The most important books and texts required for the Contemporary English IV

Writing and Conversation section are:

The Bedford Handbook Hacker, Diane (Boston, New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s,
2002) – especially Part I and IX, but that does not mean you should skip over the
other parts
The second page of the introduction to the course reader
This handout

The other supplementary literature is for your use/practice/enjoyment.

These texts include:
The entire reader
The Elements of Style Strunk, William, ed. E.B. White (New York: MacMillan
Publishing Co., Inc., 1979)
The Grammar Guide Ackles, Nancy (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press,
2003)
The Academic Word List

General guidelines for writing an essay that are not included in the above texts, or that
may be contrary to the advice given in them are:
- The fact that for this class, you are to write formal essays
- For that reason, I would like you to try not to use the pronouns “I” or “you” in your
essays – unless you have a very good reason for doing so, and are able to maintain a
formal tone in your essay in other ways
- Other rules and guidelines will be explained in class

This handout was compiled using the following three sources:

Subjects/Strategies: A Writer’s Reader Eschholz, Paul and Alfred, Rosa (Boston:
Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005)
The Prentice Hall Reader Miller, George (New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007)
Models for Writers: Short Essays for Composition Rosa, Alfred and Eschholz, Paul
(Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007)

The bibliographies of further handouts or class exercises will be provided on request.

NOTE: The descriptions of essay types in this handout are for revision purposes only.
If you have never studied essay writing in this way, this handout is not the place for
you to begin.

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Writing Essays

Prewriting

1. Understand the assignment.

Read it several times to make sure you understand.

2. Determine your purpose.

It may be:
- To express thoughts and feelings about a life experience.
- To inform readers by explaining something about the world around them.
- To persuade readers to adopt some belief or take some action.
N.B.: Your purpose often determines which strategy you choose.

3. Find a subject area and topic.

Select several likely subjects and explore their potential for interesting topics. Your
goal is to arrive at an appropriately limited topic.

4. Know your audience.

Present material in a way that empathises with readers, addresses their difficulties and
concerns and appeals to their rational and emotional faculties.
QUESTIONS ABOUT AUDIENCE:
- Who are your readers?
- Are they a specialised or generalised group?
- What do you know about their age, gender, education, religion, affiliation, economic
status and political attitudes?
- What do they know about your subject? Are they experts or novices?
- What does your audience need to know that you can tell them?
- Will your audience be interested, open-minded, resistant or hostile to what you have
to say?
- Do you need to explain any specialised language? Is there any language you should
avoid?
- What do you want your audience to do as a result of your essay?

Generating Ideas and Collecting Information

1. Keep a journal
- Collect thoughts, observations, lists of concerns (see first page of class reader).
- Freewrite: run with an idea and see where it leads.

2. Brainstorm for new material

- Simply list all you know about a topic, freely associating one idea with another.
- Try to capture everything that comes to mind, you don’t know what will be helpful
later.

3. Generating ideas using rhetorical strategies

- To get your mind working, make associations, discover meaningful things to say.
- Remember: these are more than techniques for composition; they are basic ways of
thinking.
- For example: use the strategy of division to find common genres or types

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 classify those categories
describe typical examples for each category with representative details
compare and contrast
define
locate the cause(s) and effect(s)

Invention: Starting the Writing Process

Writing takes time

Find out when is the assignment due and devise a plan of action. This may seem
obvious and irrelevant to the writing process, but it's not. Writing is a process, not
merely a product. Even the best professional writers don't just sit down at a computer,
write, and call it a day. The quality of your writing will reflect the time and
forethought you put into the assignment. Plan ahead for the assignment by doing pre-
writing: this will allow you to be more productive and organized when you sit down
to write. Also, schedule several blocks of time to devote to your writing; then, you can
walk away from it for a while and come back later to make changes and revisions
with a fresh mind.

Use the rhetorical elements as a guide to think through your writing

Thinking about your assignment in terms of the rhetorical situation can help guide
you in the beginning of the writing process. Topic, audience, genre, style, opportunity,
research, the writer, and purpose are just a few elements that make up the rhetorical
situation.

Topic and audience are often very intertwined and work to inform each other. Start
with a broad view of your topic such as skateboarding, pollution, or the novel Jane
Eyre and then try to focus or refine your topic into a concise thesis statement by
thinking about your audience. Here are some questions you can ask yourself about
audience:

• Who is the audience for your writing?

• Do you think your audience is interested in the topic? Why or why not?
• Why should your audience be interested in this topic?
• What does your audience already know about this topic?
• What does your audience need to know about this topic?
• What experiences has your audience had that would influence them on this
topic?
• What do you hope the audience will gain from your text?

For example, imagine that your broad topic is dorm food. Who is your audience? You
could be writing to current students, prospective students, parents of students,
university administrators, or nutrition experts among others. Each of these groups
would have different experiences with and interests in the topic of dorm food. While
students might be more concerned with the taste of the food or the hours food is
available parents might be more concerned with the price.

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You can also think about opportunity as a way to refine or focus your topic by asking
yourself what current events make your topic relevant at this moment. For example,
you could connect the nutritional value of dorm food to the current debate about the
obesity epidemic or you could connect the price value of dorm food to the rising cost
of a college education overall.

