X INTRODUCTION

The operations performed on vectors, i.e. vector additions and scalar

multiplications in R
n
, possess some interesting properties. These properties can be
collected together into axioms that can be used to define a special structured set
called the vector space.
In this topic, we shall see that there exist other sets, that are not commonly
thought of as vectors, that obey the axioms for a vector space. In other words,
these sets actually make up a vector space. Some examples of these sets are all the
m n matrices, the set of all polynomials, as well as the set of all real functions
within a certain interval when the addition and scalar multiplication with a certain
scalar is performed.
AXIOMS OF A VECTOR SPACE
Is V a real vector space if it does not satisfy all the ten axioms?
Skill: State the axioms of a vector space.
7.1
T
T
o
o
p
p
i
i
c
c

7
7

X
VectorSpaces
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define vector spaces; and
2. Determine whether a given set with two operations defined constitute
a vector space or not.
X TOPIC 7 VECTOR SPACES
110
Axioms of Addition
- V3. Commutivity
For all , in , . x y V x y y x =
- V4. Associativity
For all , and in , ( ) ( ). x y z V x y z x y z =
- V5. Existence of the zero vector
There exists an element in V, denoted by 0 , such that
0 for all in . x x x V =
- V6. Existence of the negative element
For all x in V there exists an element x in V such that
0. x x =
Closure Axiom
- V1. Closure with respect to addition
For each pair , , x y in V x y is a unique element in V.
- V2. Closure with respect to multiplication by real number
For each x in V and each real number , x o o : is a unique
element in V.
Definition: Assume that V is a non-empty set with two defined operations,
addition and multiplication ( and ). : V is called a real vector space if V
satisfies the following 10 axioms:
TOPIC 7 VECTOR SPACES W
111
Note: The addition and multiplication : operations are in fact functions as
can be seen below.
: : V V V
( , ) x y x y 6
and : : V V R
( , ) a x a x 6 :
The vector space (also refered to as the linear space) as defined above is
called the real vector space since the elements are multiplied by real
numbers only. We can also replace the real numbers in our operations with
complex numbers, in which case the resulting structure is called the complex
vector space. The set of all real or complex numbers is known as the scalar
set.
Axioms of multiplication with real numbers. (Scalar multiplication)
- V7. For each x in V and each pair of real numbers a and b,
( ) ( ) . a b x ab x = : : :
- V8. Distributivity of scalars
For all , x y in V and all real numbers a,
( ) ( ) ( ). a x y a x a y = : : :
- V9. Distributivity for addition of real numbers
For all x in V and all real numbers a and b,
( ) ( ) ( ). a b x a x b x + = : : :
- V10. Existence of the identity
For each x in V, 1 . x x = :
X TOPIC 7 VECTOR SPACES
112
In all the proceeding discussions, the following shorthand shall be used:
- x y will be written as x y + and
- x o : will be written as . x o
All vector spaces discussed in this course are restricted to real vector spaces only.
EXAMPLES OF VECTOR SPACES AND
NON-VECTOR SPACES
(a) V = R with and x y x o + as ordinary real number addition and scalar
multiplication respectively.
(b) V = R
n
with real number addition and scalar multiplication defined as above.
(c) V = R
mn
the set of all m n matrices with real entries. For any A, B eR
mn
and o eR, define
A + B = (a
ij
+ b
ij
) and oA = (oa
ij
)
with A = (a
ij
), and B = (b
ij
)
Note: We can assume that R
n
is the set of all n 1 matrices with real
number entries.
(d) V = F [a, b] the set of all real functions defined on the interval [a, b]. For
any f and g e V, o e R, define f + g and o f as follows:
