Sewerage

and Drainage
Systems
1. I ntroduction
1.1 History of Sewers

Combined sewer ± to convey both

sanitary sewage and storm water runoff.

Disposal of the combined sewage:

a). Without treatment if conditions
permitted;
b). With treatment if conditions do not
permit raw discharge.

Combined sewer interceptor systems and

sewage treatment plants.
1.2 Combined Sewer System Performance

Overflow - usually about 97% of the

sanitary sewage is intercepted.

First flush - Although only 3% of

sanitary sewage is lost, more than 35% of
suspended solids (SS) are lost in overflows.

Conclusion - combined sewer system

performance is poor, therefore change is
necessary.
1.3 Solution to CSO
(1) I ncrease interceptor capacity
(2) Off-system Storage
(3) I n-system Storage and Real Time
Control
(4) Outfall Treatment
(5) Sewer Separation
2. Sanitary Sewage Quantities
2.1 Composition of Wastewater (Sanitary
Sewage)
(1) Spent Water (domestic waste)
- expressed as gpcd or lpcd
- 60 ~ 80 % of domestic water
demand
(2) Commercial and Industrial Wastes
- wide variations in strength and
volumes
- expressed as gallons per acre per
day (gpad) or population equivalent
(3) Extraneous Flows
- may be the major flow component
in extreme cases

(4) Infiltration ± Exfiltration

- infiltration is the groundwater
seepage into joints and cracks
- exfiltration is the sewage leakage
out of the joints and cracks
- expressed as gpd/acre or gpd/mile
of sewer pipes
2.3 Residential Flow Rates
(1) Small Residential Areas
- estimate from population density and
gpcd.
(2) Large Residential Areas
- estimate from land area and per acre
contributions.
(3) Measurements
- whenever possible, base flow rates on
actual measurements from selected
typical residential areas.
(4) Empirical Formulae
- develop formulae from regression
analysis with actual data.
2.4 Variations in Dry-Weather Flow
Rates (Residential Areas)

Similar to water demand.

Typical ratios (Peak Factors):

Max. Day/Avg. 2.5/1

Max. Hour/Avg. 3.0/1
Min. Day/Avg. 0.67/1
Min. Hour/Avg. 0.33/1
2.5 Extraneous Flows

Expressed as: (1) peak factor of avg. DWF:

3)¶VRIaUHSRUWHG
(2) flow per unit area: reports
as high as 0.02 cfs/acre

Caused by erroneous/illegal connections,

etc.

Should be measured at or near the design

location.
2.6 I nfiltration/I nflow

Rates vary from 1000 ± 150,000 gpd/mile.

Specifications vary:

e.g., 1600 ± 12,000 gpd/mi for 8-inch sewer,

4000 ± 36,000 gpd/mi for 24-inch sewer.

Consult local standards.

3. Hydraulics of Sewers

3.1 I ntroduction

Wastewater collection differs from water

distribution in two ways:

(1) Conduits do not flow under pressure

except in special situations.

(2) Wastewater contains significant

floating, suspended and dissolved solids.
The design of sewers is based on:

(1) open channel flow while partially or

barely full.

(2) limiting velocities so as to:

- reduce deposition at low velocities,

- avoid erosion at high velocities.
Sanitary Sewer Design Problems:

(1) Long design lifetime,

(2) Hydraulic gradients are inflexible,
(3) Velocity limits must be met.

0DQQLQJ¶VIRUPXOD: most widely used.

1.49 2 / 3 1 / 2
V R S
n
Values for n: (E.g., Metro Toronto)

Vitrified tile, asbestos cement, n = 0.013

Concrete > 24-inch diameter (600 mm),

n = 0.013

Concrete < 24-inch diameter (600 mm),

n = 0.015.

CMP ± paved invert, n = 0.019.

CMP ± plain galvanized, n = 0.021.
2. Hydraulic Calculations

To determine the diameter and slope of a pipe

to transport a given flow.

Pipes Flowing Full:

- With slope selected first, a direct solution

from the Manning equation is possible because
the relationship between A and R is fixed, the
relationship between D and R is also fixed.
Therefore Q is a function of R only. Solve for
R first for a given Q, and then determine D.
Pipes Flowing Partially Full:
d

- A direct solution from the Manning

equation is not possible, because

d = f(Q), Q = f(R), R = f(d).