Keep in mind the purpose of the writing assignment.

Writing can have many different purposes. Here are just a few examples:

• Summarizing: Presenting the main points or essence of another text in a

condensed form
• Arguing/Persuading: Expressing a viewpoint on an issue or topic in an effort
to convince others that your viewpoint is correct
• Narrating: Telling a story or giving an account of events
• Evaluating: Examining something in order to determine its value or worth
based on a set of criteria.
• Analyzing: Breaking a topic down into its component parts in order to
examine the relationships between the parts.
• Responding: Writing that is in a direct dialogue with another text.
• Examining/Investigating: Systematically questioning a topic to discover or
uncover facts that are not widely known or accepted, in a way that strives to be
as neutral and objective as possible.
• Observing: Helping the reader see and understand a person, place, object,
image or event that you have directly watched or experienced through detailed
sensory descriptions.

You could be observing your dorm cafeteria to see what types of food students are
actually eating, you could be evaluating the quality of the food based on freshness and
quantity, or you could be narrating a story about how you gained fifteen pounds your
first year at college.

You may need to use several of these writing strategies within your paper. For
example you could summarize federal nutrition guidelines, evaluate whether the food
being served at the dorm fits those guidelines, and then argue that changes should be
made in the menus to better fit those guidelines.

Pre-writing strategies

Once you have thesis statement just start writing! Don't feel constrained by format
issues. Don't worry about spelling, grammar, or writing in complete sentences.
Brainstorm and write down everything you can think of that might relate to the thesis
and then reread and evaluate the ideas you generated. It's easier to cut out bad ideas
than to only think of good ones. Once you have a handful of useful ways to approach
thesis you can use a basic outline structure to begin to think about organization.
Remember to be flexible; this is just a way to get you writing. If better ideas occur to
you as you're writing, don't be afraid to refine your original ideas.

4. Formulate a thesis statement

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The thesis statement makes an assertion about your topic. Your purpose – to express,
explain, argue – should not be stated explicitly. This means that the introduction (the
shorter paragraph before the “first paragraph”) should never read: “I am going to
explain the difference between men and women” (or something to that effect).
THE THESIS STATEMENT
– The thesis statement is the most important point you make about your topic.
– It is more general than the ideas and facts used to support it.
– It is focused enough to be covered in the space allotted by the essay.
– It should not be a question, but an assertion.
N.B. A good way to tell if your thesis is too general/specific is to think about how
easy it will be to present information/examples to support it. (If there are too few, or
too many, you are on the wrong track.)
WILL YOUR THESIS HOLD WATER?
– Does your thesis statement take a clear stance on an issue? If so, what is that stance?
– Is your thesis too general?
– Is your thesis too specific?
– Does your thesis apply to a larger audience than yourself? If so, who is the
audience, and how does the thesis apply?

5. Determine your strategy

– It can be natural, logical…
– You can make an outline first.
– If you can’t decide on a strategy:
-Summarise the point you want to make in a simple sentence/phrase.
-Restate the point as a question – in effect this is the question your essay will answer.
-Look closely at the summary and question for key words or concepts that go with a
particular strategy.
-Consider other strategies that would support your primary strategy.

6. Organise your paper

- Different strategies require different organisation.
ex. OBJ. A OBJ B. Comparison/Contrast
pt1…. pt1….
pt2… pt2….
pt3… pt3…
ex. Point to be proved…. Argumentative
Supporting arguments 1….
2….
Opposing argument…
Supporting arguments 1…
2…
Final argument…

7. Writing your first draft

(THESE POINTS ONLY APPLY IF YOU HAVE TIME TO EDIT/REVISE)
– The first draft may be exploratory and unpredictable. For example, what begins as a
definition essay ends up as process analysis (to illustrate: you begin by defining
manners and end up writing about how to be a good host).
– Allow your inspiration to take you where it will. If you run into difficulties, keep
going. Think about your topic; consider details and what you want to say.

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CHECKLIST
– Triple-space to easily make changes.
– Make revisions on a hard copy.
– Read paper aloud, listening for parts that don’t make sense.
– Have a fellow student read and critique it.

GUIDE TO PEER CRITIQUING

– Read essay carefully. Read it to yourself first and have writer read it aloud. (Flaws
are more obvious when read aloud.)
– Ask writer to state his/her purpose for writing and to identify the topic sentence
within the paper itself.
– Be positive, but honest. Never denigrate a paper’s content or a writer’s effort, but
try to identify how the paper can be improved through revision.
– Try to address the most important issues first. Think about the thesis and
organisation first, before specific topics like word choice.
– Do not be dismissive or dictate changes. Ask questions that encourage the writer to
reconsider parts that are confusing or ineffective.
WHEN SOMEONE CRITIQUES YOUR WORK:
– Listen carefully, and try not to discuss or argue every issue. Record comments and
evaluate them later.
– Do not get defensive or explain what you wanted to say if the reviewer
misunderstood what you meant. Try to understand the reviewer’s point of view and
learn what you need to revise to clear up the misunderstanding.
– Consider every suggestion, but only use those that make sense.
– Thank the reviewer.

