Piping-Flexibility Analysis By A.R.C. MARKL! LOUISVILLE, KY. A steadily expanding literature bears testimony to the growing recognition of the iraportance of the problem of providing Rexibility in piping and to the many diffcu besetting efforts at establishing a simple rational approach, for its solution. This paper sims t0 outline the various phases of the problem, with particular emphasis on the phenomena of plastic ow and fatigue which distinguish the behavior of piping eystems under thermal expansion. from the ordinary room-temperstuse eteady-state struc tural problem and lead to the concept of a limiting-stress range rather than an allowable stressas the eriterion of the adequacy of a layout. In treating his subject, the author has sought to present the consensus of the Task Farce on Flexibility charged with reformulating Chapter Sef Section 6 of the Code for Pressure Piping, Their Proposed Rules are included as a focal point on which it is hoped broad Biscsssion will center, Inrnopuerio N the course of a general review and revision of the Code for ‘Pressure Piping, toitiated in 1951, Tsk Force on Flexibility? was appointed by AGA Sectional Committee 831.1 to etudy snd report on the adequacy of the current. provisions of ‘the chapter on "Expaasion aud Flexibility” included ia Section 6 of tbe Cote, Two aubgroupe? were formed, ont to deal with tresses wad their allowsble limite, and the aecond to digest svpilableinformstion of physica properties entering into piping: Sexibiliey analy ‘The former group, with the Gadings of which this papers solly concerned, came to the condlusion that.» complete reformulation of this chapter waa desicable to improve its clarity and, more Importantly, to bring iss clauses into accord with advanced theoretical concepta, new research results, wed accumulated experience. A morkiog group* wat charged with the task of evisiog rules which would realice tis objective aad ill be readily understandable end easy to apply. A draft effecting » ‘tifactory compromise between acieatifc truth and the sim plicity ao essential to nay body of rules destined for wide applica tion wus produced and accepted by the Sectional Comoitiee. Homever, ence the Proposed Rules depert appreciably. from pet practice in several respecte, primutily by thelr open revogni- Alou of the cansept of alresn range, it mas thought desireble to ppablith them first fa nonmandatory form as a Task Force Raper (121 to permit piping engineers st large ta familiarize them- ‘elves with them, test thelr euitability by application to their 5 Chet Resontch Eagineer/ Tube Tors ' For membership, ses aoe (121)- Numbers ia parentheses refer 4 he Bibllography at the end of tha paper 1 Under the shut With 8 W.Spidvoge ms Chairman. ond N.Blair H. V, Wellstrom, fd the author aa member, The orginal formulation by Subgroup ts transcribed fa Appendix 4: alternate slouses introduced Intern delerence to dlsentine vem Petroleum Divisions, Joint ASTM-ASME. Research Committee on Elect of Temperature on the Proyertis of Matta nd Research Gommittos an High Teoiparature Steam Generation the ‘Annual Mewtlag, New York, N.Y, November 20-December 19550 Tar ANtentcay Socierr of Mzemawere Enoineats ‘individual problem, snd assist in wrriving at a Binal formulation ‘suring Uniform lnterprotation end imtsllgent. enforcement ‘Atthe same time, the euthor was invited to prepare a paper 10 explain the basic philosophy and scientifis background underlying the Proposed Rel Tue Prontss: ‘The objective of piping-Aexibility analysia is to assure safety sgsiost failure of the piping material or anchor structure from overstrest, against leakage at joints, and againat overstrain of foonected equipment, without waste of material, While expan son jainta of various types in some instances prove useful fr ti ‘urpow, by far the mare common and generally preferable proc ‘Serie ta pravide for thermal expansion by utilizing the inbereat Aesibilty of the pipe rua isl acting a8 a epring is beading oF Piping-dexiblity analysis resolves ites into th following 1 The aleslatian af the forces, moments, and stress (and desirably lao, diaplacements) t all lar struotural frame under she induence af thermal expansion "2. Their eompatison with allowable litnits "The frame ean be ia one or more planes, The number of redndanta will vary with the number of branch lines or inter- mediate reatraints (guides, braces, and 80 on). For a apace ay tem, there wil be six uokaowa reaction componenta (three forees snd theee moments, or three forces end their lever arma) for exch ‘Acohor point in excess of one; intermadiate reeuainta intreduee ‘lesser sumber of unknowns. ‘st compared sith the parallel structural problem, the evalts- tion of the resetions sresss, and deformations ig ayatern Under thermal expansion invelves w rismiber of additional con: siderations of which the fllowing are the most iroportant: 1 Piping componeats other than atraight pipe, notably elbows and Sanda, exhibit peculiar streasand-atrain bebavior uader bending which generally refesta itscil in ineressed Mexiility, ‘vwally accompanied by intensification of stresses. 2 Piping aystems sre not intended to bebave elastically in their entirety, Asa result of lal ereep (at bigh temperatures) ‘of local yielding (even at ordinary vermperatures) relaxation may take place whereby the reactions aed elresaea ia the operstiog cotdition are lowered and substantaily equivalent reactions and tirwssea ate made to appear is the cold or off-etream condition ‘This proces can be antzipated by cold eprioging. 3 Owing to the cyclic oature of tbe operation of all piping syiterna, fatigue becoraee & factor requiting coosideration, Par ticularly where the fuid carried is corrosive to aay degree. ‘Tire Geena Procest o Sauron Ia the fexbility analysis of any ayster of given line ze, eon- guration, and material, with s predetermined amplitude aod ‘umber of temperature cycles, the following sleps are involved: 1 The significant physica! properties of the material, exch ws expansion coeficient, modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio, veld stray, erp and relaxation stress, and endurance strongth bave te be delereined, This paper will not concern itself with the oF the Society. Manuscript received at ASME Headquarters, Joly 31.1058. Paper No S3“ASTSeat three coostanta for which the values aad the basis for their selection have been covered bs a separate paper by the chairman of the second subgroup of the Task Force (124). The way i ‘whieh the strength properties enter into the solution of the prob Vera under the Proposed Rules, 08 the other hand, will be di ‘cussed in detail at tne apneapriate point inthis development. ‘2 Amumptions have to be made regarding tha dimensions of the piping, notably those associated with the cross sestion, For simplicity, the Proposed Rules discard dimensional tolerances fand the vocertain and erratic cbanges io thicioess caused by corrosion oF erocioe snd permit use of the nomiasl dimensions esoughout ‘3 Conditions of end restraint have to be asssssed. The Pro- posed Rules give na prescriptions in this veapect, but geceral practice i to take the ends a fully Bed in the absence of detaied Analysis of the rotations and deflections of vessel sell, pump or turbiae casings, pipe anchors, or other etructurea to which the tine may be connected. Rlowever, equipment expaosions roust hoe taken foto accouut singe they’ may cause increased forces, raoments, oF ereses, ‘4 The aiguificance of difereot ‘orm of intermediate re straints bas to be appraised. Major restrictions to free moversent ff the line due to guides, solid hangers, or braces are umuslly takes into account ia calculations or other forma of analysis, Secondary restraints, such a8 Unbalanced spring forces or frie ook) forces at eupporta, usually are iguored, however, caution should be execisad ia extending this practice to ayatems whose weight ia great io relation to their aitfness, a condition often Encountered in pump or turbine leads because of macuiecturers limitations upoa thrusts '5 A method of analysis suitable to the importance of the system must be selected. The solution can be approached by soalytical, graphical, chart, or model-test methods, or even by ‘compariaen with pact uceesful layouts, and may involve various degrees of approximation, However, for approximate aolutioos ‘an allowance for the probable error should be inzhaded, ‘8 Fiaally, a comperiaoa of the results has to be made with allowable limits. ‘Those are clearly established i the Proposed Rules for tbe stresses, bu! left ta the desigoer's udgraeat wad coneultation with manufacturers of equipment in the ease of reac tions, because of the diversity io shape and design of connected atruclores soxouurry Pacron Tt has been atated earlier that the ealeulation of the reactions ‘and stresses ia