball into the sun so that the sun's heat hatched the egg, giving life. Because of this, they associated the Khepri with rebirth and resurrection Khepri was principally depicted as a whole scarab beetle, or a human male with a scarab as a head The boat used by Khepri in the morning is called Matet, which meant becoming stronger 2. Horakhty (Horus the Elder) Around noon, when the sun is at its full power, Ra becomes Horakhty, or "Horus of the two horizons" This was the most popular form of Ra, patron of the Pharaoh The Pharaohs were mortal manifestations of Horakhty, who appointed them as "shepherds of the Land" In this manifestation Ra-Horakhty was the husband of Hathor and Isis The Four Sons of Horus the Elder were grouped together and generally said to be born of Isis He was depicted as a falcon or a falcon-headed man wearing the solar disk and the Double Crown and the Uraeus Top of Page His face was visualized as the face of the sun He carries the two scepters of kingship, the Crook and Flail, thus identifying Horakhty as the ruling king in the sky and signifying that the Pharaoh embodies him on earth 3. Atum At sunset, when the sun is said to be weak and growing old, Ra becomes Atum, who

symbolized the setting sun and its journey through the underworld to its rising in the east. Atum's name is derived from the word 'tem' which means to complete or finish. Thus he has been interpreted as being the 'complete one' and also the finisher of the day From midday on Atum travels in the Semktet boat, which means growing weaker. The Sky goddess Nut Swallows Atum at night and gives birth to it again at dawn, every day Each night Apep attempted to disrupt the passage of the solar barque of Atum, and attacked him in the Tenth region of the Night Atum always wins this battle and emerges from the eastern horizon as Khepri Atum was depicted in art as a man wearing the Double Crown of Upper and Lower Egypt

http://www.aldokkan.com/religion/ra.htm

Egyptian Afterlife Ceremonies, Sarcophagi, Burial Masks

Ancient Egyptian civilization was based on religion; their belief in the rebirth after death became their driving force behind their funeral practices. Death was simply a temporary interruption, rather than complete cessation, of life, and that eternal life could be ensured by means like piety to the gods, preservation of the physical form through Mummification, and the provision of statuary and other funerary equipment. Each human consisted of the physical body, the 'ka', the 'ba', and the 'akh'. The Name and Shadow were also living entities. To enjoy the afterlife, all these elements had to be sustained and protected from harm. Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation. The arid, desert conditions continued to be a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for the burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and, as a result, they made use of artificial mummification, which involved removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately in canopic jars. By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted cartonnage mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated. Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased. Beginning in the New Kingdom, books of the dead were included in the grave, along with shabti statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife Rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased. Egyptians also believed that being mummified was the only way to have an afterlife. Only if the corpse had been properly embalmed and entombed in a mastaba, could the dead live again in the Fields of Yalu and accompany the Sun on its daily ride. Anubis and Ma'at Anubis is the Greek name for a jackal-headed god associated with mummification and the afterlife in Egyptian mythology. In the ancient Egyptian language, Anubis is known as Inpu, (variously spelled Anupu, Ienpw etc.). The oldest known mention of Anubis is in the Old Kingdom pyramid texts, where he is associated with the burial of the king. At this time,

Anubis was the most important god of the Dead but he was replaced during the Middle Kingdom by Osiris. Anubis takes various titles in connection with his funerary role, such as He who is upon his mountain, which underscores his importance as a protector of the deceased and their tombs, and the title He who is in the place of embalming, associating him with the process of mummification. Like many ancient Egyptian deities, Anubis assumes different roles in various contexts, and no public procession in Egypt would be conducted without an Anubis to march at the head. In Ancient Egyptian religion, when the body died, parts of its soul known as ka (body double) and the ba (personality) would go to the Kingdom of the Dead. While the soul dwelt in the Fields of Aaru, Osiris demanded work as payback for the protection he provided. Statues were placed in the tombs to serve as substitutes for the deceased. The Funerary Scene Arriving at one's reward in afterlife was a demanding ordeal, requiring a sin-free heart and the ability to recite the spells, passwords, and formulae of the Book of the Dead.

