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Contents
Gravity Loads
Wind Loads
Wave and Current Loads – Small bodies
Wave and Current Loads – Large Bodies
1
Offshore Structures – Loads
Types of Loads
Gravity Loads
Structural Dead Loads
Facility Dead Loads
Fluid Loads
Live Loads
Environmental Loads
Wind Loads
Wave Loads
Current Loads
Buoyancy Loads
Ice Loads
Mud Loads
Seismic Loads
2
Offshore Structures – Loads
Facility Loads
The structure built either for drilling or
wellhead type platform or for process
type platform supports various
equipment and facilities.
Mechanical equipment
Electrical equipment
Piping connecting each equipment
Electrical Cable trays
Instrumentation items
Drilling Loads
Drilling Loads include reaction from Jackup
cantilever type rig or Deck mounted rigs.
Dead loads
Movable Drill floor loads
Drill string weight
Depending on the type of drilling rig used, this loads will vary.
For water depth less than 70m, Jackup type rig may be used.
For deeper water depths, operation of Jackup type rigs
become uneconomical and deck mounted drilling rigs will be a
suitable option. Weight of such rig will be around 1500
Tonnes with an additional support module of 1000 Tonnes.
3
Offshore Structures – Loads
Live loads
Live loads are defined as movable loads and will
be temporary in nature.
This load vary in nature from owner to owner but
a general guideline on the magnitude of the loads
is given below.
Environmental Loads
Wind Loads
The extrapolation of wind speed shall be
calculated as below
1
⎛ y⎞
8
V =V ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 10 ⎠
0
4
Offshore Structures – Loads
The total force on the platform can be
calculated as
Fx = f w AxC s
Fy = f w AyC s
5
Offshore Structures – Loads
6
Offshore Structures – Loads
7
Offshore Structures – Loads
Design Wave Method
The forces exerted by waves are most dominant in
governing the jacket structures design especially the
foundation piles. The wave loads exerted on the
jacket is applied laterally on all members and it
generates overturning moment on the structure.
Period of wind generated waves in the open sea can be
in the order of 2 to 20 seconds. These waves are
called gravity waves and contain most part of wave
energy.
Maximum wave shall be used for the design of offshore
structures. The relationship between the significant
wave height (Hs) and the maximum wave height
(Hmax) is
Hmax= 1.86 Hs
The above equation correspond to a computation based
on 1000 waves in a record.
API RP2A requires both 1 year and 100 year recurrence wave
shall be used for the design of jacket and piles. Appropriate
combination of loads with these waves shall be used in the
design. A one-third increase in permissible stress is allowed for
100 year storm conditions.
8
Offshore Structures – Loads
Current Profile
9
Offshore Structures – Loads
y
VW = VoW
h
Where VW is the wind driven current at any height
from sea bed, VoW is the wind driven current at the
surface, y is the distance measure in m from
seabed and h is the water depth
10
Offshore Structures – Loads
Morison Equation
Wave and current loading can be calculated by Morison
equation
Morison equation can be written as:
1 πD 2
FT = C D ρ w D V V + CM ρW a
2 4
Where FT is the total force, ρw is the density of water, CD and
CM are the drag and inertia coefficients respectively, D is the
diameter of the member including marine growth, V is the
velocity and a is the acceleration.