piping aystem ia compliated by peculiarities of treasandl-etrain distribution in certain piping componeats under ‘beating, on of the elects of which i to eadow such fittings with (umualy) greater Bexibiity Uian would be predicted from tae ordinary beam theory Ip calculations, this is commonly taken into account by the ‘application of a socalled flexibility factor. Thia cao be dined su the ratio of the rotation per unit leagth of the part ia question produced by a moment, to the rotation per unit length of 2 ‘irelgbt pipe of the same nonsinal size and schedule or weight, produced by the same marient, [Ls applied either as « multi plier of the length of the part, or asa diviaor af ils nominal mo- ment of inertia (the moment of inert of the matching pipe) ot fof the eleaticity modulvs. Available information oo its magni- tude for different types of fittings will be discussed briefly jo tbe text following ‘Curved Elbows or Bends. These are by far the most sigaifcant group of piping componente from the standpaint of providiog increased flasbility. AL the same time, hey constitute the only ‘eroup for which Dexibility actors have been derived theoretically find confirmed by an adequate amount of testing a ‘The increased Gesibility of curved tubular members reaults from their Battening slang ove or the otker axis under bending. ‘The desibility factor & lo common wee im thie country was developed by von Kéemia (3) ia 1911, froma Best approvimation of en assumed Fousier-seriea solution’ Tt wae redeveloped on a Gificrent basis and experimentally checked by Flovgaard (11) ia 1928, Tein usualy given os 12h +10 Se a hy where h = tR/r¥ ia the so-called Hexbility characterietic which depends oo the pipe-wall thickness ¢, its mean radius r, sod the radius of curvature B of the ceater line ofthe pipe Originally this factor was used only for correcting the defection of curved members bent ia the plane of their curvature, This practice continued until Viguest (70), {a 1992, demonstrated that St applied equally £0 traasverae of out-o-plane bending. ‘Tye Srvvappromation Kérmén-Hlovgaard fector bas been ‘used generally for both types of loading uatil Beskin (77), among. others, pointed out the need forusing more terme in vou Kérmin's Fourier series for bead proportiona mbere the characteritich falls Delo 03. The following clove approximation suggested in Beakin's development eommends iteelf by ita general validity fand startling eiapliity Ls * ‘This formula atrictly applies only to the ceatral portion of a curved tibe of selatively large azo under bending, and does not consider the elects of internal premure or end restraint ‘The eect of ordinary steam pressares on the Bexbility of 6 in, sod I7in, bends bas beee investigated by Wal (12), He found the teadeocy toward rertoration ef the circular form to be of a low order, aad aaa remltit haa become customary to neglect thls ‘eect, This cosclusion may need modification for thin-wall thorteradivs elbows of Irga diameter ‘With regard to end restricts, iis obvious that eveo straight taogents will cod to reduce oveliastion of Yoe tacvad pipe and therewith ienpair ite Gexiblity. The restraicing influence of end tangenta has beeo demonstrated by dismeter measurements re- ported by the author (87) snd more thoroughly explered by Pardue and Vigness (99), Tie eect, bowever, may found to bo relatively incr for ares 00 deg or greater. For emaller area, the reduction ia dexbility would be expected to be more pronounced, but since itis knowa to be accompanied by a cacamenmurate re- duction in strest intensification, if {4 igoored in the interest of keeping cslculatfons reasonably simple, "The elect of the attachment of etif riogs or fanges to the ends of curved pipe, on the other band, was found to be quite ‘mareed in the testa conducted by Partue sod Vigness; each ange appeared! to cancel the infience of epproximately 30 deg, fof tc of the bend. Ta the Proposed Rubes, them date have been used to derive simple empiricalcorrection factors AY* and hi Phe By Aciged ta rece ferbity fuctar inthe ange below h = Ito 16s rd al 88 aod a SS pa "The more geaerslly known [orimulas for une Goxibiity factor of gurved pipe at chacused brid ta Appendic 3. Tt wl be noted that EQuatice DI cioely appeousmaten von Kerman’ thied approximation ‘Sok Teuku! proposed loro as orginally riven in the dnsuasion of Shipman’e paper 2.evibiiy Chazaceri ' T ik Furxiarurry ano. Sreess-Inceyairicaston Facto! Convo Pire Wisw avo Wieovr Fusnars for $0-deg elbows flanged at one and both ends, respectively [A comparison of the test data with Equations (2), [2a], and (2b] i given io the upper chart in Fig. 1. It wil Se noted that Equations [2] and [2a] arein atifuctory accord with the rela ofthese apecie testa, while Equation [28] overeatimates the Sexi- bility factor for low valuen of fA study of the lower chart Jeada to similar observations with respect to the corresponding stam intensification factors, which are obtained by the applice- tion of the same correction factors. In view of the limitation of available teat data to single pipe size, bend radius, and Benge type, attempte at a more refined correlation appear awarranted At the oresent time. The eotzections sre to be regarded a3 no smore than frst enide approximations, defensible on the basis that inaccuracies in wveluation of both flexibility and stress ioteosiestion factors tend to cancel ench other, at least with re- spect to atrese calelations Mitre Benda. On the basa of joolated test data and service ‘experience, these piping componeala are knowa to pessese (n creased febilty approaching thst of curved beads, particulariy bere both mitre spacing and mitre angle are amall no that tbe mitre bend comes to resemble a curved elbow. In-plane bending test data oa timitre quarter-benda with tangeate of various leagths followed by anges at each ead, on which Zeno reports in discusion of Pardue and Vignes’ paper (99), are of particu- lar intereat in this connection, The stiffening effect of Ranges placed close to the ends of the bend! ia equally evident a8 in the ase of curved bends, but as the tangenta are lengthened 0 ‘Spprosimately two pipe diameters, the fexiblity factor aaymp- toticaly appreashes 80 per cent of that computed for a corre sponding curved bend. Ta the absence of a theoretical dovelopment, tbe sparse availa- bie teat data on mitre bends, including th rests of uopublished Toad-deRection teata seeured in connection wit fatigue testa r= ported by the author (114), have been evaluated conservatively inthe Propased Rules ae 52 a ‘ 81 ‘The characteristic h herein in sa defined under Equation [1], except that an equivalent radius R, ia used which ts given ab = Foote tore srl + to a) (86) and (ao R= 5 (1 + cota) for #2 rl + tan ay. where ria the mitre spacing at the center line, rs the pipa-wall radius, aad ois one belf Une angle between adjacent mitre axes (or the angle defining the outof-squarecess of the’ mitre out). Teebould be aoted that for Wide spacing, Equation [3b], the mitre bend ia to be taken as consisting of a number of arca with ater ening tangents, Corrugated Pipe, Straight or curved corrugated pipe a cresaed beods are the oaly other shapes to whieb increased Bax- bility ia aasigned under the Proposed Rules. The limited test ddsta available on these typea of componente are summarized ia & paper by Rowheim sad Markl (55) of the basis of which « uai- form Sexibilty factor & = 5 is suggested asa frst approsizsatio. ‘This sbould be used with cast, sinoe the febility of corru- izited and creased pipe may be expectad to vary with diameter, thickness, and beod radius of tbe pipe, and height, pitch, and cos- tour of the corrugations. The effect of some of these variables has been demonstrated theoretically for idealieed shapes by Dooeell (28) and Hetéoyi (80), Tt aluo has been found exper- ‘mentally. Deoaison (45), working with 6:in, standard-weight Dipe, report # value of § for the Resibility of ereased bende xnd Between 6-4 and 72 for that of corrugated taogente and beads, And testa reported by Roasheira and Markl gave values of 37 ‘tod 29 for specially made Zin, standard-welght corrugated tangents and bende. (Oller Componenis, Forged or fabricated tees or serewed oF Aanged conseclioas comprise some of the components which ray exibit increased ot decreased Baxibility aa compared with ursight pipe, depending upos teeir individual dimensions and coatoure, Because of the lack of a sound basi for even a eride ‘empirical formulation, the Proposed Rules assiga unit fexiblity ‘aall such parta; the error inewred by #0 doing will never benome critical since ouch fittings usually constitute only « ama part of the line Tk may be worth while to draw attention to the fact thet the Proposed Rules do not make it mandatory to use the specific Heubility (and stress-intencifcation) factors