A one-step solution is made possible
with information on the Ratios of Hydraulic
Elements.
Recall Manning¶V Equation:

Q 1.49 2 / 3 1/ 2
V R S
A n
Containing 4 variables (hydraulic elements):

Q or V; R or A/Wp; S or hL; n
(1) For a fixed shape, n, and S; the other
elements vary with depth of flow, i.e.,

2/3
v /V (r / R)
2/3
q / Q (a / A)(r / R)

where lower case variables are for partly

filled pipes, and upper case variables are for
full pipes.
 From the above, it can be seen that the
ratios of partly-filled and full cross-section
hydraulic elements are related for fixed n
and S.

A figure was developed from these

relationships.
Use of the Ratios of Hydraulic Elements:

(i) If depth of flow is known, the

corresponding ratios of other hydraulic
elements (area, wetted perimeter, hydraulic
radius, discharge, velocity) can be read off
directly from the individual curves.

(ii) If the ratios of v/v-Full or Q/Q-Full

are known, determine the % of depth of flow
first, then determine the corresponding ratios
of other hydraulic elements as in (i).
Note: If n = f (depth), corrections may be
made to improve accuracy. Refer to, e.g.,
ASCE Manuals of Practice.

Example:

Determine the pipe size necessary to

transport a flow of 15 cfs at a slope of 1
ft/1000 ft and n = 0.015. Also find the depth
of flow in the pipe.
Solution:

(1) From the Manning equation with Q = 15

cfs, S = 0.001, and n = 0.015, we find ) =
33-inch, running full; go to the next largest
pipe size = 36-inch.

(2) From the Manning equation with ) =

¶¶S = 0.001, and n = 0.015, we find Q =
19 cfs, running full.
(3) Thus, we know that 15 cfs will run partly
IXOOLQD¶¶SLSH&DOFXODWHIORZUDWLR
q/Q = 15 cfs/19 cfs = 0.79.

)URP³5DWLRRI+\GUDXOLF(OHPHQWs
&KDUW´ knowing q/Q = 0.79, we find d/D =
0.67.

7KXVWKHGHSWKRIIORZLQD¶¶SLSH
carrying 15 cfs is: d = 0.67D = 0.67u¶¶ 
23-inch.

Determine velocity v in a similar manner.

3.3 Limiting Velocities of Flow

Both deposition and erosion are

functions of the tractive force of flowing
wastewater.

Tractive force: force exerted by moving

liquid on channel bed.

To prevent deposition, minimum

velocities are 2 and 3 ft/s for sanitary sewers
and storm drains, respectively.
 Moving water carrying solids (sand, grit)
at high velocities is very abrasive.

Maximum velocities are also specified.

Commonly, the maximum velocity is

specified as 10 ft/s (or 3 m/s) from
experience.
To prevent erosion, especially in large
concrete or brick pipes, invert liners may be
used.

The design flows for sanitary sewers are

usually the maximum hourly flow in
residential areas, or 3 u Ave. Daily Flow.
3.4 Specific Energy and Critical Depth

An open channel may transport a given rate of

flow in one of three uniform flow conditions
depending on its slope.

Which condition the flow is at can be assessed by

examining its specific energy, defined as:

2
v
E y
2g
where y = depth of flow, v = mean velocity.
Specific Energy Diagram: Constructed by continuously
changing the slope of the channel and determining the
corresponding uniform flow depth and velocity to transport a given
flow rate.
For a constant rate of flow, the depth at
which the specific energy is minimum is
known as the critical depth (yc), the
corresponding velocity is known as critical
velocity (vc).

Depending on the flow depth, the flow can

be Critical, Subcritical or Supercritical.

Critical flows are highly unstable.

Sewers are designed for subcritical flows.

Ways to determine critical depth and critical
velocity
At critical flow:

3
Q g( A / B) , V g( A / B)

A = cross-sectional area of channel;

B = channel width at water surface.

Easy to determine yc if B is constant; not the

case for circular pipes.
4. Design of Sanitary Sewer Systems

4.1 I nformation Requirements

(1) Topographic Surveys Containing:

- contours,
- zoning (commercial, residential,
industrial; etc.),
- road surfaces and right-of-ways,
- land use information (for siting pump
stations, STPs, etc.)
(2) Detailed Plans and Profiles containing:
- basement (cellar) or sill elevations,
- location of building drains,
- other utilities (water, gas, electric,
telephone, etc.),
- soil information (type, rock, GWT, etc.)
4.2 Elements of Sewer Profile

Much less flexibility in sewer plan design.