The first term in the equation is drag component (FD) and the
second term is the inertia component (FI). This can be
expressed as:
FT = FD + FI
11
Offshore Structures – Loads
STEPS
Establish Wave Height, Period and Current
Distribution along the depth
Establish Wave Theory applicable for H,T,d
Estimation of Water particle kinematics
including wave current interaction
Establish Cd and Cm
Establish Marine Growth
Establish Wave Kinematics factor
Conductor Shielding (if applicable)
Current Blockage factor
Morison Equation used to estimate the forces
12
Offshore Structures – Loads
Dispersion Relationship
gT 2π 2
L= tanh( d )
2π L
2πL
T = 2
2π
g tanh( d )
L
L L
= +V I
T T app
2πL
=
2
Tapp
2π
g tanh( d )
L
(4π / L) 0
V = ∫ U ( z ) cosh(4π ( z + d ) / L) dz
sinh( 4πd / L)
I c
−d
13
Offshore Structures – Loads
Nonlinear Drag Term in Morison equation
1 πD 2
F = C ρ DVV+ C ρ a
2 4
T D w M W
V = Vc + Vw
Vc = Current Velocity
Vw = Wave Water Particle Velocity
Example
Lets assume Vc=2m/sec, Vw=3m/sec
If we calculate the drag forces separately, add, we will get 2*2
+ 3*3 = 13
If we add the velocities first and compute the loads, we get
(2+3)*(2+3) = 25
It under predicts the forces as much as by 50%
Source : API RP 2A
14
Offshore Structures – Loads
H ω cosh k (h + z )
φ =− sin( kx − ωt )
2 k sinh kh
Source : API RP 2A
15
Offshore Structures – Loads
Source : API RP 2A
16
Offshore Structures – Loads
Source : API RP 2A
Source : API RP 2A
17
Offshore Structures – Loads
Cd and Cm
These are empirical Coefficients to be used in
Morison equation and they have been corelated with
experimental data
These coefficients vary due to shape of the structure,
surface roughness, flow velocity and direction of flow
Extensive research on various shapes available
API RP 2A has enough information for circular
cylinders
DNV recommendation can be used for non-circular
shapes
18
Offshore Structures – Loads
Cd and Cm
For Smooth cylinders Cd = 0.65, Cm=1.6
For rough cylinders Cd = 1.05, cm=1.2
Keulegan-Carpenter Number
2U mT2
K=
D
Where K is Keulegan-Carpenter Number, Um is the maximum
velocity including current and T2 is the duration of half wave
cycle and D is the diameter of the member
19
Offshore Structures – Loads
Reynold’s Number
U D
R= m
ν
Where R is Reynold’s Number, Um is the maximum velocity
including current and D is the diameter of the member
ν is the kinematic viscosity
Source : API RP 2A
20
Offshore Structures – Loads
Drag Coefficient
Source : API RP 2A
21
Offshore Structures – Loads
The horizontal and vertical velocity and acceleration of
water particle can be calculated using the following
equations. ∂φ H cosh k (h + z )
Vh = = ω cos(kx − ωt )
∂x 2 sinh kh
∂φ H sinh k (h + z )
Vv = = ω sin( kx − ωt )
∂z 2 sinh kh
∂V H cosh k (h + z )
ah = h = ω 2 sin( kx − ωt )
∂t 2 sinh kh
∂V H sinh k (h + z )
av = v = ω 2 cos(kx − ωt )
∂t 2 sinh kh
Where k is the wave number defined by 2π/T, ω is the wave
circular frequency defined by 2π/T, L is the wave length, and
x is the distance of the point in consideration from origin.
22
Offshore Structures – Loads
Wave Loads on Jacket Structure
Storm Wave
⎡ πD CM 2 sinh 2 kh ⎤
θ max −1
= cos ⎢− ⎥
⎣ H C D (sinh 2kh + 2kh ⎦
23
Offshore Structures – Loads
Maximum Load on a horizontal member
Consider a case of horizontal cylinder such as brace of a
jacket, the combined drag and inertia force (total force) varies
with time and will be maximum only at one occasion. In order
find the maximum force, phase angle at which the maximum
force occurs shall be found first.