given therein for ny of the piping components, ‘This representa a tacitadmission ofthe tentative nature of the evsluation of existing data made by ‘the Task Force, and points up the desirability of « more thorough theoretical sud experimental exploration of the field ‘Srmnse-Inreustricarion FACTORS {In discussing atressiotensiication ‘actors for piping compo-neots, itis necessary to dieting betwoen formulas or values de- rived from theory or static strain-gage teats and mich obtained from fal\-scale fatigue testa. The primary difference between them lies in the point ol reerence, Theory refers to an ideal homogeneous notch-rce matzria, while the reaute of fatigue tests of commercial producte preferably are related to parallel reaults on commercial pipe jgined by butt welding, which itself contains sures raisers in the form af surface imperfections. Thia ‘change in reference point, and possibly also the redistribution and sttendant reliel af perk stresses occurring under cyclic load ing, accounts forthe observation that stressintenaifieation factors erived from fatigue teats aro generally lower than those pre- dicted by theory oF measured in straimgage test Since pipe is the primary constituent of piping aystems acd ervice frilures of piping are almost always aatociated with the eters of cyclic leading (generally aggravated by corosive Fofuences) the strespinteraGcatian factor sill be defined here 1s the ratio of the bending moment producing fatigue fsiure in 8 sziven number of eycles in = atraight pipe of narsinal dimensions, to that producing failure io the same number of cycles ia the pa under consideration, Tria definition implies tbat the curves of flare etre verout ‘number ol eycies to failure parallel each other for straight pie snd other piping eamponents, White this a nat etrictly true, test data conform reasonably well ta a lew expressed by iswer so. 1 where i designates the siressintensifcation factor, $ the nominal fenduronce atrength (eyzlic moment” applied at point of failure divided by section modulus of matching pie, rather than ftiog), 1 the oumber of erent reveranls to failure, and © m materiale conan, ‘From Rossheim and the author's teat (55), later confirmed by tena ran by the author's present company (114), a value C = 245,000 was established as suitable for Grade B carbon alee! at room temperstare. Fram additional unpublished test data in the author's company's files, a tentative value C = 281,000 was deduced for stainless steel, type 316, st room temperatare, Finally, Stewart and Schreits's testa (116) auggested a value C 183,900 for sainles eel, type 347, at 1050 F. Ta view of the all oo common misconception that fatigue is lua eemeiated with large numberof loading cycles it appears pertinent to point gut that the author has fovad Equation [Ito be as valid for the determination of atreavintendtieation factors ‘st 20 an at 2,000,000 cycles. ‘The author has observed no evi ence of leveling of of the S-N curve at either ead, except in the cate of strsight pipe which to aome extent tends to follow the tuend of polished-bar testa. ‘The endurance limit of eommercial piping components snot reached as 00 aa ia the ease of polished bara. The thought suggest itell that possibly the mumber of ‘clea defining the kaee in the S-N curve ia the higher, the higher the eres intensification factor ‘The foregoing gives the genersl approach used in setting eres: {ntensiécation factors. Tn the following. the detailed sources are given from which the values of + published in tho Proposed Rules are taken, At the une time, isolated additional tent data are adduced from the fatigue-test flee of the aothe’s company to rouod out the picture. Fiuings for Directional Changet. These can be tested as a sroup because oftheir siriking similarities in behavior under bend- ing fatigue. In the courae of evaluating nnd correlating fatigue tests on mitre tends, forged and fabricated tees, similarities in 7 Where the atsess amplitude applied in th testa exceeded the yield suength in bending, » Settings moment based On s srghtline es tension of the slate moment-dehertion curve was computed to con. {ore with usual ealelation practice 5 crack location aod direction obtruded themaalves upoa tbe suthor’s observation, Tt acemed az if all thest fttiogy co formed to some extent to the behavior of curved elbows or bende This led the author to asggsat a commor. empiriesl expression for the stressintensifeation factor (114) which it > a wer Te cunyr) = eetvefastiiychartri(dinen sat = BP sete made erent (Seo ‘s = Towherever Sting has eanse thickness 28 omatching pipe 4, effeotive fiting thieknes, in = average of crotch and aide-wall thickness, for welding teas! = pipe-wall thickness increased by one-half excess thickens provided in either run or Branch, by use of thicker piping br ped or eaddle, for reinforced fabricated intersections ~ Lor welding elbows, curved or mitre bevds, or uassio- forced fabricated intersections of « thickness equal 10 that of matcbing nige = thickness of matebing pipe, in = mean radius of maseting pips, in, S affective bend racine, i SR = radive to center line of curvature for elbows oF wncath beads = 1+ for welding toes! where 1, designates crotch radius 1 F for tingle-mitre bends und unreia‘orced and reinforced fbricatad GOdeg branch intersections § Foote; < 541 + cota) formuliplomitvebends, were designates mitre spacing at ceuter line, ia, and a designates onehall angle between adjacent mitre axes, deg ‘The condensed information given in tbe Proposed Rules ie ivectly derived fom reference (114), The correction factors Asand A’ proposed to account for the effect of end Banged 00 the etfess-inteasifestiog fector for curved or mitre bends Beve, been diteuseod already under the heading Flexibility Factor Note that the higher of the strea iotensfiestions for the Ranged elbow and the flange itself must be used. Corrugated Pipe, Thia type pipe avd corrugated or crensed bends have been asignd a attespintensification factor of 25 in the Proposed Rules, ‘Thia rhatantially follows the recommend! tion given by Rossheim and Mark] (58) in @ paper evaluating the information available up to the year 1999; the value selected ia that for "noceyclic” service since correction for defitely cyclic service ie efocted under the Proposed Rules by the applization of fs stzese-redvetion (actor. Considering the inaportant influence Of tho dismeter-to-thiskness ratio ef the pipe, aa aleo the shape, thickness variation, height, and piteh of the corrugations of eny specific manufactured product of this type, the assigarsost of & Constant atressintansifcation factor obviouely represents 8 grace foversimplifcation. A more thorough theoretical and exper- ‘mental exploration of this tye af construction appears urgently necded, if it in to be uses i eevere eer vices, Boled Flanged Connections. ‘These presest « dual problem from the standpoint of piping-Aesibility anslysia Its necessary not only to guard sgaizat ultimate failure by rupture, but also against dieablement of the joint through’ leaksge cross the * For welding tece conforming lo ASA Standard B16.9, assumptio 2 Ree tasrrand' = 100 sally wal produce conasevaive ea ‘mates af 0m the bass of eeprenentative muurements6 gasket, ‘The values of the stressinteasification foctara howa in the Proposed Rules are taken from s paper by Markl and George (07) aad serve to predict ultimate rupture in joints bolted to bout 40,000 psi stress. With lower bole stresses there ie the possibilty of premature leakage. Although there are no pub- lished data on the subjest, the author judges from iaolated test runs conducted by bis company that freedom from leakage can be assured by application of factor i of the order of 15 regard- Jess of the type of flange, except in the active creep range where periodialretigbtening may become necessary. ive Jointe, These joints when made by butt welding form ‘the basia for compatiaem forall other Sittings, and hence take a (actor of 1. Fillet-welded and screwed joints are sasigned the hme values as single-flle-welded and serewed flanges, since the failure ofa fanged connectioa of a ductile material usually occur intheattacbraent tothe pipe, Taperad Transitions, Componente such us are used for con: cectig pipe of diferent wall thicknesses or for the hub ends of |langes or valves can be given the following approximate stree- Jntensifcation factors on the besia of isolated unpublished testa rua by the author's company: 15ideg taper, = Lt sodeg taper, «= 12 Sieg taper, # = 10 Only the smatl end of the bub need be considered ia such aa, soalysis, since posible bigher stress intensifcations at the large tnd, of course, are compensated by the relatively lower atrese level corresposding to the inereaued thioknese (which also exe plains why ASA welding neck flanges sbvaya fail at