In the Hall of Two Truths, the deceased's heart was weighed against the Shu feather of truth and justice taken from the headdress of the goddess Ma'at. If the heart was lighter than the feather, they could pass on, but if it were heavier they would be devoured by the demon Ammut. This scene depicts what occurs after a person has died, according to the ancient Egyptians. Beginning with the upper left-hand corner, the deceased appears before a panel of 14 judges to make an accounting for his deeds during life. The ankh, the key of life, appears in the hands of some of the judges. Next, below, the jackal god Anubis who represents the underworld and mummification leads the deceased before the scale. In his hand, Anubis holds the ankh. Anubis then weighs the heart of the deceased (left tray) against the feather of Ma'at, goddess of truth and justice (right tray). In some drawings, the full goddess Ma'at, not just her feather, is shown seated on the tray. Note that Ma'at's head, crowned by the feather, also appears atop the fulcrum of the scale. If the heart of the deceased outweighs the feather, then the deceased has a heart which has been made heavy with evil deeds. In that event, Ammut the god with the crocodile head and hippopotamus legs will devour the heart, condemning the deceased to oblivion for eternity. But if the feather outweighs the heart, and then the deceased has led a righteous life and may be presented before Osiris to join the afterlife. Thoth, the ibis-headed god of wisdom stands at the ready to record the outcome. Horus, the god with the falcon head, then leads the deceased to Osiris. Note the ankh in Horus' hand. Horus represents the personification of the Pharaoh during life, and his father Osiris represents the personification of the Pharaoh after death. Osiris, lord of the underworld, sits on his throne, represented as a mummy. On his head is the white crown of Lower Egypt (the north). He holds the symbols of Egyptian kingship in his hands: the shepherd's crook to symbolize his role as shepherd of mankind, and the flail, to represent his ability to separate the wheat from the chaff. Behind him stand his wife Isis and

her sister Nephthys. Isis is the one in red, and Nephthys is the one in green. Together, Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys welcome the deceased to the underworld. The tomb-owner would continue after death the occupations of this life and so everything required was packed in the tomb along with the body. Writing materials were often supplied along with clothing, wigs, and hairdressing supplies and assorted tools,depending on the occupation of the deceased. Often model tools rather than full size ones would be placed in the tomb; models were cheaper and took up less space and in the after-life would be magically transformed into the real thing. Things might include a headrest, glass vessels which may have contained perfume and a slate palette for grinding make-up. Food was provided for the deceased and should the expected regular offerings of the descendants cease, food depicted on the walls of the tomb would be magically transformed to supply the needs of the dead. Images on tombs might include a triangular shaped piece of bread (part of the food offerings from a tomb). Other images might represent food items that the tomb owner would have eaten in his lifetime and hoped to eat in the after-life. Life was dominated by Ma'at, or the concept of justice and order. Egyptians believed there were different levels of goodness and evil. Egyptians believed that part of the personality, called the Ka, remained in the tomb. Thus elaborate and complex burial practices developed. Canopic Jars

The removed internal organs were separately treated and, during much of Egyptian history, placed in jars of clay or stone. These so-called Canopic Jars were closed with stoppers fashioned in the shape of four heads -- human, baboon, falcon, and jackal - representing the four protective spirits called the Four Sons of Horus. The heart was removed to be weighed against a feather representing Ma'at to determine moral righteousness. The brain was sucked out of the cranial cavity and thrown away because the Egyptian's thought it was useless. Personal belongings were usually placed in the tomb to make the Ka more at home and to assist the dead in their journey into the afterlife. Text was read from the 'Book of the Dead' and the ritual of "openingthe mouth" was performed before the tomb was sealed.