( )( ) ( ) ( ) f g t f t g t + = +
and
| |
( )( ) ( ), , f t f t t a b o o = e
(e) V = P
n
the set of all polynomials of degree less than n and with the
operations as in (d).
7.2
TOPIC 7 VECTOR SPACES W
113
Example 7.1
Show that P
3
i.e. the set of all polynomials of degree less than 3, with
operations as defined in Section 7.2(d) constitute a vector space.
Solution
Let p and q be any two polynomials of degree less than 3. Then
p(t) = a
0
+ a
1
t + a
2
t
2
and q(t) = b
0
+ b
1
t + b
2
t
2
.
Step 1: Prove it obeys Axiom V1.
Note that
(p + q)(t) = p(t) + q(t) = (a
0
+ b
0
) + (a
1
+ b
1
)t + (a
2
+ b
2
)t
2
.
This shows that p + q e P
3
.
Step 2: Prove it obeys Axiom V3.
Note that
(p + q) t = (a
0
+ b
0
) + (a
1
+ b
1
)t + (a
2
+ b
2
)t
2
= (b
0
+ a
0
) + (b
1
+ a
1
)t + (b
2
+ a
2
)t
2
= (q + p)(t)
Step 3: Prove it obeys Axiom V5.
The zero polynomial
0(t) = 0 + 0t + 0t
2
is the zero vector for P
3
.
Step 4: Prove it obeys Axiom V6
For p e P
3
, with
p(t) = a
0
+ a
1
t + a
2
t
2
therefore p is also a polynomial in P
3
with
p(t) = a
0
a
1
t a
2
t
2
.
X TOPIC 7 VECTOR SPACES
114
Example 7.2
Show that R
mn
with operation as defined in Section 7.2(c) constitute a vector
space.
Solution
Step 1: Define the operation.
Let A, B are be two elements in R
mn
, with
A = (a
ij
) and B = (b
ij
) and o any real numbers.
Step 2: Prove the Closure Axioms (V1 and V2).
From the Axioms, it is clear that
A + B e R
mn
and oA e R
mn
.
Step 3: Prove Axiom V3.
Note that
A + B = (a
ij
+ b
ij
) (this is the definition)
= (b
ij
+ a
ij
) (the + operation is commutative with respect to R)
= B + A
Step 4: Prove it satisfies Axiom V4.
Let C = (c
ij
) e R
mn
. Then
A + (B + C) = (a
ij
) + (b
ij
+ c
ij
)
= (a
ij
+ b
ij
) + (c
ij
) (the + operation is associative in R)
= (A + B) + C
Using Example 7.1 as the starting point, show that all the other axioms
are also obeyed.
ACTIVITY 7.1
TOPIC 7 VECTOR SPACES W
115
Step 5: Prove it satisfies Axiom V5
The zero element for R
mn
is the zero matrix 0 of size m n.
Step 6: Prove it satisfies Axiom V6.
If A = (a
ij
) e R
mn
, then the negative element for A is the matrix
A = (a
ij
).
It is obvious that A e R
mn
.
Step 7: Prove it satisfies Axiom V7.
Let A = (a
ij
) e R
mn
, a, b e R.
Observe that
a(bA) = a(b(a
ij
))
= a(ba
ij
)
= (aba
ij
)
= (ab)(a
ij
)
= (ab)A
Step 8: Prove it satisfies Axiom V8.
Assume
A = (a
ij
), B = (b
ij
) are two elements in R
mn
and a e R.
Observe that
a(A + B) = a[(a
ij
) + (b
ij
)] = [a(a
ij
+ b
ij
)]
= (aa
ij
+ ab
ij
) = (aa
ij
) + (ab
ij
)
= aA + aB
Show that Axiom V9 and V10 are also obeyed for Example 7.2.
ACTIVITY 7.2
X TOPIC 7 VECTOR SPACES
116
To show that any set V with two operations defined is not a vector space, we
only need to show that at least one of the ten Axioms of vector space is fail to
obeyed.
Example 7.3
Show that V = {(x, y, z) | x, y, z e R} with the addition operation
(x, y, z) + (x', y', z') = (x + x', y + y', z + z')
and scalar multiplication
o(x, y, z) = (ox, y, z)
is not a vector space.
Solution
Step 1: Show that Axiom V9 is not obeyed.
Axiom V9 is not obeyed the contradiction to Axiom V9 is true.
0 0 0
( , , )
, ( ) .
x x y z V
x x x o o o
- = e
- e + = + R
Step 2: Choose a suitable value for the parameter to be used.
Let x = (1, 2, 3) and o = 2, = 3. Observe that
(o + ) x = (2 + 3) (1, 2, 3) = 5(1, 2, 3)
= (5, 2, 3)
Step 3: Find the value for , x o x and x o + . x
x o = 2(1, 2, 3) = (2, 2, 3)
x = 3(1, 2, 3) = (3, 2, 3)
From the definition
o x + x = (2, 2, 3) + (3, 2, 3)
= (5, 4, 6)
TOPIC 7 VECTOR SPACES W
117
BASIC THEOREMS ABOUT VECTOR SPACES
Can an empty set be a vector space?
From the vector space axiom we can prove the following theorem:
Proof:
Assume there exist two different zero vectors, say,
1
0 and
2
0 .
From Axiom V5, let x =
1
0 and x =
2
0 we obtain
1
0 +
2
0 =
1
0.
Similarly, let x =