the attach- rept end, never at the root of the hud). Tncienally, st wall be ‘2oted that the faclor of 1.3 for a 45-deg taper ia the ane aa for a fillet weld, the two representing the same geometrical shape. (Otter Components. Componente such as reducing elbows and eee, boxtype Stings, ancber structures, and the like, io. the abseace of directly applicable data must be evaluated by analogy ‘vith Btings for which factors are available Tt already has beea pointed out that neither the Hexibility nor toe atreen factor given ia the Proposed Tles are made manda tory, While the formulas aad values given are based on the best svailable faformation, they are by no means to be taken as aci- tate fact. The prime purposes served by their publication are (call atteotion ta the existence of such tres intenaiSeations, 0 provide standardized assumptionsin place af complete chaos, and, Finally, to stimulate (urther research by all coaneoted with the piping industry. Prncany Ananrers For the purposes of brief study of available methods of analy sis of piping aystema Uoder thermel expansion, let it be ssnuroed that the aystem be installed with 100 per ceat cold spring, ie ‘hat members be out short by the full smount of their sutiipated expansion and then pulled foto line, Fig. 2. Let it be esaumed fmher that the proportions! limit of the material should not be exenedad at any point during this initial prestreasing. It follows Irom these assumptions that the aystem will be fr of expansion Fra.2- Sate Cur Suont vox CotoSraincine stress in ite hot or operating condition, and will aot undergo ‘Inelastic action leading to telaxation, Uhe consideration of which ‘ill be discussed in another seetion of thia paper. “The evaluation of te forces, moments, and slresss existing in the intial prestressed cold condition evidently reduces to. the snalysis of s tubular-rae steueture under the iatlvence of given ‘and intermediate displacements and rotations, This is a Standard structural preslem, but for the need of correcting the fellection and computed stress of certain members by the ppl Cation of the Besibilty and streminteraiReation factors dis ‘cussed in the text preceding ‘The initial cold reaction” Rat the line terminals and the con- trolling stress Se i the line or 100 per cent cold spring 97e given hy the following generalized expressions Reekre, (601 See ese (00) where eis the unit expansion from installation temperature to ‘aximum operating temperature upon which the amount of cold spring was based; , i9 Young's modulus ct the iotallation tem- perature; {and Z are, respectively, the moment of inertia and Section modulus of the pipe; # is the strese-intemsifcstion factor At the controlling point; F,-and F, are avape factors expressing the overall effect of line configuration and axial dimensions, inchiging fesibilty factors; and f is a composite factor relating the reaction to the controlling stress. ‘While general aolutions of this problem have long been availa- ble, their application to piping-Rexibility analysis haa been restricted because of the specialized knowledge and formidable expenditure of time required to earry out « calculation. Equa- “ons [6a] and [6b] are deceptively simple, but the shape fectora FF, and F, appeating therein, in themgolves generally represent extremely tamplex mathematical expressions. To reduce their Computation to practical limits, tome of tbe foremost. piping: Stress analysts have expended considerable effort and ingesuity in devising simplifications consisting ether of preorganization of parta of the tolution without affecting aecureey, or of making approximations of greater or leser valiSity. ‘Among devices of the first kind applied primarily to strictly mathematical solutions, the following are the moe! important:!* 1. Preintegration of recurring shape cosficienta (17) 2 Introduction of virbual ceater of gravity or elastic center (38) 2 Introduction of conjugate axes (41). 44 Application of principle of cyclic perroutation of co-ordi- ‘tea! to reduce multiplane problem to siogle-plane problem (61). 'S Exploitation of symmetry of simultaneous equations to reduce number of operations required (61), ! Application of matrix method to provide clearer visusliza- tion of components entering into the problem (117), » For clarity, the developments in this snd the following section rofer to saingle enc force which all Ut laaeeded in the eave of 3 Sineleipane bend with tng hinged ends ‘The definition of ena be EGlanded'to clot tothe B(u = 1) force componente and 3(n— 1) ShBmontcemponeneserented by cold springing or theetal expansion Oe pues tem within points of Gxation without lose of vaity of the danclosions desived. wePhe scope of the paper permite ao more than a brief enumeration a ean approaches Te, seable intrested reader te aeguaot themacives with then, parenthetieal eferencesare given to the beter= Ui sources employe them without, owever, plying tae they are necessary the onginel proponents ‘plea application af thi concept is ereited to G, W, Watts and WR Burrows‘Among Approximate assumptions leading t2 3 varinble degree of azewiacy, the following are probably the mast common: 1 Subdivision of line into short elements, the mace of which is concentrated at their mid-points (51); if the elements selected are short enough, thia method ia practically precise, 2 Substitution of square corners for curved members; this ‘widely used approximation ignares the increased Aexibility of elbows and teach ta an overestimate of resctions and either #n ‘over or underestimste of the stresses depending, upon whether the stessintensifeation factors ure considered of ignored 3 Correction of developed squarecornar length of eystemn by: Addition of a virtual length representing the exeess feaibility of Bil the elbows (105); in effet, thin distributes the excess elbow Nexivitity uniformly over the entire ayatem. The securacy of the reduta is considerably improved as eomnpared sith the foregoing spproach 4 Concentration of the excess flexibility of each elbow in a single point located at tho intersection of ta two tangents (120); thia modification of the aquare-corner solution is gomerrbat more templex and more accurate 5 Introduction of two or mote weighted pointe for each elbow; thia further refinement of the squarecomer soli tuon leads to almast presse remus with proper selection of the sweighta assigned to the points, 6 Asumption that neutral axia parallels line connecting fanthors (20): this produces precae reat for eymmetrical cet2es, but the accuracy very rapidly diminishes as the sbape de- plrts from aymmetry oF becomes antiaynmetrical 7 Agsumption that neutral axis conneota the anchors direstly; thig, in effect, sswmes a hinged eyater, and may lead to major error where the ends ate rigidly anchored 8 Assumption that bending and torsional rigidity are identi- ‘eal (50); taking the shear mosisien al to one half the elasticity ‘modulus in tation simplifies the eolution of apace problems with: ‘out leading to excessive error, 9 Assumption that the atreseintensifation factors are ‘identical for in-plane and out-of-plane bendiag (114); use of the higher of the two for either condition leads to a conservative: ertor notin excess of 20 percent for elbows and coraman fullsize intersections, The auggested atresrintensifieatien (actors tabu- lated io the Proposed Teules utilize this assumption. In addition to purely mathematical approaches (to which the preceding text. primarily refers), there are. graphoanalytical, ‘methods (76) of equal range of accuracy, in which the momenta tre built up from one and to the other with the sid of precaleue lated solutions for each element of theline, Purthermore, « auen- ber of chart solutione have been published which represent mare ‘oF lees complate precaloulation’ of eatie systems of Unit aifiness and displacement (83,37, 105); the latter obvicusly are restricted tosimple configurations ‘While many methods are theoretically suitable for application to aystema with any umiec af terminal and Satermedite re- ateeints, the computation work increases rapidly with the cure ber af tedundanta. For hi reagon mathernatical and semi- mathematical methods rarely have been applied to aystenvs with more than three pointe of Ration, To aupply the need for & ‘moans of evaluating the flexibility of linea with many Bronches ar inermodiste rasveaints, auch ae guider or wind braces, model- testing methods have been devised wherein the reactions caused by given end displacements are messured by ether spriogs (S2, 38, 60) or electric strain gages (78). Of late, memory.eadowed elec- trovie or other computing devices have been utlized by nt least ‘wo companies (128). Once the operations are coded properly, which ia a timecanauming task for experts in this feld, these machines are eapable of solving any problem of the