Egyptian Book of The Dead - 1240 BC Papyrus of Ani

Sample of the Book of the Dead of the scribe Nebqed, around 1300 BC The Book of the Dead is the common name for ancient Egyptian funerary texts known as The Book of Coming [or Going] Forth By Day. The name "Book of the Dead" was the invention of the German Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius, who published a selection of some texts in 1842. The "book" was nothing like a modern book - the text was initially carved on the exterior of the deceased person's sarcophagus, but was later written on papyrus now known as scrolls and buried inside the sarcophagus with the deceased, presumably so that it would be both portable and close at hand. Other texts often accompanied the primary texts including the hypocephalus (meaning 'under the head') which was a primer version of the full text. The Book of the Dead constituted as a collection of spells, charms, passwords, numbers and magical formulas for the use of the deceased in the afterlife. This described many of the basic tenets of Egyptian mythology. They were intended to guide the dead through the various trials that they would encounter before reaching the underworld. Knowledge of the appropriate spells was considered essential to achieving happiness after death. Spells or enchantments vary in distinctive ways between the texts of differing "mummies" or sarcophagi, depending on the prominence and other class factors of the deceased. The Book of the Dead was usually illustrated with pictures showing the tests to which the deceased would be subjected. The most important was the weighing of the heart of the dead person against Ma'at, or Truth (carried out by Anubis). The heart of the dead was weighed against a feather if the heart weighted less he was allowed to go on. The god Thoth would record the results and the monster Ammut would wait nearby to eat the heart should it prove unworthy. The earliest known versions date from the 16th century BC during the 18th Dynasty (ca. 1580 BC - 1350 BC). It partly incorporated two previous collections of Egyptian religious literature, known as the Coffin Texts (ca. 2000 BC) and the Pyramid Texts (ca. 2600 BC2300 BC), both of which were eventually superseded by the Book of the Dead. The Coffin Texts, which basically superseded the Pyramid Texts as magical funerary spells at the end of the Egyptian Old Kingdom, are principally a Middle Kingdom phenomenon, though we have found examples as early as the late Old Kingdom. In effect, they democratized the afterlife, eliminating the royal exclusivity of the Pyramid Text. Mostly, as

the modern name of this collection of spells implies, the text was found on Middle Kingdom coffins of officials and their subordinates. However, we may also find the spells inscribed on tomb walls, stelae, canopic chests, papyri and even mummy masks. The Pyramid Texts are a collection of ancient Egyptian religious texts from the time of the Old Kingdom, mostly inscriptions on the walls of tombs in pyramids. They depict the Egyptian view of the afterlife, and the ascent into the sky of the divine Pharaoh after death. They were written upwards of five thousand years ago; thus, they are some of the oldest known writings in the world. The text was often individualized for the deceased person - so no two copies contain the same text - however, "book" versions are generally categorized into four main divisions - the Heliopolitan version, which was edited by the priests of the college of Annu (used from the 5th to the 11th dynasty and on walls of tombs until about 200); the Theban version, which contained hieroglyphics only (20th to the 28th dynasty); a hieroglyphic and hieratic character version, closely related to the Theban version, which had no fixed order of chapters (used mainly in the 20th dynasty); and the Saite version which has strict order (used after the 26th dynasty). After judgment, the dead either went to a life not unlike that on Earth or were cast to the 'Eater of the Dead' ... Set. In addition to the decorations on the tomb walls, in some periods, models for the use of the spirit were included in the funerary arrangements. A model boat was transportation on the waters of eternity. Likewise, models of granaries, butcher shops, and kitchens would guarantee the continued well-being of the deceased in the life after death.

Papyrus with Funeral Arrangements Ancient Egyptian Tombs Much of what we know about art and life in ancient Egypt has been preserved in the tombs that were prepared for the protection of the dead. The Egyptians believed that the next life had to be provided for in every detail and, as a result, tombs were decorated with depictions of the deceased at his funerary meal, activities of the estate and countryside, and the abundant offerings necessary to sustain the spirit. Many surviving Egyptian works of art were created to be placed in the tombs of officials and their families. Through the ritual of "opening the mouth," a statue of the deceased (known as a "ka statue") was thought to become a living repository of a person's spirit. Wall paintings, reliefs, and models depict pleasurable pastimes and occupations of daily life. Always these images have deeper meanings of magical protection, sustenance, and rebirth. The mummy

was surrounded with magic spells, amulets, and representations of protective deitie