2
0 and
1
0 0 , = we obtain
2
0 +
1
0 =
2
0 .
But
1
0 +
2
0 =
2
0 +
1
0 (V3)
Theorem 7.1.
The zero vector in any vector space is unique.
Skill: To prove a theorem using the vector space axiom.
7.3
Conclusion: We therefore obtain
(1, 2, 3) 2 x V o - = e - = eR and
3 ( ) . R x x x o o = e + = +
Thus, V with the two operations above is not a vector space.
X TOPIC 7 VECTOR SPACES
118
Therefore
1
0 =
2
0 , that is, the zero vector is unique.
Proof:
Let
1
y and
2
y of x be two associated negative vectors.
From Axiom V6,
1 2
0 and 0. x y x y + = + =
Note that (V5)
2 1 2 2
( ) 0 y x y y y + + = + =
and
2 1
( ) y x y + +
2 1
( ) y x y = + + (V4)
2 1
( ) x y y = + + (V3)
1 1
0 y y = + =
Thus,
1 2
, y y = that is, the negative vector is unique.
Theorem 7.3. Elimination Rule.
Let , and x y z be elements of a vector space V. If x y x z + = + then . y z =
Theorem 7.2. The negative vector in any vector space is unique.
i.e. ! 0. e - e + = x V y V x y
TOPIC 7 VECTOR SPACES W
119
Proof: Assume . x y x z + = +
Then
( ) ( ) x x x x x z + + = + +
( ) ( ) x x y x x z + + = + + (V4)
0 0 y z + = + (V6)
y z = (V5)
Proof:
(i) From V10 and V9
1 (1 0) 1 0 0 x x x x x x x = = + = + = +
therefore ( 0 ) ( ) 0 x x x x x x x x + = + + = + + (V4)
Thus, 0 0 0 0 . x x = + = (V6, V5)
(ii) Assume 0. x y + =
Then 0 ( ) x x x x y = + = + +
Thus, ( ) 0 . x x x y y y = + + = + = (V4, V6, V5)
(iii) From (i) and V9
0 0 (1 ( 1)) 1 ( 1) ( 1) x x x x x x = = + = + = +
This means that, ( 1) , x x = from (ii).
Theorem 7.4. Assume V is a vector space and x any element of V. Then
(i) 0 0 x =
(ii) 0 x y y x + = =
(iii) ( 1)x x =
X TOPIC 7 VECTOR SPACES
120
1. Show that C[a, b] the set of all continuous functions defined on
the interval [a, b] with the addition and scalar multiplication
operations as defined in example (d), Section 7.1 is a vector
space.
2. Let V = {(x, y, z) | x, y, z e R} with the operations on V defined as
follows:
(a) (x, y, z) + (x', y', z' ) = (x + x', y + y', z + z' ) and
o(x, y, z) = (ox, ay, 0)
(b) (x, y, z) + ( x', y', z') = ( x + x', y + y', z + z' ) and
o(x, y, z) = (2ox, 2oy, 2oz)
Show that V with the operations in (a) and (b) is not a vector
space.
3. Let V = { f | f : R R} with the addition and scalar multiplication
defined as follows:
( f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x), f, g e V, x e R, and (of )(x) = f (ox),
o eR.
Show that V with the two operations above does not constitute a
vector space.
4. Let V be a vector space, and . x V o e e R Show that
(a) 0 0. o =
(b) If 0 x o = then either 0 or 0. x o = =
(c) ( ) ( ) ( ). x x x o o o = =
5. Let V be the set of all positive real numbers. The addition and
scalar multiplication : on V is defined as follows:
and for , , . x y xy x x x y V
o
o o = = e eR :
Show that ( , , ) V : is a vector space.
EXERCISE 7.1
TOPIC 7 VECTOR SPACES W
121

- We know that all n-tuple, the set of all real m n matrices, the set of all
functions defined on an interval and the set of all polynomials are different
mathematical sets.
- However, the discussions in this topic show that by defining addition and
scalar multiplication on the sets, all of them exhibit a common structure that
of the vector space.
-

Axioms of addition
Closure axiom
Complex vector space
Real vector space
Scalar multiplication
Scalar set
6. Let W = {(x, y) | x, y e R}. Define the addition and scalar
multiplication operation as folows:
(x, y) + (x
1
, y
1
) = (x + x
1
, y + y
1
+ 1) and o (x, y) =
(ox, oy + o 1).
Show that W with the operations defined forms a vector space.
7. Let T = {(x, y, z) | x, y, z e R}. Define the addition and scalar
multiplication operation as folows:
(x, y, z) + (x', y', z' ) = (x', y + y', z' ) and o (x, y, z) =
(ox, oy, oz).
Show that T with the operations as defined does not form a vector
space.
EXERCISE 7.1