same type and thug serve (o expand greatly the number ef systems which canbe caleulated within a given time. Sete-Semive ano Cove-Seaina Evrecrs In order to focus the readers attention on “methods” of snaly 4a, the problem of ealeulating forces, momenta, and atrestes in the foregoing has been reduced to a familiar setural problem bby imposing special conditions. Ia what follows, the wope of the investigation will be Broadeood vo emioeace all conceivable con- ditions of installations and temperature or atres which might be encountered in eetual practice. ‘Let it be sesumed that a syatem be inatlled cut short aa arbi trary amount, 20 that» gap celia left between the end of the Ting and one tarminal. This prablem is idestical sith that shosen in Fig. 2 and ie volved in general terros by Equations 6a) aad 16), except forthe introduction ofthe so-called cald-spring factor ‘which ranges from zero (for no cold spring) to unity (for 100 per cant cold spring). Equations [6a] end (6B) are based on ¢ = | Obviously, both the initial cold reaction end the initia) cold tress for the more geoeral caro will der from thoee given by ‘Sheae equations by a factor Actually since reaction xnd stress Are interrelated by & factor F, which la constant for any line of ‘given shape and dimensions, a atudy of the behavior of she esstem ‘an be restricted to a study of the controlling stresses crested theeein by changing temperature conditions. The ioitial cold = Se m [As Ue Lin ig brought up to temperabsre this stress decreases, Lbecoming revo when the line has expanded by the amount ce pet unit length. Upon farther expansion by the amaunt (1 — dere maining to give a total of e,a stress of teversed vga’ i produced (initia! hot stress) te & t sin tnae (s) whore Br is Young's modulus at the hot or maximure operatiog temperature Th the absence of yielding or creep in either the cold or bot ‘ondition, the controlling stress thereafter will eltemate betieea the two limite givea by Equations [7] and (8) during euccestive cycles of cooling down and heatiog up. This is generally true of moderately atresed lines operating at temperatures at which the metal in nat subject to creep, aod also of lines aperating at levated temperstares which have been cold aprung auliciently ta keep the inital hot atzeas below the eree> limit, ‘Where these eoaditions aze not met, intially bleh atremes, particularly ia the hot condition, will relax with tine uotil they Feach @ level which can be maintained indefinitely; thie phe- nomenon is ilystrated By the recordings traced in Pig. 3 whic fre taken from laboratary teste of « smallscale expansion loop ‘which wes alternately heated to epproximately 950 F and allowed to coal ta atmospheric temperatute. Tk will be noted tbat the controlling bot eleess (and therewith also the hot reactien) ropped of to a constant level alter tne Sxez (ew excles; the line has eprung itelf, whence the designation "self-spring.” UI the asymptotic value toward which the hot stress tends be desige nated as S,, then the ultimate hot stress after adjustment be s, 9 "All expressions aze shown 49 absslute values,Hd colt spring Fro. Upos cooling down, each unit length of the line contracts asin by am amount ¢, the areas reverses, and the ultimate cold stress becomes (0) ‘The preceding four equations fully circumseribe the extreme stress conditions encountered during the vervice life of a aystem, ‘whether it be installed with cold spring or not, and whether it be subject to relaxation or not Now, a2 Stromeyer (8) pointed out in 1914, and Dennison (45) reampbasized more receatly, service failures are antociated with cyaic, eather than atatiowtreas application. Fatigue, with cor rosioa usually an important contributory factor, must be ac- tapled aa the primary cause of failure, Resistance to fatigue is mesmured by the so-called endurance limit (fully reversed stress supported over aa indeSnite number of eyeles, in the millions) or by the endurance strength (strest supported over a given number of cycles), the latter being of mote virect signsGeance to the present problem, sioce even in the process industries the num ber of major temperature cycles rarely exceeds six per day corresponding to approximately 40,000 over a 20-yr life. Acti ally, the atreases undally are not (ully reversed in actual piping Installations, but since the mean stresa ia indeterminate, particu larly mere relaxation occurs, and of subordinate importance to the atrest range, the latter is taken as the sole eriterion in the Proposed Rules. For simplicity, these eet the value of the “caloulsted-sress range" equal to the atresa Sy produced by 100 per cent cold pring; that this ia a reasosably correct or at Teast cosservative assumption will be shown in the text. that follows. For the initial condition (which ie maintained throughout ‘where no adjustment occurs), the stress range is given by the summation of the stressea given by Equations [7} and [8] va Bs 2 For the ultimate condition in the case where relaxation does occur, iLis given by the summation of Equations (9] and 110] Sf 8 = 13) ‘feasts Errecr or Retanarion Urov Rexcrtows sv SeResaee As one limit, applicable to lines of smal) temperature change, set By = By then So 4 8 = Se tay SIRS = Se 12a} [As a second approximate Minit, for hat lines where the relaxa> tion limit S,tasmall,set &, = /aE,: then bag a Bt siege = (uy 1 Sit Sy = Sp {1204 2 Note that atone iit the stress range equals Sy; ie, ia constaat fand independeat of the amount of cold spring, and that at the other it it lower than Sy and affected only to a minor extent by the values ef cand 5, In the following four equations the corresponding. reaction’ ace given ag obtained by multiplying the vighthand terms of Equations [7] to [10] by R/Se . Detailed ditcusson of the celaeation limit S, bas been deferred to this point beeause, under the Proposed Rules it ie considered ta affect only the computation of reactions, With the establish- ment of the approximate strem range Sp as the primary eriterioa of the Rexibility of the piping ayatem proper, individual stresses at any one time during the temperature eysle have come to be ‘ignored. Io the case of the reactions, on the other hand, the extreme values in the hot and cold conditions are taken to contro! Sirectly; the reason ia that. strainsensitive equipment, auch as ‘purpsor turbines, car be seriously damaged by a single overload, feven though this may be promptly relaxed as a result of yielding orereep somewbere in the syater, ‘The relexation limit S, can be defined as the asymptotic vslue toward which the stresy io a prestressed structure with a Gxedistance betwean its Verminalé tends a1 the material Gows as » result of yielding or ereep. Lin not possible to assign ao accurate value to this property, at least undar bending (the predominant type of londing iatreduced by thermal expatiion) where highet stresses are necessary to produce Sow than under teovan (ue type of loading for which most of the yield and creep data have been developed). Homever, it appears conservative for the pre fet purposes to set its value equal to the lesser of the tensile {yield strength and 160 per cent of the stress producing OOt Fer feat creep in 1000 hr et the given temperature; this corresponds tS, — 16 , where Sy is the allowable S-value at operating metal temperature. ‘The selection of S-values ia the Power Piping Section"? is based on the rule giveo under Table P-7 of Section 1 of the ASME Boiler Construction Cade, which states hat the S.value aquala the lesser of 25 per cent of the tensile atréngth, 62/4 per cent of the yield strength, 100 per ent of toe stress producing 0.01 per cent ereep in 3000'br, snd 69 per cent of the average or 80 per cent of the minimum strese producing rupture in 100,000 hr. ‘Actualy, the Proposed Rules rest oo a much more couservative basis; in edect, they assume S, = 5. In addition, they eredit only two thirds of the designed cold spring in the computation of the initial bot resction, while requiring the ase of the full amount of the cold spring in computing the corresponding cold feaction. The ultimate het reaction is, of curse, igaored, since itis never greater than the jitil hot reaction. This leads to the following equations 1 Extreme bot reaction, paralleling Equation (14) t nee (1-3) Be (DE 2 Extreme cold reaction, greater of values given by Equations 113} and [16] after eubstituting S, = Sy with the further proviso 07 4 “ i = 2 _ boot oa f Ae 2 am g : i i Fic, ¢ Retation oF Reacrtons Courtrres So Tweoteries Itexcrrove Provosee Rots that USyS@E/E) not be taken greater than unity (easton fotherwiae would obtain same sign at Ry which always is higher) 18) Fig. 4 gives qualitative comparison ofthe reactions computed hy the Proposed Teles (heavy solid lines) and the cocrespondiog. theoretical values: the dash