Coffin of a Middle Kingdom Official At the near end of the coffin a goddess stands, her arms raised protectively. The hieroglyphic inscriptions are magical requests for offerings and protection. Small magical amulets made of semiprecious stones or faience were placed within the linen wrappings of the mummy. Many of them were hieroglyphic signs. For Egyptians, the cycles of human life, rebirth, and afterlife mirrored the reproductive cycles that surrounded them in the natural world. After death, the Egyptians looked forward to continuing their daily lives as an invisible spirit among their descendents on Earth in Egypt, enjoying all the pleasures of life with none of its pain or hardships. This vision is vividly depicted in the sculptures, reliefs, and wall paintings of Egyptian tombs, with the deceased portrayed in the way he or she wished to remain forever accompanied by images of family and servants. These forms of art not only reflect the Egyptians' love of life but also by their very presence made the afterlife a reality.

This is a tomb painting from the tomb of a man named Menna. The Egyptians believed that the pleasures of life could be made permanent through scenes like this one of Menna hunting in the Nile marshes. In this painting Menna, the largest figure, is shown twice. He is spear fishing on the right and flinging throwing sticks at birds on the left. His wife, the second-largest figure, and his daughter and son are with him. By their gestures they assist him and express their affection. The son on the left is drawing attention

with a pointed finger to the two little predators (a cat and an ichneumon) that are about to steal the birds' eggs. Pointed fingers were a magical gesture for averting evil in ancient Egypt, and the attack on the nest may well be a reminder of the vulnerability of life. Overall, scenes of life in the marshes, which were depicted in many New Kingdom tombs, also had a deeper meaning. The Nile marshes growing out of the fertile mud of the river and the abundant wildlife supported by that environment symbolized rejuvenation and eterna life. l The figures in Menna's family are ordered within two horizontal rows, or registers, and face toward the center in nearly identical groups that fit within a triangular shape.

Mummies and Coffins

The mummy was placed in a brightly painted wooden coffin. The elaborate decoration on Nes-mut-aat-neru's coffin fits her status as a member of the aristocracy. A central band contains symbols of rebirth flanked by panels featuring images of god and goddesses. Look for the central panel that shows the winged scarab beetle hovering protectively over the mummy (probably meant to represent the mummy of the Nes-mut-aat-neru herself).

The large white pillar painted on the back of the coffin forms a "backbone." This provides symbolic support for the mummy and displays an inscription detailing Nes-mut-aat-neru's ancestry

Next the mummy and coffin were placed in another wooden coffin. Like the first coffin, it is in the shape of the mummy but more simply decorated. The inside of the base is painted with a full-length figure of a goddess.

The lid again shows Nes-mut-aat-neru's face, wig and elaborate collar. Here too the scarab beetle with outstretched wings hovers over the mummy. Below the scarab look for a small scene showing the deceased Nes-mut-aat-neru worshipping a god, and a two-column inscription.

Finally the mummy and coffins were placed in a rectangular outermost coffin made primarily out of sycamore wood. The posts of the coffin are inscribed with religious texts. On the top of the coffin sits an alert jackal, probably a reference to Anubis, the jackal-headed god who was the patron of embalmers and protector of cemeteries.

These two wooden boxes filled with mud shabti figures were found with Nes-mut-aat-neru's elaborate nested coffins. Shabti figures were molded in the shape of a mummified person, and were designed to do any work that the gods asked the deceased's spirit to do in the afterworld.

Stone Coffin - Sarcophagus

Burial Masks

Masks of deceased persons are part of traditions in many countries. The most important process of the funeral ceremony in ancient Egypt was the mummification of the body, which, after prayers and consecration, was put into a sarcophagus enameled and decorated with gold and gems. A special element of the rite was a sculpted mask, put on the face of the deceased. This mask was believed to strengthen the spirit of the mummy and guard the soul from evil spirits on its way to the afterworld.