8. Revising

(a) Revising large elements

– Try to look at your writing as a whole.
– Make an informal outline of your draft, not as you planned it, but as it actually came
out. What does your outline tell you about the strategy you used? Does this strategy
suit your purpose? Perhaps the draft is between two strategies? Do you have a definite
purpose?
– The outline can help you see if you left something out.
– You may discover flaws in organisation, such as lack of logic in an argument or a
parallelism in comparison and contrast.
QUESTIONS FOR REVISING THE LARGE ELEMENTS OF YOUR ESSAY
– Have you focused on your topic?
– Does your thesis statement clearly identify your topic and make an assertion about
it?
– Is your organisational pattern the best one for your purposes?
– Are your paragraphs adequately developed, and does each support your thesis?
– Have you accomplished your purpose?
– Is your beginning effective in capturing your reader’s interest and introducing your
topic?
– Is your conclusion effective? Does it grow naturally from what you’ve said in the
rest of your essay?
Afterwards, you may then proceed to:
– Construct a formal outline that reflects the changes you want to make.

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– Include the title, a brief statement of purpose and the thesis statement.
– Write in complete sentences so that the meaning is clear.
– Note that if you divide a category into a subcategory, there must be at least two
subcategories.

(b) Revising small elements

QUESTIONS FOR REVISING SENTENCES
– Do your sentences convey your thoughts clearly, and do they emphasise the most
important parts of your thinking?
– Are all your sentences complete sentences?
– Are your sentences stylistically varied? Do you alter their pattern and rhythm for
emphasis?
– Do you use strong action verbs and concrete nouns?
– Is your diction fresh and forceful or is your writing verbose?
– Have you committed any errors in usage?

NOTES ON BEGINNINGS AND ENGINGS

– They are important to effectiveness.
– Do not write them sequentially, but write beginnings and endings last. Once you see
how the rest of the essay develops, you’ll understand how to catch the reader’s
attention better.
– Does the introduction grab the reader’s attention?
– Is your introduction confusing in any way? How well does it relate to the rest of the
essay?
– Does your essay come to a logical conclusion or does it seem just to stop?
– How well does the conclusion relate to the rest of the essay? Are you careful not to
introduce new topics or issues that you did not address in the essay?
– Does your conclusion help to underscore or illuminate important aspects of the body
of the essay or is it redundant, a mechanical rehashing of what you wrote earlier?

9. Editing and proofreading

– To edit grammar, punctuation, spelling, capitals, use a dictionary or grammar book.
QUESTIONS TO ASK DURING EDITING AND PROOFREADING
– Do your verbs agree in number with their antecedents?
– Do your pronouns have clear antecedents – do they clearly refer to specific earlier
nouns?
– Do you have any sentence fragments, comma splices or run-on sentences?
– Have you made any unnecessary shifts in person, tense or number?
– Have you used the comma properly in all instances?
– Have you checked for misspellings and typos?
– Have you inadvertently confused words like their, they’re and there or it’s and its?
– Have you followed the prescribed guidelines for formatting your manuscript?

TYPES OF ESSAYS

EXEMPLIFICATION

= The use of examples – facts, opinions, anecdotes, stories – to make a generalisation

more vivid, understandable, persuasive.

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– Support your examples with specific details.
– Gather more examples than you can use. Do research, choose the strongest
examples.
– Choose relevant examples.
– Be sure that the examples are representative (i.e. that are typical of the main
point/concept, or indicative of a larger point – rather than an isolated occurrence).
– If the examples do not support the main point, look further. Or perhaps the main
point is wrong.
– Organise examples (chronological, least to most…).
– Use transitions.

QUESTIONS FOR REVISING AND EDITING: EXEMPLIFICATION

1. Is your topic well focused?
2. Does your thesis statement clearly identify your topic and make an assertion about
it?
3. Are your examples well chosen to support your thesis? Are there other examples
that might work better?
4. Are your examples representative? That is, are they typical of the main point or
concept, rather than bizarre or atypical?
5. Do you have enough examples to be convincing, or do you have too many
examples?
6. Have you developed your main examples in enough detail so as to be clear to the
readers?
7. Have you organised your examples in some logical pattern and is that pattern clear
to readers?
8. Does the essay accomplish your purpose?
9. Are your topic sentences strong? Are your paragraphs unified?

DESCRIPTION

= Conveying through words the perceptions of our five senses; to paint a verbal
picture.

– This type of essay is used to inform, to provide readers with specific data; to create
a mood/atmosphere; to convey your own views; to develop a dominant impression.

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– It can be an objective description, or a subjective, impressionistic description.
– Determine your purpose: to inform, express emotions, persuade…
– Focus on the subject of your description, observe it in detail. (It is hard to write
about something from memory, and even harder to write about entirely imagined
impressions.)
– Use the descriptions in the service of an idea. (What the reader really wants to know
is why you chose to describe what you did.) The descriptions ought to symbolise
something.
– Collect sensory details about your subject. Use all the senses. (Give details when
you write.)
– Select descriptive details with your purpose in mind.
– Identify your audience. What do they know already? What will they learn from you?
– Create a dominant impression.
– Organise details to create a vivid picture. (For instance, you may describe what is
experienced first, second, third; or go from describing the smallest to the largest
objects; or describe the general then the specific.)
– Show, don’t tell: use specific, strong nouns and verbs. Adjectives and adverbs are
crucial but so are well chosen nouns and verbs.
Specific, strong language is interesting. Use a thesaurus if necessary.
– Use figurative language. (Remember similes use “like, as”, while metaphors do not.
Extended metaphors may take up an entire paragraph. Do not mix metaphors.)