lines indicate the magnitude of the resctiona ia the absence of relaxation, while the dasb-dot lines illuteate the modification of the latter asa result of felanetion The author would prefer basing the expansion streses for servicns on the Sov in this socio, Auowanue Sones Ranor Te bas been suggested earlier that S, = 1.6 Sy represeata a conservative estimate of the atress at which ow starte oder « bending moment at elevated temperature, By the eae token, S,= 165, where 8, ia the S-value at the migimora or (eval) ‘stalation temperature, might be taken to express a suitable condition for daw at the miaimum temperature. The eum of ‘these two Limitiog stresses, oF Su L8H, 19) thea could be considered the masimium atresa range Sve te which ‘4 system could be aubjected without produciag Sow at either Time To the Proposed Rules, the allowable reage of the expaneion streases by themselves bas been established teotatively sa fol- lows $1 =f (1288, + 0808). fo) Hurein fis a steasrange reduction factor for eyclic conditions, varying fom f = 1 for < 7000 eycles, tof = 0.5 for N > 250,000 cycles, as shown ia Fig, 8. ‘The variation roughly follows the law 1 1 23 "6 2 2A cycles per day: é iL a4 tol panber paloees 5 lore Se 2 Fic. Poor oF Srmess-Reovertow Factor Coventnee ie Prorosce Revs whieh parallels the correlation of fatigue-test data on piping cora- ponents suggested by the author (87) in 1946; eee also Equation, [4]. Tbe motive for slecting 7000 eycles a the tarting poiat for the application of the factor f was ta {eee the calculation of every Gay systems [rom this added complication; 7000 eyeles roughly ‘eoaform to a cycle per day over & period of 20 yearn, which ia more than moat systoms are subjected to ‘To obtain the maximum combined-atreu range, the alowazce Sry = 0.75 84 eet aside io the Proposed Role for prearure and. weight stress has to be added to the allowable expsnsion- stress range gives by Equation [20]; this is done bere on the assumption that f is unity, which covers the unual range of ‘conditions Sy, + Spw = 125 (8, + 8), (a2 By comparison with Equation (10), it will be noted that the Proposed Mules as written utile at most 78 per cent of the favailatle stress range Si» deduced in the opening paragraph of this section; howaver, selection of @ proper value for the factor on the right side of the equation is open for discussion and An eatimate of the average anfety factor against rupture inher~ ‘entia the Proposed Rules in the range between 7000 and 250,000 cycles ia derived ig Table 1 from the limited experimental dataSonata isi ercoereue eft Ger i iat sein Ea Pe ig fisaenere dette tackle of 8a St CE et Ee gs Aer ned Rol fea He AES Se Eoyaton 20) available, In terms of stress, the safety factor ia found to be of the order of 2; in terms of eyelie life, it ia of the order of 30. ‘The very least safety factor available, conaering the 25 per ‘cent spread encountered between individual test data, might be ‘estimated 281.25 in tery of stress and 3 io terms of life, This emphasizes the aeed for making a conservative estimate of the number of eycles of major temperature change a system. is likely to undergo, To the range below 7000 eyeles, the safety factor provided in the Proposed Rules increases, For example, for one cycle per week over 20 years, o a total of approximataly 1000 eycles, the safety factor in tarts of stresa would increase by roughly 50 per cent. The minimum safety factor probably would be close to 2, ‘hick would be more thea ample, provided the actual stresses are evaluated properly, ‘As far aa the zone from 254,000 eyes upward is concerned, 09 estimate of the safety factor will be ventured, since the propor tonality between the moment supported by pipe and Atsings will bbe progressively Jost. Fortunately, this zone has litle practical signiGeanice ith regard 12 expansion probleme." ‘A note of caution is in order. The provisine of the Proposed Rules do oot take inta account corrosion whieh would lower the endurance strength an unpredictable amount Auowanee Reactions The degree of flexibility required in a pipiog system is often cootrolled by the forces and moments the cosnected equipment fan sustain without becoming inoperative or requiring excessive maintenance, Most frequently, Ube problem of setting allowable ‘eactons erises in connection with equipment contaiaing moving parts such a2 pumps or turbizes, but it sometimes also requires consideration for other strain-seositive equipment, auch a4 large diameter, thio-wall preawure vessel or exchanger sella with removable tube buodles Gtting with close clearances With good logic, pipingratress analysts expect to be able to turs to equipraeat masufactuters for guidance in thia matter on the premise that the latter should be in a position to advise ‘what provisions have been made for absorbing piping reactions in the design of iedividual parts of their unita and the completed assembly. The attitude often encountered ia the past, that pip- og straine are no direct concera of the equipment designer, fast disappearing, and itis becoming more and more recogaizod that liges coaectiog pumps oF turbines or similar equipment would presant no more of a problem chan other lines, but for the fact that the piping has to absorb not only the expansion of the line, ‘but lso to protect the equipment from the effects of ita own ex: psusion. If this were oot the case, the piping engineer could ‘ery aroply discharge his task by rigidly anchoring his line adj ecto the equipment. Unfortucately, only « few of the major manufacturers publish "Tbe cules a pressure pulsations rot intended to cover tranamited vibrations oF ESTIMATE OF SAFETY FACTOR FOR A LIFE OF 7000 CYCLES Yo'e” a, Senet eed aie 100 ree allowable thrusts and moments for their standard units (108, 118) or are prepared to advise whether the reactions computed by their customers for & apecitic installation can be toletated. To general, even they sre inclined to understate the capacity of thelr equipment, primarily becaute of fear of discrepancies be- ‘ween the resus of calculations based on simplifying assumptions fand the Feactioas imposed upon the unit io actual service, Tt ‘would appear that a chaoge in policy toward permitting more liberal allowances would be contingent por the following’ de- velopments: 1 More general adzption, of assumptions and methods of sacalysi of proved accuracy or conservatism; to foster this ix feof the purposes of the Proposed Roles ‘2 Improved understandidg of the necessity of realising the ‘asaumed design conditions in the actual installation, This ir- plies proper epescation aod supervisioa of eold spring; also, © Clear realization of the fact thst ealoulations based on the as tumptioa of « veigblless eystein and frictionless supports can grosily underestimate reactions caused by therraal expansion Sere these are small in relation to the weight ol piping ap. ported. ‘2 Publication of information on the order of magaitude of the various componeats of piping reactions expected to be produced jo well-designed pipiog aysters leading to and from otraia- ‘native pieces of equipraeat.! Gti better information becomes available, piping desigoers willbe freed to cootinue to resort to rales of ebrab to guide tbem in preparing thelr layouts. Some of Uhese are given in the form of blanket limits upon thrusta; as an example, Baggerud and Jernstrom (S1) suggested 3000 Ib sa an upper limit for ehipe! tarbices. Others provide limita for both the resulting thrust and the resulting moment, the momeat io foot-pounds often being taken equal to tbe thrust in pauads. Others consider the cow povents of the resctions separately for different directions, higher Timita usually being assigned to downward loads than to lateral thrusta, All of the rales sited aeraingly dieregard the size of the ‘unit, aluucugh they aze actualy inteoded to apply to conditions ‘customarily encountered in specie Belds of engineering To take care of the tze effect, come rules are given ia terms of pounds thrust per diameter inch oF peripheral inch of the nozsle, Paul (79), for example, euggests 100 Ib per peripheral inch of turbine agarle a2 a reasonable thrust. Another rule of this, character, which has been proposed by Wolosemick (102), relates the thrust to the sum ofthe nominal diameters ofthe auction and diacharge pipiog and ot the same time difereatiates with respect to the anchorage ofthe unit, Roles expressed iy terme of Kilowatt rating of equipment weight attempt to accomplish the same purpose The tabulation of average reactions against puonpe on p. 453 of the paper by D3. lotbeim and the author (35 is indicative of Ue type of inorraation dence,Finally, there are a number of advocates of expressing the limitation ia terms of the piping stcees at the terminal. For cramplo, Hosth (90) suggests a nominal bending stress