The best known mask is that of Tutankhamun now in the Egyptian Antiquities Museum in Cairo. Made of gold and gems, the mask conveys the features of the ancient ruler. Most funerary masks were not made of solid gold, however, living persons in ancient Egypt might have employed transformational spells to assume nonhuman forms. These masks were not made from casts of the features; rather, the mummification process itself preserved the features of the deceased. Masks were a very important aspect of Ancient Egyptian burials. In common with the anthropoid coffin they provided the dead with a face in the afterlife. In addition they also enabled the spirit to recognize the body. Masked priests, priestesses or magicians, disguising themselves as divine beings, such as Anubis or Beset, almost assuredly assumed such identities to exert the powers associated with those deities. Funerary masks and other facial coverings for mummies emphasized the ancient Egyptian belief in the fragile state of transition that the dead would have to successfully transcend in their physical and spiritual journey from this world to their divine transformation in the next. Hence, whether worn by the living or the dead, masks played a similar role of magically transforming an individual from a mortal to a divine state. On various artifacts, we find numerous examples in art, beginning with the Predynastic palettes (such as the Two-Dog palette), and representations of anthropomorphic beings with the heads of animals, birds or other fantastic creatures. Some of these are understood to have probably been humans dressed as deities, though the ancient Egyptians probably saw them as images or manifestations of the gods themselves. This was probably most evident in threedimensional representations such as the Middle Kingdom female figure from Western Thebes (modern Luxor), now in the collection of the Manchester Museum and sometimes referred to in earlier texts as a leonine-masked human. Though most certainly a human dressed as an animal, this figure was surely considered an image of Beset. Two-dimensional depictions are more difficult to interpret. The question of the extent to which these depicted masks were used in Egyptian religious rituals has not yet been satisfactorily resolved for all periods of ancient Egyptian history. This may be due to intentional ambiguity. An example is one very common depiction rendered in many mortuary scenes that records the mummification of a body by a jackal-headed being. Such representations may document the actual mummification rites performed by a jackaldisguised priest, though it may also be interpreted as commemorating that episode of the embalmment by the jackal god Anubis in the mythic account of the death and resurrection of the god of the dead, Osiris, whom the deceased wished to emulate. Another example is a ritual procession of composite animal and human figures, identified in the accompanying texts, as the souls of Nekhen and Pe, who carry the sacred bark in a procession detailed on the southwestern interior wall of the Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Amun at Karnak. Scenes such as this may either be literal records of the historic celebration performed by masked or costumed priests, or alternatively they may represent a visual actualization of faith in the royal dogma, which claimed categorically that the mythic ancestors of the god-king legitimized and supported his reign. It is thought that the ancient Egyptians did in fact perform some ritual ceremonies wearing such masks, though these ritual objects from the archaeological record are rare. Perhaps this is due to the fragile and perishable materials from which such masks may have been constructed (though surely some were made from gold, thought to be the skin of the gods). We do have an example of a fragmentary Middle Kingdom Bes-like or Aha (perhaps an ancient god and forerunner of Bes) face of cartonnage recovered by W.M. Flinders Petrie at the town site of Kahun. However, this relic may not have been a mask even though it does appear to have eye holes. There was also an unusual set of late Middle Kingdom objects found in shaft-tomb 5 under the Ramesseum that included a wooden figurine representing either a lion-headed goddess or a woman wearing a similar kind of mask, which probably connected in some way with the performance of magic.