QUESTIONS FOR REVISING AND EDITING: DESCRIPTION

1. Do you have a clear purpose for your description? Have you answered the “so
what” question?
2. Is the subject of your description interesting and relevant to your audience?
3. What senses have you chosen to describe it? For example, what does it look like,
sound like, or smell like? Does it have a texture or taste that is especially important to
mention?
4. Which details must you include in your essay? Which are irrelevant or distracting
to your purpose and should be discarded?
5. Have you achieved the dominant impression you wish to leave with your audience?
6. Does the organisation you have chosen for your essay make it easy for the reader to
follow your description?
7. How carefully have you chosen your descriptive words? Are your nouns and verbs
specific?
8. Have you used figurative language, if appropriate, to further strengthen your
descriptions?

NARRATION

= Tells us what happens, by using illustrations and anecdotes.

A narrative essay is a meaningful account of something significant. It is used to gain
insight into our lives, report (current issues or biographies, for instance), in
combination with rhetorical strategies to define, persuade and so on.

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– Select a topic that has meaning for you: first brainstorm and then decide on an event
or incident that is particularly memorable. Don’t necessarily choose the theme that
looks good. Ask yourself: “What did I learn from it? How am I different as a result
and what has changed?”
– Determine your point and purpose: ask yourself what the significance is of the event
you are narrating and why you are telling your story. The meaning of your narrative
and purpose of writing will influence which details and events you include and which
you leave out.
– Establish a context: when/where/to whom it happened.
– Choose the most appropriate point of view, and maintain it throughout.
– Select details that “show, don’t tell”: begin by asking who was involved, what
happened, where it happened, when, why, how…
– Organise: write in chronological order, or narrate as a flashback.
– Keep verb tense consistent.
– Use narrative time for emphasis: the length of a description should match the
chronological time (in other words, do not dedicate too much space to events that took
place very quickly.)

QUESTIONS FOR REVISING AND EDITING: NARRATION

1. Is your narrative well focused or do you try to cover too long a period of time?
2. What is your reason for telling this story? Is the reason clearly stated or implied for
readers?
3. Have you established a clear context for your readers? Is it clear when the action
happened, where it happened, and to whom?
4. Have you used the most effective point of view to tell your story? How would your
story be different had you used another point of view?
5. Have you selected details that help readers understand what is going on in your
narrative, or have you included unnecessary details that distract readers or get in the
way of what you are trying to say? Do you give enough examples of the important
events in your narrative?
6. Is the chronology of events in your narrative clear? Have you taken advantage of
opportunities to add emphasis, drama, or suspense with flashbacks, or other
complications of chronological organisation?
7. Have you used transitional expressions of time markers to help readers follow the
sequencing of events in your narrative?
8. Have you avoided run-on sentences and comma splices?
9. Is the meaning of your narrative clear? Or have you left your readers thinking, “So
what?”

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

= Considers how two things are alike/differ in order to come to some sort of
conclusion.

– This kind of essay can compare or contrast things point by point, or consist of block
comparisons.

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– Use analogies when the subject of discussion is unfamiliar, complex or abstract.
Analogies aid in understanding and work by comparing two largely dissimilar
subjects to look for illuminating similarities – usually to clarify one subject that is
complex and unfamiliar.
– Discovering similarities and differences is a strategy for learning, evaluating and
making decisions.
– Only compare subjects from the same class (i.e. a particular type of place, person,
thing, occupation, idea). If the similarity or difference is too obvious, readers will lose
interest.
– Determine your purpose and focus on it. What is your audience? Do you want to
inform, educate, persuade, emphasise? Do you have more than one purpose? The
answers to these questions will influence the content and organisation of your essay.
– Formulate a thesis statement. (You may modify it later.) It fixes your direction and
helps you gather supporting material.
– Choose points of comparison – such as qualities and features. As you learn more,
you may want to change these points (such as by involving another important factor).
– Organise the points of comparison.
– Draw a conclusion from the comparison. Remember the purpose, the thesis
statement, audience and emphasis.

QUESTIONS FOR REVISING AND EDITING: COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

1. Are the subjects of your comparison comparable: that is, do they belong to the same
class of items so that there is a clear basis for comparison?
2. Are there any complex or abstract concepts that might be clarified by using an
analogy, in which you convey what the concept has in common with a more familiar
or concrete subject?
3. Is the purpose of your comparison clearly stated?
4. Have you presented a clear thesis statement?
5. Have you chosen your points of comparison well? Have you avoided the obvious
points of comparison, concentrating instead on similarities between obviously
different items or differences between essentially similar items?
6. Have you developed your points of comparison in sufficient detail so that your
readers can appreciate your thinking?
7. Have you chosen the best pattern – block or point by point – to organise your
information?
8. Have you drawn a conclusion that is in line with your thesis and purpose?
9. Have you used parallel constructions correctly in your sentences?