of 8000 psi (with no credit for cold epring) as satisfactory desiga basis; ‘other experienced stress analysts bave established individual limita depending upon the type of equipment connected, ‘The foregoing recital of different approaches has been given With the thought of atimulatiag discussion by those wbo are more familiar with the subject than te author can claim ta be. Tes his thought that reasooably conservative empirieal rules of some form will lays be necessary as a frst general guide toa piping designer; ifthe reactions abtaioed therefrom ehould be exceeded in « apecite layout of visually adequate proportions, consulta- log with the manufacturer is advised, atleast inthe case of in- portant unite : Waar Sveres Reguins Avatrets "The foregoing review of the theoretial consideratioos and ex perimental data usderlying the Proposed Roles ioescapably leads to the conclusion that, even after considerable simplifew ‘ion and idealization with resultant loss in accuracy, the flexi- bility analysis of any but the simplest piping aystem presente a formiddale task, and that aczordingly it would be unreasonable ‘to demand that each line be eoalyced by the mest precise ap- preach avaiable. Approximations must be permitted, provided their effect can be at least roughly evaluated and compencated for. This is not enough; ia many fortagces, perhaps in the for comparisoo with similar layouts with satisfactory service performance muct be ascepted in lieu of a mathematical analysis or unt, ‘The group formulating the Proposed Tule has attempted to reflect tis point of view in the fallowing genera clauses contained tm porageaphe 6£0(a) and €£00) 1 Formal calculations or model tests shall be required only ‘where reasonable doubt exiats as to the adequate feibility of a eyatem, 2 Each problem shall be analyzed by a method appropriate te the conditions, 3. Where simplifying assumptions are use in calculations or model tests, the ikeibood of attendant underestimates of forse ‘moments, aed stresses shall be taken inta account. ‘These causes admittedly are vague and offer no cocerete guid tance toward arriving at e decision whether analysis is necessary » in any specifi case, what degree of approximation will be accepts ble, and bow itis Wo be compensated for; furthermore, they do not indieste whose judgment in this matter is to be accepted, the ‘engineers, the customer's, or the inapection authority's. ‘The formulating group devoted earnest consideration to theve ques tions, but eame to the conclusion that the variables iavolved io Sexbility analysis are too nurmerous, and their individual effect too unpredictable, to permit the establishment of a simple set of ‘explicit rules, observance of which would ane protection to Iie, bealtb, aad iavestmeot without imposing as imposible bur- ‘dea of work on piping engineors. Variables fll into three major classifications Material and temperature-depandent physical properties. 2 Crosssectional properties. 3. Shape factors, ie., properties associated with the dimen- ions and configuration ofthe line axis Jn the fret group the expansion coefficient and the elasticity ‘modulus sssume primary importance as measures, respectively, ‘of the amount of strain introduced jato the aystem and the elastic resistance opposed by the material. Yield and creep strength eect modifying infiveaces of plastic Gow upoa the resistance, fd at the sume time provide important yardaticks for the de- termination of the allowable etzeaa range, Which is further condi- tioved on the endurance strength of the material ‘Among the cross-sections? properties, the moment of joertia snd eection modulus of the pipe similarly provide measures of the forces aod moments generated sod the resistance of the pipe thereto; the influence of the latter is modised by any stress inteosiGeations preseat. ‘While the foregoing properties enter piping-Hexibilty calcula. tons more or lesa directly as factor, the dimensions and coofqu- (on ofthe line axis and the abape of ite components (asrefected their Sobility factors) exert much more complex eect on the forces and momenta, aad therensth the stresies Tt wil be appareat from the foregoing that soy rule or formula inteoded to provide a demarcation ise between Seuible and Wi, of underetressed and overstresced layouts caust contain factors representative of the material, the temperature, and the line eae, eogth, aod ebepe. The St three major variables oan be taken care of readily, but attempta wt reducing the effect of live length aad conSguration to a simple and reasonably accurate bape feotor meet with almost iosuperable difficulties, ‘The most promising approach toward & firt approximation is to express this factor ia terms of the ratio of the developed Ratio of Developed Axial Lengtn Lg to Anchor Distance UI Fio.6. Snaps Faerons ron Siupce Sinete-PLave Conriconartont2 lige length L, to the distance U between anchors, What can be accomplished by this approach is shown in Fig. 6 which war eveloped from n study published by the author in one of his company's bulletins (105). This is based on aquare-corner sumptions and embeaces almest all conceivable proportions ‘ single-plane configurations of the Le, %, Us, and expansion U types. The abscissa ratios 24/0; the ordinates read the Fatio fof dhe cunttalling stress in a bend of ony of the shape in- vestigated to that ina square L-bend of equal anchor distance, pipe size and material, ancl temperature change. Tt will he noted that 1 a7 =H esl roughly describes the upper boundary of the entire fanuly of fearves except thet applying 10 uncommen proportions of ‘U-bend with unequal legs, or which it may produce e gross uader- fatimate of the strassea. As © rule, however, the atreaes will Be overestimated. For example, a strea ratio of the order of 6 is obtained for the square L-bend (L,/U = 3), whereus by def tition thie should be unity. Obviously, the eviterion ia too in- feustive to predict even the results of & square-eorer solution swith any degree of reliability. Since the latter iteif often pro ides no more thas a crude frst approximation, it becomes ev ent that 4 formula of thi simple character will not serve pro- vide « reliable means of distinguishing aystoma which aust be aleulated from those for which ealeulation can be waived ‘Thieaame eriticiam applies to the formula given i the slueroate version of paragraph Se0(c) of the Proposed Rules!” which assigas a definite limiting value to the stress ratio / 1 Cie 1057 where U and Ly respectively, again designate anchor distance snd developed line length [t), and D and ¥ are the nominal pipe tize and the resultant of the restrained thermal expeosion and ‘et linear terminal diaplacements (in.). ‘The left-hand term in this cae also contains approximations; specifically, it astunves » constant reationsbip between the allowable atresa range ond the ‘modulus of elasticity. ‘Assuming that i would be possible to establish criterion ‘osbling the piping designer to eliminate amply flexible systems. from consideration, the next problem is that of distinguishing the remaining ayatema with respect to the accuracy required 10 ther ealoulation. Syatoms carrying Hammable, noxious or other- ‘te dangerous Buide, oF failure of which would ental a ajar Srancial lous obviously are mare in need of precise analysia than ‘howe where a break is merely inconvenient and readily repaired. Tu the latter instances the application of approximate methods ‘would appear economically justified from a standpoint of time saying; the use of approximations also may be necesasry for more critical piping systems involving branch fines or intermediate restraint, Wherever approximate methods are used, the question imme diately arises how to compensate for the attendant error. Again, po simple rule can be edvanced. The only sdvdce which can be ‘offered in to compare the results abtained by the approximate method itis proposed to use, with those of precise ealculatious for a suficient number of cases covering the extreme conditions itis expected to encounter, and to derive correction factors there from. To some methods, such as those published by the author's company (105), such a check has already bees made by the proponentof the method Sen "Study of Shape Factor.” " Transeribed la Appendix 2 oa 2 or fea) Conctustox ‘The Proposed Rules present an attempt by some of the cour tiy's leading piping enginesrs gathered us a task foree operating under Sectional Committee ASA D311 te ceduce the comple problem of providing adequate Aexibility in piping aystem to a few simple guidelines reBecting the latest advances in theoretical Understanding and accumulated peuctical experience, Tt bas been the author's asigament to assemble the factual evidence Underiyig this document and explain certaio concepts, suck a= stresbintensication (actor, stress