However, the only incontrovertible evidence for the use of ritual masks by the living are found from Egypt's Late Period. From that time, for example, we have a unique, ceramic mask of the head of the jackal god, Anubis (now in the collection of the Roemer PelizaeusMuseum, Hildesheim), dating to sometime after 600 BC, which was apparently manufactured specifically as a head covering. This mask has indentations on both sides which would have allowed it to be supported atop the shoulders. The snout and upraised ears of the jackal head would have surmounted the wearers actual head. Two holes in the neck of the object would have allowed the wearer to view straight ahead. However, lateral vision would have been limited, thus necessitating the wearer's need for assistance, as explicitly depicted in a temple relief at Dendera. In this depiction, the priest wears just such a mask, and is assisted by a companion priest. A description of a festival procession of Isis, which was led by the god Anubis, who was presumably a similarly masked priest, took place not in Egypt but rather in Kenchreai. Funerary masks had more than one purpose. They were a part of the elaborate precautions taken by the ancient Egyptians to preserve the body after death. The protection of the head was of primary concern during this process. Thus, a face covering helped preserve the head, as well as providing a permanent substitute, in an idealized form which presented the deceased in the likeness of an immortal being, in case of physical damage. Those of means were provided with both a mask with gilt flesh tones and blue wigs, both associated with the glittering flesh and the lapis lazuli hair of the sun god. Specific features of a mask, including the eyes, eyebrows, forehead and other features, were directly identified with individual divinities, as explained in the Book of the Dead, Spell 151b. This allowed the deceased to arrive safely in the hereafter, and gain acceptance among the other divine immortals in the council of the great god of the dead, Osiris. Though such masks were initially made for only the royalty, later such masks were manufactured for the elite class for both males and females. Beginning in the 4th Dynasty, attempts were made to stiffen and mold the outer layer of linen bandages used in mummification to cover the faces of the deceased and to emphasize prominent facial features in paint. The forerunners of mummy masks date to this period through the 6th Dynasty, taking the form of thin coatings of plaster molded either directly over the face or on top of the linen wrappings, perhaps fulfilling a similar purpose to the 4th Dynasty reserve heads. A plaster mold, apparently taken directly from the face of a corpse, was excavated from the 6th Dynasty mortuary temple of Teti, though unfortunately, this is thought to date to the GrecoRoman period. The very earliest masks were experimentally crafted as independent sculptural work, and have been dated to the Herakleopolitan period (late First Intermediate Period). These early masks were made of wood, fashioned in two pieces and held together with pegs, or cartonnage (layers of linen or papyrus stiffened with plaster. They were molded over a wooden model or core. The masks of both men and women had over-exaggerated eyes and often enigmatic half smiles. These objects were then framed by long, narrow, tripartite wigs held securely by a decorated headband. The "bib" of the mask extended to cover the chest, and were painted for both males and females with elaborate beading and floral motif necklaces or broad collars that served not only an aesthetic function but also an apotropaic requirement as set out in the funerary spells. Hollow and solid masks (sometimes of diminutive size) were also built by pouring clay or plaster into generic, often unisex molds. To this, ears and gender specific details were than added. These elongated masks eventually evolved into anthropoid inner coffins, first appearing in the 12th Dynasty. Masks became increasingly more sophisticated during the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period. These later masks made for royalty were beaten from precious metals. Of course, an obvious example of such is the solid gold mask of Tutankhamun, though we also have fine gold and silver specimens from Tanis. However, masks of all types were embellished with paint, using red for the flesh tones of males and yellow, pale tones for females. Added to this were composite, inlaid eyes or