DIVISON AND CLASSIFICATION

Division: breaking down a single large unit into smaller subunits or separating a
group of items into discrete categories.
Classification: placing individual terms into established categories.
That means that while division takes apart, classification groups together.

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= This kind of essay is used to demonstrate a point, to explain a broadly complicated
subject, to help readers make choices (like by classifying politicians, for instance) by
using basic organisation strategies.
– Abide by a strict set of limits related to the subject, purpose, division of subject,
organisation and conclusion.
– Determine your purpose and focus on it.
– Formulate a thesis statement. Ask: “What is my point? What categories will be most
successful in making my point?” If you cannot answer these questions, write some
ideas down and determine your main point from those ideas.
– Establish appropriate characteristics: once you have decided on a subject and
determined a purpose, the principle of division will usually become obvious. At the
planning stage, diagrams, charts and tables can help visualise the organisation. It can
help determine whether your classes are appropriate, mutually exclusive and
complete. Dividing may require canvassing.
– Organise the points of your essay.
– State your conclusion. Your essay’s purpose determines the kinds of conclusions
you reach.
– Use other rhetorical strategies.

QUESTIONS FOR REVISING AND EDITING: DIVISION & CLASSIFICATION

1. Is your subject a coherent entity that readily lends itself to analysis by division and
classification?
2. Does the manner in which you divide your subject into categories help you achieve
your purpose in writing the essay?
3. Does your thesis statement clearly identify the number and type of categories you
will be using in your essay?
4. Do you stay focused on your subject and stay within the limits of your categories
throughout your essay?
5. Do your categories meet the following three criteria: Are they appropriate to your
purpose, consistent and mutually conclusive and complete?
6. Have you organised your essay in a way that makes it easy for the reader to
understand your categories and how they relate to your purpose?
7. Are there other rhetorical strategies that you can use to help you achieve your
purpose?

DEFINITION

We can only communicate with another person properly when all of us define the
words we use in the same way – and that is not always easy. Definitions are used to
explain the essential nature of things and ideas.

There are different kinds of definitions:

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Extended definitions require a full discussion, and examples. Such definitions may
involve examples, compare and contrast, involve descriptions and can be persuasive.
Formal definitions are like those found in a dictionary. They explain the meaning of a
word by assigning it to a class then differentiating it from other members of that class.
Synonymous definitions pair a word with a word of similar but perhaps more limited
meaning.
Negative definitions explain what that word does not mean. Though incomplete, such
definitions sometimes help clarify meaning.
Etymological definitions trace a word’s origins and often reveal new ways of
considering that word.
Stipulative definitions are invented by a writer to convey a special or unexpected
sense of an existing or familiar word. For example, “Music is the arithmetic of
sounds.” Such definitions lead to elaboration.

– Use specific, concrete words. Keep in mind the following:

General = classes of objects, qualities or actions.
Specific = individual objects, qualities or actions within a group. (If food is the group,
cherry pie is specific.)
Abstract = concepts, qualities, conditions.
Concrete = things you can hear, taste, smell, touch, see.

QUESTIONS FOR REVISING AND EDITING: DEFINITION

1. Have you selected a subject in which there is some controversy or at least a
difference of opinion about the definitions of the key words?
2. Is the purpose of your definition clearly stated?
3. Have you presented a clear thesis statement?
4. Have you considered your audience? Have you oversimplified material for
knowledgeable material or complicated material for beginners?
5. Have you used the types of definitions (formal, synonymous, negative,
etymological, stipulative, extended) that are most useful in making your point?
6. Is your essay of definition easy to follow? Is there a clear organisational principle
(chronological or logical, for example)?
7. Have you used other rhetorical strategies – such as illustration, comparison and
contrast, and cause and effect analysis – as needed and appropriate to enhance your
definition?
8. Does your conclusion stem logically from your thesis statement and purpose?
9. Have you used precise language to convey your meaning? Have you used words
that are specific and concrete?

CAUSE AND EFFECT ANALYSIS

= Wherever a question asks why, answering it will require discovering a cause or a

series of causes for a particular effect; whenever a question asks what if, its answer
will point out the effects that can result from a particular cause. Cause and effect
analysis explores the relationship between events or circumstances and the outcomes
that result from them.

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– Cause and effect analysis is used to identify a particular causal agent or
circumstance and discuss the consequences or effects it has had or may have.
– It is used to first examine the effect: the writer describes an important event/problem
(effect) and examines the possible reasons (causes) for it.
– It is used to explore a complex causal chain, and is similar to narration in the sense
that it shows clearly how each event leads to the next.
– Determining causes and effects is a complex, thought-provoking activity. While
immediate causes may be readily apparent, there are most often remote causes.
– It is difficult to distinguish between possible and actual causes, as well as between
possible and actual effects. Making reasonable choices among various possibilities
requires thought and care.
– Cause and effect analysis is used to inform; speculate; argue.
– Avoid simplification and errors of logic:
-Examine material objectively; take into account any potential objections that readers
might raise. Do not jump to conclusions or let your prejudices interfere with the logic
of your interpretation or the completeness of your presentation.
-Don’t oversimplify the cause and effect relationship. A good working assumption is
that most important matters cannot be traced to a single verifiable cause, similarly a
cause or a set of causes rarely produces a single, isolated effect.
-To be believable, analysis of a topic must demonstrate a thorough understanding of
the surrounding circumstances.
- To achieve coherence, emphasis must be placed on the most important cause/effect,
yet it is important not to lose reader’s trust by insisting on oversimplified X-leads-to-
Y relationships.
- Beware of what is known as post hoc ergo propter hoc which literally means “after
this, therefore because of this” but more simply refers to there being a lack of
evidence.
– Select words that strike a balanced tone. Avoid phrases like, “There can be no
question”, “but perhaps”, “in my opinion”…
– Use words and phrases that highlight causal links (“as a result of”, “thus”) and
causative verbs that describe cause and effect actions (affect, change, convert, create,
dissolve, expand, produce, sharpen, transform).