Objective in Profile Design: minimize the size

and depth of sewer pipe consistent with:

(1) slope for min. and max. velocities,

(2) min. sewer depth (pipe loading and
frost penetration),
(3) max. distance between manholes,
(4) street grade.
The elements are related:
h1  h2 l ( g  s)
h1, h2 ± depth in excess of minimum;
l ± distance between manholes;
g ± street grade;
s ± sewer grade;
x ± minimum depth of pipe.
Possible Cases:

(1) g < smin, sewer become progressively

deeper until pumping necessary.

(2) g = smin, ideal, depth remains constant at

the minimum.

(3) g > smin and h1 = 0, design s = g, steeper

grade permits small pipe.
(4) g > smin and h1 > 0,
(4.1) If possible to get h2 = 0,
Let smin < s < g, use flatter slope to
get back to minimum depth.
(4.2) If impossible to get h2 = 0,
Let s = smin, use flattest slope to
minimize h2.
(4.3) If minimum grade is used already
to avoid high velocities and that results
in h2 < 0, use drop manhole such that h2
= 0.
May need to move manholes closer.
4.3 Layout of Sanitary Sewer Systems

General guidelines:
(1) Obtain a topographic map of the area;
(2) Locate the drainage outlet;
(3) Sketch a preliminary pipe system to
serve all the contributors;
(4) Pipes and manholes are generally placed
under streets or rights-of-ways so that all
users (present and future) can readily tap
on; number manholes moving upstream
from the outlet;
(5) Establish preliminary pipe sizes;
(6) Revise layout to optimize flow-carrying
capacity at minimum cost;
(7) Try to avoid pumping across drainage
boundaries.
(8) To obtain minimum-sized sewers, get as
much flow as possible through pipes
before joining the main sewer.
Small hills
Design slope is the larger of Smin and street
slope, unless the street is to steep.
 Detailed  Calculations
1. For circular pipe flowing full (British Units: ft, s)

(1)

With Q (design flow), n, S known, the pipe diameter

D for full flow can be calculated using Eq. (1). This
D is the pipe size recorded in Column 8.

2. Selected pipe size in Column 9 is slightly greater

than the D in Column 8, its full flow rate Q-Full
(Column 10) is also calculated using Eq. (1)
 ĞƚĂŝůĞĚĂůĐƵůĂƚŝŽŶƐ͙
3. The ratio of Q (design flow) and Q-Full is
calculated in Column 11, the corresponding
ratio of d/d-max is read from the Ratios of
Hydraulic Elements chart.

4. The design flow depth d is calculated in

Column 13 from the selected D and d/d-Max.

5. V-Full is calculated using the following

equation with the selected D:
 ĞƚĂŝůĞĚĂůĐƵůĂƚŝŽŶƐ͙
6. V/V-Full in Column 15 is read from the Ratio of
Hydraulic Elements chart corresponding to the d/d-
Max ratio in Column 12.

7. The design flow velocity V in Column 16 is then

calculated using values in Columns 14 and 15.

8. If the V in Column 16 is not within the required

range, the slope or the size of the pipe may be
changed, all the calculations have to be repeated.
Experience:

Ɣ6HZHUslopes be made to conform to street

slopes in order to minimize excavation.

x Velocities and flow depths are generally

not problematic except in the upstream
pipes.
4.4 Typical Design Standards

Pipe M aterials:

(1) Gravity lines: concrete, R/C, Asbestos

Cement, VC;
(2) Pressure lines (Force mains): ductile
iron, steel, R/C

All pipe classes are specified by ASTM

by wall thickness and strength.
Pipe Sizes:
(1) diameter no less than 8-inch for
residential areas and no less than 10-inch
for industrial and commercial areas;
(2) larger pipes never feed to smaller pipes.

I nvert Progression:
(1) crown-to-crown (resulting in invert drop
at the manhole);
(2) matching 0.8udepth lines.
M anholes:

(1) at every change of grade, direction,

elevation, or pipe size;
(2) placed every 200 ± 500 ft (60 ± 150 m)
for small sewers;
(3) use drop manhole for drops > 2 to 3 ft;
(4) manhole losses (see Text, on storm
sewers).
Trench Depth and Pipe Cover:

(1) enough depth to prevent frost penetration

(Toronto, 2 ft);

(2) enough cover to permit load distribution

(also depends on bedding).

Trench Bedding: Different Classes

4.5 Design Computations

Design information kept in tabular form.

Essential elements:
- Peak design flows be carried at velocities
great enough to prevent sedimentation,
yet small enough to prevent erosion.
- Not to run full but half full to full under
design flow conditions.

(Some airspace is desirable for ventilation

and suppression of sulfide generation.)

4.6 Computer-Aided Design