eyebrows, as well as other details that could elevate the cost of the finished product considerably. Hence, indications of social status, including hairstyles, jewelry and costumes (depicted on body-length head covers) are often helpful in dating masks. However, the idealized image of transfigured divinity, which was the objective of the funerary masks, precluded the individualization of masks to the point of portraiture. The results are that we have a relative sameness in these objects with anonymous facial features from all periods of Egyptian history. The use of face coverings for the dead continued in Egypt for as long as mummification was practiced in Egypt. Regional preferences included cartonnage and plaster masks, both of equal popularity during the Ptolemaic (Greek) period. The cartonnage masks became actually only one part of a complete set of separate cartonnage pieces that covered the wrapped body. This set included a separate cartonnage breastplate and foot case. During the Roman period, plaster masks exhibit Greco-Roman influence only in their coiffures, which were patterned from styles current at the imperial court. This included both beards and mustaches for males, and elaborate coiffures on women, all highly molded in relief. However, during the Roman period there were alternatives to the cartonnage or plaster mask. Introduced during this period were the so-called Fayoum portraits, which were initially unearthed from cemeteries in the Fayoum and first archaeologically excavated in 1888 and between 1910 and 1911 by Flinders Petrie at Hawara. Since then, they have been discovered at sites throughout Egypt from the northern coast to Aswan in the south. These were paintings made with encaustic (colored beeswax) or tempera (watercolor) on wooden panels or linen shrouds and were rendered in a Hellenistic style not unlike contemporary frescoes discovered at Pompeii and Herculaneum in Italy. Nevertheless, it is believed that such two-dimensional paintings held the same ideological function as traditional three-dimensional masks. However, these portraits were popular among nineteenth and early twentieth century collectors and this had a tendency to at first isolate them from their funerary contexts. They were studied by classicists and art historians who, basing their conclusions on details in the paintings along, such as hairstyles, jewelry and costume, identified the portraits as being those of Greek or Roman settlers who had adopted Egyptian burial customs. In fact, successful attempts have been made, based on the analysis of brush strokes and tool marks and the distinctive rendering of anatomical features, to group these portraits according to schools and to identify some individual artistic hands. However, though the portraits do appear at first to capture the unique features of specific individuals, it appears likely that only the earliest examples were painted from live models. Studies have indicated that the same generic quality that permeates the visages of the cartonnage and plaster masks persists within the group of Fayoum portraits that have been preserved and therefore we believe that they served in a similar fashion as the earlier masks. There may also be evidence for a cultic use of these paintings while their owners still lived. The fact that the upper corners of some of these panels were cut at an angle to secure a better fit before being positioned over the mummy, that there are signs of wear on paintings in places that would have been covered by the mummy wrappings, and that at least one portrait (now in the British Museum was discovered at Hawara still within a wooden frame indicates that the paintings had a domestic use prior to inclusion within the funerary equipment. They may have been hung in the owners home prior to such use. Yet the iconographic elements, including gilded lips in accordance with the funerary spells 21 through 23 of the Book of the Dead to insure the power of speech during the afterlife, as well as the allusions to traditional deities, such as the sidelock of Horus worn by adolescents, the pointed star diadem of Serapis worn by men, and the horned solar crown of Isis worn by adult females, together with other evidence, emphasize a continuity of native Egyptian traditions. Though the product of the Hellenistic age of Roman Egypt, they date from the end of a continuum of a desire to permanently preserve the faces of the dead in an idealized and transfigured form that began in the Old Kingdom and lasted to the end of pagan Egypt. The last examples we have of funerary masks are actually painted linen shrouds of which the upper part was pressed into a mold to produce the effect of a three dimensional plaster mask.

Some examples of this type of object may date as late as the third of fourth century AD. First unearthed by Edouard Naville within the sacred precinct of the mortuary chapel of Queen Hatshepsut, they were initially and incorrectly identified by him as the mummies of early Christians. However, later analysis by H. E. Winlock, particularly noting the ubiquitous representation of the bark of the Egyptian funerary god Sokar, correctly identified these as further examples of masks consistent with pagan Egyptian funerary traditions, even though certain motifs, such as the cup held in one hand, seem to present the final transition from pagan mask to Coptic icon painting and the portraits of Byzantine saints.

Funerary Art Egyptian funerary art was inseparably connected to the belief that life continues after death and that in order to make the journey between this and the next, images and memorabilia should be preserved. The Valley of the Kings was built as a necropolis for royal and elite tombs from about 1500 BCE, while the Theban Necropolis was later an important site for Mortuary temples and mastaba tombs. Individual portraiture of the deceased is found extremely early on. The intention was to commemorate the life of the tomb owner, provide supplies necessary for the afterlife, depict performance of the burial rites, and in general present an environment that would be conducive to the tomb owner's rebirth. There is a special category of Ancient Egyptian funerary texts, which clarify the purposes of the burial customs. The Egyptian mummy, encased in one or more layers of coffin, is famous; the Canopic jars contained several internal organs. Lower citizens used common forms of funerary art including shabti figurines (to perform any labor that might be required of the dead person in the afterlife), models of the scarab beetle and books of the dead which they believed would protect them in the afterlife During the Egyptian Middle Kingdom, miniature wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife, these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations, which are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife. http://www.crystalinks.com/egyptafterlife.html