QUESTIONS FOR REVISING AND EDITING: CAUSE & EFFECT ANALYSIS

1. Why do you want to use cause and effect analysis: to inform, to speculate, or to
argue? Does your analysis help you to achieve your purpose?
2. Is your topic manageable for the essay you wish to write? Have you effectively
established your focus?
3. Does your thesis statement clearly state either the cause and its effects or the effects
and its causes?
4. Have you identified the nature of your cause and effect scenario? Is there a causal
chain? Have you identified immediate and remote causes? Have you distinguished
between possible and actual causes and effects?
5. Have you been able to avoid oversimplifying the cause and effect relationship you
are writing about? Are there any errors in your logic?
6. Is your tone balanced, neither overstating nor understating your position?
7. Is there another rhetorical strategy that you can use with cause and effect to assist
you in achieving your purpose? If so, have you been able to implement it with care so
that you have not altered either the direction or tone of your essay?

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8. Have you taken every opportunity to use words and phrases that signal cause and
effect relationships?
9. Have you avoided using the phrase “the reason is because”?

ARGUMENTATION
= The attempt to convince readers to agree with a particular point of view, to make a
particular decision, or pursue a particular course of action; such an essay involves the
presentation of well-chosen evidence and the artful control of language.

There are two kinds of argumentation:

Persuasive argument relies primarily on appeals to emotion, the subconscious, even to
bias and prejudice. Such argumentation involves diction, slanting, figurative language,

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analogy, rhythmic patterns of speech and tone that encourages a positive, active
response. Such techniques are used in advertisements and political speeches.
Logical argumentation appeals to the mind – intellectual faculties, understanding and
knowledge. Such argumentation involves the reasoned movement from assertion to
evidence to conclusion and an almost mathematical system of proof and counterproof.
Examples of this are scientific, philosophical, technical proposals.

Which kind you use depends on the topic, audience, evidence, and which kind of
argument you use:
Informational or exploratory argument used to provide a comprehensive review of the
various facets of an issue. Such an argument is used to inform an audience unaware of
why the issue is controversial, to help the audience take a position. No position is
taken by the author in such an argument.
Focused argument used to change the audience’s mind about a controversial issue. If
opposing viewpoints are considered, it’s to show that they are inferior.
Action-oriented argument is highly persuasive and attempts to accomplish a specific
task. The language used is emotionally charged, and buzzwords are designed to
arouse the emotions. Propaganda devices such as glittering generalities (broad,
sweeping statements) and bandwagonism are used.
Quiet or subtle argument only when closely examined do they reveal that the author
has shaped and slanted the evidence in such a manner as to favour a particular
position. Makes special use of diction, or withholds evidence.
Reconciliation argument attempts to explore all facets or an issue to find common
ground or areas of agreement. Could be a new assertion leading to new debate. Aims
at mediating opposing views into a rational and where appropriate practical outcome.

Consider the following when making an argument:

Ethos : the authority, credibility, morals of speaker – who has to be credible in order
to forward a cause. A moral speaker would not forward a questionable cause.
Similarly, such a speaker would present an argument sincerely, credibly, untainted by
excessive emotion.
Logos : the effective presentation of the argument. Is the thesis worthwhile, logical,
consistent and supported by the end? Is the argument factual, reliable and convincing?
Is the argument so thoughtfully argued and clearly presented that it has an impact on
the audience?
Pathos : how to maximise appeal. This is usually achieved through language, and
depends on the audience.

There are two kinds of reasoning:

Inductive reasoning moves from a set of specific examples to a general statement or
principle. Note that inaccuracies in evidence or contrary evidence lead readers to
doubt the assertion.
Deductive reasoning moves from an overall premise, rule or generalisation to a more
specific conclusion. It follows the pattern of syllogism, which is a simple, three-part
argument consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. An
example of a syllogism is: All humans are mortal/Catalina is a human/Catalina is
mortal. A syllogism fails if either of the premises is untrue, for example: All living
creatures are mammals/ A lobster is a living creature/ A lobster is a mammal.
A syllogism also fails if the conclusion is jumped to and exceptions are ignored. For
instance: All college students read books/ Larry reads books / Larry is a college

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student. It is more difficult to see errors in logic when the argument is presented
discursively or in a long essay. You can reduce an argument to syllogistic form to test
its validity. Also, if you can isolate and examine out of context the evidence provided
to support an inductive assertion, you can more readily evaluate the assertion.