⎡ πD CM sinh kh ⎤
θ max = sin −1 ⎢− ⎥
⎣ 2 H C D (cosh k (h + z ) ⎦
24
Offshore Structures – Loads
Maximum Load on a inclined member
The resultant force on a arbitrarily oriented circular
cylinder in water waves can be calculated using
vector analysis combined with Morison equation
25
Offshore Structures – Loads
→ →
F =F
t t
D
→
1 t → →
F = CD Dρ Vt Vt
t
D
2
CDn = Drag coefficient for flow tangential to the cylinder
→
Vt = Velocity of fluid particle tangential to the cylinder axis
26
Offshore Structures – Loads
27
Offshore Structures – Loads
Hydrodynamic Factors
28
Offshore Structures – Loads
SELECTION OF SUITABLE WAVE THEORY
Example
Water Depth d= 60m
Wave height H= 12m
Wave Period Tapp= 10 Sec
Calculate H/gTapp2 =0.012
Calculate d/gTapp2 =0.06
29
Offshore Structures – Loads
Wave / Current
Direction
Wave / Current
assumed to be acting in
same direction
Wave Directions shall
be set to maximize the
total loads and pile loads
Minimum 8 directions
for 4 or 8 legged jackets
and 12 for tripods
Directional or Omni-
directional depending on
the design requirement
30
Offshore Structures – Loads
400
Shear
350 Moment
300
Shear (or) Moment (kN (or) kN-m)
250
200
150
100
50
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 90 180 270 360
500
Shear (or) Moment (kN (or) kN-m)
400
300
200
100
-100
-200
-300
-400
0 90 180 270 360
Maximum shear and moment of two pile group along phase angle
31
Offshore Structures – Loads
900
Shear
Moment
Shear (or) Moment (kN (or) kN-m) 700
500
300
100
-100
-300
-500
0 90 180 270 360
Maximum shear and moment of two pile group structure along phase angle
100
50
-50
-100
0 90 180 270 360
32
Offshore Structures – Loads
1
F = Cρ DV V
2
S S w s s
V = βC
b
F = C ρ AV V
b b w b b
gT
C = 1.092
2π
33
Offshore Structures – Loads
34
Offshore Structures – Loads
PIV Illumination System
35
Offshore Structures – Loads
Typical PIV Image
36
Offshore Structures – Loads
Image Showing Vortex developing further
37
Offshore Structures – Loads
38
Offshore Structures – Loads
Assymetric Vortices
39
Offshore Structures – Loads
BOUNDARY LAYER
LIFT FORCES
1
F = Cρ DU U
2
L L w s s
C = 0.7C
L d
40
Offshore Structures – Loads
41
Offshore Structures – Loads
Diffraction Forces
Assumption of “No disturbance” is not valid
if D/L > 0.2
Part of Wave reflected once the wave
touches the structure and part of it pass
around
This phenomenon is called diffraction
These forces also can be measured
experimentally
Many research papers exist for different
types and shapes of structures
42
Offshore Structures – Loads
Governing Equation
∂ 2φ s ∂ 2φ s
+ 2 = 0 in Ω
∂x 2 ∂y
The velocity potential due to an incident
monochromatic wave traveling in the
positive direction can be expressed as
follows:
ιga cosh k ( y + d )
φ, = − exp (ιkx )
ω cosh kd
11 Dec 2007 85 Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
43
Offshore Structures – Loads
∂ 2Φ s ∂Φ s ∂Φ s ω 2
+ g = 0 or + at y = 0
∂t 2 ∂y 2 ∂y g
∂φs
∂φ i
=− = qo
∂n ∂n
Bed boundary condition
The kinematic boundary condition on the fixed horizontal
sea bed can be specified as a no flow condition as
follows: −
∂φ s
=0
∂n
11 Dec 2007 88 Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
44
Offshore Structures – Loads
∂φs
+ ikφ = 0
s
x → ±∞
∂x
45
Offshore Structures – Loads
Diffraction Forces
Solution of Boundary Value Problem for
Velocity Potential
Calculation of Pressures
Integration of Pressures to obtain Forces
46
Offshore Structures – Loads
Diffraction Forces
47
Offshore Structures – Loads
ICE LOADS
48