Journey Through the Afterlife

Green god ... Anhai's statuette of Osiris at the Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead exhibition. Photograph: Trustees Of The British Museum Statues are speaking at the British Museum. The dead are coming to life. The statue in front of me is a small painted wooden figure of the god Osiris, just over half a metre high, in a glass case in one of the first rooms of this engrossing exhibition. It is instantly striking, because of the bright green of its face and hands, but its verbal eloquence lies hidden inside. It was made as a container for a rolled-up papyrus that "speaks" for its owner to the gods: a Book of the Dead, a collection of magic spells to help a departed person on their journey through the Western Lands, where gods and monsters live and the dead walk. The Book of the Dead was an illustrated guide to this landscape, as well as a survival kit of spells to repel dangers and get the gods on your side. This particular statue, and the papyrus it held, belonged to Anhai, a woman of high rank from a powerful priestly family in the Egyptian New Kingdom, who died in about 1100 BC. Her book, like others, was not only meticulously filled with spells written by scribes but illuminated with bright, crisp paintings that show crucial scenes and deities. The figures in these pictures stand or walk in profile the Egyptians never did learn to portray people in the round, as the Greeks would and have a crystal-clear beauty. Anhai's paintings portray her as tall and slender, with long, braided black hair, being led by the falcon-headed god Horus, who tightly grasps her wrist, towards the gates of the dead. When this collection of often-enigmatic pronouncements was first collated and translated by 19th-century scholars, it was seen as a kind of Egyptian Bible. An 1898 translation by the British Museum's expert EA Wallis Budge gave it the sonorities of the King James translation to make the point, inspiring many a mummy-related horror film and fuelling a remote image of ancient Egypt. But this show vividly demonstrates that this image is false: what we actually see here are individualised books of the dead, each one making a different choice from the corpus of spells, movingly personalised with portraits of the dead person. In a book belonging to Ani, a royal scribe who died in about 1275 BC, we even see him and his wife Tutu playing a board game called senet a game seen as symbolic of the journey through the afterlife, but also here inspiring a lovely domestic scene. Real-life details fill these books of the dead. Gardens, houses, feasts, clothes, animals and boats are lovingly portrayed. The texts themselves are also very beautiful: it is amazing to look at precisely inked writing that is more than 3,000 years old, a thousand years before Julius Caesar. So why are there comparatively few quotes in this exhibition? Although Budge's translation is now considered dated, there are clear, modern English translations of many of these spells, and surely there should be more of them on the walls. The show does not stint on deathly drama, however. The setting, under the dome of the old British Museum reading room, is strikingly exploited with ghostly lighting and deep shadows; a mummy's burial chamber is even recreated inside. As you proceed from this tomb into the realms of the dead, in this case represented by an array of coffins, sculpted stones, masks, bandages and papyri, you enter as the Ba, the bird-like detachable spirit of the deceased, would a strange limbo-like land of gates and passages and journeys. At last you come to the Hall of Judgment. Each Egyptian had to stand before Osiris while her or his heart was weighed by Anubis. In the other scale was the feather of Maat, goddess of balance and rightness; the terrifying Devourer crouched nearby, waiting to eat the hearts of sinners. In these papyri, artists have great fun imagining the Devourer part crocodile, part lion, part hippopotamus. If your heart was free from sin, you proceeded on towards the Field of Reeds, a paradise that looked exactly like the real Egypt and where the dead could do what they did in life, but without illness or pain. They are portrayed working in the fields, although, if you were asked to do anything too onerous in the afterlife (and were rich enough), you could get shabti figures servile statuettes that were buried to take on the task. As this exhibition reveals, no civilisation ever had a stronger belief in the afterlife than Egypt. Greeks and Roman myths focus overwhelmingly on this life; Egypt, with one foot in prehistory, looked over the horizon to the place where the setting sun vanished. Yet ancient

Egyptians lived 35 years on average. Their obsession with the afterlife was a response to that reality. And in their desire to perpetuate existence, they demonstrated their passion for the world. They loved life and wanted it to go on forever. In the end, perhaps there is nothing spooky in this exhibition at all. It is a hymn to the sun.

http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2010/nov/02/egyptian-book-of-the-dead