– Before writing, find out what’s in the news, what people are talking about, what
authors and intellectuals are emphasising as important intellectual arguments.
– While researching, be aware that the information may point you in new directions.
Don’t hesitate to modify or reject an initial or preliminary thesis.
– The organisation of your essay will depend on the method of reasoning.
– Consider refutations to your argument. Take into account well-known and
significant opposing arguments. It mist remain clear that your argument is stronger.
- Avoid faulty reasoning. There are different kinds of faulty reasoning:
Oversimplification a foolishly simple solution to what is clearly a complex problem.
Hasty generalisation based on too little evidence or evidence that isn’t representative.
Post hoc, ergo propter hoc confusing chance or coincidence with causation.
Begging the question assuming in a premise something that needs to be proven.
False analogy making a misleading analogy between logically connected ideas.
Either/or thinking seeing two alternatives when there may be others.
Non sequitor an inference or conclusion that is not clearly related to the established
premises or evidence.
– Conclude forcefully. You may restate the thesis in different language or encourage a
specific course of action. Do not introduce new information, or use phrases like “I
think” or “In my opinion”.
– Argumentation is strengthened by incorporating other strategies (see essay types).
– Ask yourself whether you need more convincing examples, terms defined, processes
explained, or the likely effects of action detailed.

QUESTIONS FOR REVISING AND EDITING: ARGUMENTATION

1. Is your thesis or proposition focused? Do you state your thesis well?
2. Asses the different kinds of arguments. Are you using the right technique to argue
your thesis? Does your strategy fit your subject matter and audience?
3. Does your presentation include enough evidence to support your thesis? Do you
acknowledge opposing points of view in a way that strengthens rather than weakens
your argument?
4. Have you chosen an appropriate organisational pattern?
5. Have you avoided faulty reasoning within your essay? Have you had a friend read
the essay to help you find problems with your logic?
6. Is your conclusion forceful and effective?
7. Have you thought about or attempted to combine rhetorical strategies to strengthen
your arguments? If so, is the combination of strategies effective?
8. Have you used a variety of sentences to enliven your writing?
COMBINING STRATEGIES

– The dominant strategy of an essay is rarely the only one used to develop a piece of
writing.
– Before you can combine, you must have a firm understanding of each strategy –
you’ll begin to recognise ways to use and combine them. When you encounter a
difficult or abstract word, you will define it as a matter of course.

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When combining strategies:
– Determine your purpose. The most common non-fiction purposes are: (a) to express
your thoughts and feelings and life experience; (b) to inform your readers by
explaining something about the world around them; (c) to persuade readers to some
belief or action.
– Remember that a question is not a thesis statement. If you find you are asking
questions, answer the question and turn the answer into the thesis statement.

– Determine your dominant developmental strategy:

Exemplification – to provide examples or cases in point
Description – to detail sensory perceptions of a person, place, thing
Narration – to recount an event
Process Analysis – to explain how to do something or how something happens
Comparison and Contrast – to show similarities or differences
Definition – to provide the meaning of a term
Cause and Effect Analysis – to analyse why something happens and to describe the
consequences of a string of events
Argumentation – to convince others through reasoning

– Determine your supporting strategies:

Exemplification – Are there examples, facts, cases in point, experiences that could
help achieve the purpose of your essay?
Description – Does a person, place or object play a prominent role in your essay?
Would the tone, pacing, or overall purpose of your essay benefit from sensory details?
Narration – Are you trying to report or recount an anecdote, an experience or an
event? Does any part of your essay include the telling of a story?
Process Analysis – Would any part of your essay be clearer if you included concrete
directions about a certain process? Are you evaluating any processes? Does the reader
need any processes to be explained?
Comparison and Contrast – Does your essay contain two or more related subjects?
Are you evaluating or analysing two or more people, places, processes, events,
things? Do you need to establish similarities or differences?
Division and Classification – Are you trying to explain a broad and complicated
subject? Would it benefit your essay to reduce this subject to more manageable parts
to focus your discussion?
Definition – Who is your audience? Does your essay focus on any abstract,
specialised terms that need further explanation?
Cause and Effect Analysis – Are you examining past effects or outcomes? Is your
purpose to inform, speculate, argue about why an identifiable fact happens the way it
does?
Argumentation – Are you trying to explain aspects of a particular subject, and are you
trying to advocate a specific opinion on this subject or issue in your essay?

ELEMENTS OF THE ESSAY

1. Unity
– Every element in a piece of writing (whether a paragraph or an essay) must be
related to the main idea.
– Sentences that stray from the subject – though they might be related to it or provide
addition information – can weaken an otherwise strong essay.

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– To check that the essay is unified: underline your thesis statement and explain how
each paragraph is related to the thesis. If the paragraph is not logically related you can
revise it to make the relationship clear.

2. Organisation
– The pattern of organisation should be suited to your purpose: in chronological,
climactic, space (person, place, thing), logical (least to most) order.
– To check organisation, outline your essay once you have a draft. Does the outline
represent the organisational pattern – chronological, spatial, logical – that you set out
to use?

3. Beginnings and Endings

– A good beginning should catch a reader’s interest and then hold it. The opening
“lead” requires a lot of thought and much revising. Wait until the piece is almost
completed before focusing on the lead. Once you know how it has developed, you
will know how to better introduce it to the reader.
The following tools are often used in introductions:
-Anecdote: a brief narrative drawn from current events, history, personal experience
-Analogy/comparison: gets readers to contemplate a theme they would otherwise find
boring
-Dialogue/quotation: can weaken an introduction, but can succinctly introduce a point
if used well
-Facts and statistics: if the facts are brief and startling, they can be an effective
opening – otherwise, they are used to support the essay
-Irony or humour: signals to the reader that the essay will be interesting
- Short generalisation: (ex. “It’s a miracle that NY works at all.”)
- Startling claim
– Beginnings to avoid: apology, complaint, dictionary definition, platitude, reference
to the title of the essay.
– An effective ending may summarise, inspire the reader to further thought or action,
may return to the beginning by repeating key words or ideas, may surprise the reader
with convincing examples to support the thesis.
– If there is a problem writing the conclusion, the problem is in the essay itself. A
writer does not know how to end when unsure of the purpose of the essay. Avoid the
phrase “In conclusion”.

4. Paragraphs
– A paragraph has its own main idea, often stated directly in a topic sentence.
– It avoids digressions and develops its main idea.
– It uses strategies like classification, comparison and contrast and cause and effect.
– A paragraph is unified, coherent and adequately developed. It relates to the thesis
statement; the sentences and ideas are arranged logically and the relationship among
them is made clear by the use of transitions. A paragraph presents a short but
persuasive argument supporting its main argument.
– How much development is adequate depends on how complicated or controversial
the main idea is, what readers know or believe, how much space a writer is permitted.
– Short paragraphs of one sentence are used in the news because of the narrow
columns, which makes paragraphs of average length appear long. Often these
‘paragraphs’ could be joined together. Do not use one-sentence paragraphs in an
essay.

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5. Transitions
– These are words/phrases used to signal the relationship among ideas in an essay and
join various parts of the essay together.
– Transitional expressions are used for: addition (and, again, too, also, in addition,
furthermore, moreover, besides); cause and effect (therefore, consequently, thus,
accordingly, hence, then, so); comparison (similarly, likewise, by comparison);
concession (to be sure, granted, with the exception of, even though, naturally);
contrast (yet, nevertheless, after all, in spite of); example (for instance); place
(elsewhere, here, above, below, farther on); restatement (that is); sequence (first, next,
finally); summary (in brief); time (afterwards, earlier, subsequently, simultaneously,
meanwhile, shortly, soon, currently, lately, in the meantime).
– Pronoun references also help in transitions.

6. Effective sentences
– Vary in length, structured to clarify the relationships among the ideas
Subordination
Subordinate conjunctions (because, if, as thought, while) and relative pronouns (that,
which, whom, whomever, what) deemphasise some ideas to highlight others the
writer feels are more important. Important ideas are included in the main clause, while
less important ideas are included in the dependent clause.
Periodic and loose sentences
Putting words at the end of a sentence is most emphatic; at the beginning, less so; in
the middle, not at all. A loose sentence states the main idea at the beginning and adds
details in subsequent phrases and clauses.
Active and passive voice Passive may add emphasis but is less vivid.
Coordination (and, but, not, for, yet, so) to show that X is equally as important
Parallelism word +word, phrase+ phrase, clause + clause

THE LANGUAGE OF THE ESSAY

1. Diction and Tone

Diction refers to a writer’s choice of words: they should be precise and appropriate.
The words should mean exactly what the writer intends. Words should be well suited
to the writer’s subject, purpose and audience.
connotation and denotation : denotation is the dictionary, literal meaning of a word,
while the connotative meaning refers to the associations or emotional overtones that

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words have acquired. Many words have synonyms with similar denotations. Deciding
which to use depends on the connotations.
abstract and concrete words : abstract words name ideas, conditions or emotions;
things no one can touch, see or hear. People often disagree about abstract things.
Concrete words represent things we can touch, taste, see, hear or smell. Good writing
balances ideas and facts, as well as abstract and concrete diction. Writing that is too
abstract is tiresome, but writing that is too concrete is dry.
general and specific words : the same word can be general or specific depending on
the context. A general word is food, a more specific word is dessert – but even more
specific is chocolate cream pie. Without specific words, generalities can be
unconvincing and even confusing. The writer’s definition of good food may be
different from the reader’s.
clichés : words, phrases and expressions that have become trite through overuse.
jargon : or technical language is the special vocabulary of a trade or profession. It is
inappropriate when it is overused, used out of context, or used pretentiously.
formal and informal diction : is appropriate when it suits the occasion. A friendly
letter calls for the colloquial (the words may suggest the way people talk). Formal
language is impersonal, abstract, free of contractions and references to the
reader. Informal language makes use of slang, contractions, references to the reader,
concrete nouns.
Tone is the attitude a writer takes towards the subject and audience. Tone may be
friendly, hostile, serious, humorous, enthusiastic, sceptical, nostalgic, resigned,
angry…
– Both diction and tone exert tremendous influence on the reader. An informal essay
with an angry tone may make the reader defensive and unsympathetic.

2. Figurative Language
– Associated with poetry and brings freshness and colour to writing. It helps clarify
ideas.
simile : explicit comparison between two different ideas, things. Uses like, as.
metaphor
personification : attributes human qualities to ideas, objects.

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