range, sell-pring, which bave been inherent io past formulations of the chapter on “Expansion and Flewbility,” but are more openly refered to in the new “rate. On revieniag the evidence, numerous gaps in our knowledge of the magnitude of certain properties entering into the problem have become apparent. On the other band, uot all the present ‘eoowledge available oo certain phases could be utlized ig fram ing the Code Roles because of the need for keeping them simple, ‘This bas necessitated 9 weighing of the sigoiSicence ofthe various factors and their effect on the over-all accuracy of the predietion of reacisng and steazes. While the Proposed Rules represent the group's best effort, the interpretation of the facts given therein is not necessarily the aly ove posible, Publication of the thought processes leading to thele adoption is intended to provoke discussion by engioeers at large, to uoeover additional data not available 40 the group, ‘nd ultinately ta lead to anvimproved formulation, particularly mith segard to the clauses intended to promote uniformity of practice and intelligent enforcement Acgwownencszwrs ‘The author wishes wo recognize his indebtednes to Messrs N. Blair, A. MeCutehan, J.D. Mattimore, H.C. E, Meyer, and 8. W, Spielvogel for encouragement aad wiclehearted assistance rendered ia the preperation of this paper. BIBLIOGRAPHY In approximately chrovologicl order) “Formbederung und Besnsprochung federeder Ausleish- soba," by Ae Beatin, Mittesungen “Ober Forchungsarbniten ullecin $8, Bios Zetuedrfe den Vereines deutscher Ingenicare, a1 34,1910, p43, 2 Dehaosion of Pipes.” by B.C. 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Snyder, Heating, Piping and Aur Conditioning ‘ori 15, “Al "“Applieation of Biastie-Point ‘Theory to Piping Stvese Cal culeions” by. 3.-W. Spielvogel and Kameron, Trans. ASME, Vol sr paper FSP-S7-10. 1935 42 “Piusburgh Piping Design Manual” by B. A. Wert and ', Smith, Pittsburgh Pining and Equipment Company. September, as 43 _“A. Simplified Mothod for Salving Piping Protlems." by 8. W, Spiclvogel ana §. Kameron, Heating, Piping and Air Condition: ng September and Ostober 1095. Ge PStccase in TPitee-Dimessionsl Pips Bends." br Wiliam Hovgaard. Trans, ASME. vol. BY paper PAP5-19, 1998. M5 ""ihe Strength and Flexibuity of Corrugated and Cressed by B.T. Cope and bys. 1 Bend Piping.” by It L. Dennison, Journal Amerson Society of You Engineers val. 47, LODS:_ alsa Engineering, Sanuary 24, Febvotry 28, Seren. toe, XE “Loed-Defetion Tena of Several One-Plane Expaasion Bends." by W. Budd und D. Cooper, Underaraduate thesis Dept 0) Noval Architecture and Marine Engineanog M.D‘, 1986 WF End’ Resctions and. Steasea in Theee-Dimensonal Pipe Lines" by GB. Karelee and J. He Marcbaa, Joureal of Applied Mechanix Trans. ASME, ol, 80, 189%, pps A-GE-A-74 Ge Gata Sheste for Design of Piping.” by HE, Mayross, Journal of Applied. Mechanics, Trans, RSME, ws. $9, 1957, pp aoa 1G "Further Suisies of Theee-Dimansional Pipe Bends.” by Wilkacy Hovguard, Trane, ASME, vol 58 1007, pp 647-850 130, "A\ Method for Determination of Resetione and Stresies in Expansion Pipe Bends.” by F. Peiter and MJ. Fishy Combustion, December, 1388. SI" "Geaphieal Analysis of Pipe Streasea ty 0. 5. Baggarad and KW, Jertstrom, Tana of Society of Navel Atehivcts nd Marine Engineers 1008 32 Phe Determination of the Expansion Forces io Piping by Mosel Teh" by Harald WW. Samar, Journal of Appia! Mechanicr Trans, ASME, vol 61,1999, pp. B. SDasian ot Boing for Flextiligy With Flex-Anal Char ty EA, Wert and & Smith, Power Piping Divance, Blew Soo Company. Piusburgh, Pa. 1960, Gt" Seremea ant Dellactona of Thrse-Dimenaiona! Pipe Bends” by H Postaky aad HD. Sively, Journel of Apalied Meckency, ‘Tags: ASME, vol 62.1040, pp. 8-17-21 "SS "The Sigridcance of. and Suggeaued Limita fr: tha Stra in Ping Liges Due toshe Cambinad Eftesis of Preaure and Expansion = by D. B. Rouheim and A. RC. MarB, Trans, NOME vel. 92, uo pp. 443-0. Si Modal Tests Solve High-Praaure Fipe Problems Conrad, Power, Oct. 1940, pp. 88. SP" Piping Fleablity and Stress" by D. RL Zeno and A. D. Viouraton, Cornell Masitine Presa, New York, 104) So hibaery TiploaPeaeding lor Expansion ip Hot Lises” by BG. Lovell Parlour Enginger Vol 12, m0, 17, IBM, pp. 37.3, snd a0 SH. “Models Help Dsterning Pipe Stresien," by 1. D. Conrad Westinghouse Enotneerina, 1941, vol. Ip no. 3. May, 104, p22 ‘Solving Pipe Problems.” by FM. Hil, Mechanic Engineer ng, v.63. (941, pp, 19-22 “Deaign of Pising Systera’” by D. B. Rosheim, A. R. C. Mari, Hr Wallsiom. Er Slesaly The MC. W. Kellogg Company. Now York, NY, 194 32 "Siress Caletations for High-Temperature Piping." by §. 1. Shislvogg, Power January. February. 1941 ‘33 "thermal! Expansion ‘Stroaees in Piping.” by Mason 5. Nojen Journal of Ui American Sostely of Naval Enginaering. Sh, May, 141, pp. 279-374 Gide Prage der Elestistt, der Bensapruchungen und der Festiakeis wacmipersebener Teohretiungen." by S. Berg. H. Berahard Gnd HL Richter Forschung au dem Gebiae dat Ingenienroeens, Suly- August, 1941 165" “Model "Feat Checks PipeStress Calculation.” by §. . ‘Spinone, Power, October, 1841. ("A ‘Simpifcaticn in tho MeyerMovgascd System of Pipe ‘sivas Formas" by W. . Bleck, Journal of the American Soci of ‘Noval Engineering. vol 39, November. 104 7 "Brpaatoa of Formula fy Galing Lond Reason an Detection of Quarter Bands and Tangent of Prpia’ ty MeGormck, Jina of appl Mecho Tease ASME, vol SOE. pp. Aceh 18 Aa Amulytical Method for Determining the Fleibiiy of Fine Having Pro or More Aachorsams," by Harry Miler, Journal O/ dnled Mhanien, Tavs, ASME al. 6, 194, pp, Ac18S-170 63° “Piping Stas Caloulaciona implied,” by 8 W, Spsivoet MeGraw lll Book Go. Ine., New York, N.Y 184, $0" “Elawic Peoperies of Curvec: Tubes.” by Irwin Vignes ‘Trans, ASME, woh 88, Fase. 1943, pp. 105-120. Th Design ot Steam. Tananiision Piping” ey _Asshae MiCutchen, Healing, Paving and Air Conditioning, August sad September. 1943. 12 Eepactions of Formulas for Calculating Loads, Rotations nd Defiestigns af Quarter Bends ard Tangents of Pipes,” 9) 4.5 MeCormick, Design Data Book 2, ASME. 1054 79 "Simplied Method of Aralysia of Reactions Developed by [Essansion fy a Three-Anchor Piping. System,” by Boris Uoohak ‘Trans, ASME: vol 66,1948, pp. 311-318. a “Sa General Aealyaia of High Temperature Piping.” by Sid- bys.4 suey Austin, Journal ofthe Americon Society of Wassl Bnoineers, ve Ser 194 33 Moment-Diatsibution Analysis for Thrse-Dimeasional Pine ‘sguvasten," by HCC. Dellare Journal of Applied Mectantn Tras ASME, val. 66, 1848, pp. A-240-a-o iu "Blastie Poperties ol Staight Pipe and Bends" by 8, Crocker sind A, MeGutchaa, Piping Hendiook, MeGrawikdy Book Compsey. Me, New Vors, N¥., 1945, chapter 7 pp. 264-360, G7 Bending of Curved Thin Tuten,” by Leon Beskin, Journal of Applied Medanzs, Trans, ASME, vol OF 19%) pp. Al? 8° “Analysing Piping Streases by Tens of Made by t. © Andsew, Heating, Piping end air Conditioning, August, 1945, 79" "The Alm of Pipe Svea Fnvenigations.” by Gerald Anthony Paul, Power Plant Engineering, September, 1945, pp. 102-104 G0, “Beams on Elastic Foundation,” ty M. Heskayi, University of Michigan Press, Ann Atbor, Mich, 1048, pp, 176-178 a1. "Simplifed Pipe Line Computations” by Peyton Bryan, Parsleum Engineer, 1948 G2" "Electrical Model Laboratory Determines Steet in Piping Sytem" by LC, Andvewa, National Percleum Neos, 1986 83. ""Biude de fw Déformation et den Tensions Taternes de ‘Tuyaur 2 Ligne Moyenne Plane, sane Presson, Tntetaar” by 2 Bathelemy and’ ¥. DeLeira, Bulletin de Association ‘Techmave Marita et Aeronautique, vol. 45, 1940, pr 198, and val. 46,1947,» 84 “Characteristics of Short Radius Tube Bends, 2nd Pastis! Report (Theoretiea).” by P. 8. Symonds and. £ Pardue, Navel eterch Laboratory Report no. 02761, February 18, 1048. 1S" “Reinforcement of Brateh Piacoa" by JS. Blair, Reprint (4947) from Engineering (London), July 8, Sept 6. Nov. 29, Dec 6 13, 26, 1946 158" "Maths of Making Piping Flexibility Analyse,” a series ol papers published in Heating, Piping snd Air Condlioning initiated by'S. Crocker and A. MeCuichaa, ith the ialowing aubauthors Si Crocker and A. McCutchan, June, 1046. 9p. 88-73: 5. W- Spice opel July, 1946, pp, 78-81, MJ. Fish, September, 1948, pp. 8-89 WIG! Hooper, November, 1046, pp. 70-76, NC. Detise, January 847, pp B1-05: TV. Wallatrom, May, L241, pp. OO-747 Lale C Andie, August, 1947, pp. 72-771" enty Unde, Sapeambers 1947 pp. 86-89. E,W, Wolosevick, September, 1988, pp. 76-81; L. E Prieach, July, 1980, pp. 02-95: 1. E. Bdge, Febroary, 1981, po. 07-109; J.'B. Brock, Duly, 1082, pp, 98-81; A. McCutchan and W.P. Gregory, March, 195), pp. 99-97; S. Crocker and Av Me Cuvabaa, July 1083, pp. 87-80 a7 “Fatigue Teota of Weldiog Elbows and Comparabla Double- Mitre Beads," by AUR. C. Mari, Trans. ASME, val. 89, 1947, pp. 550-870, 1 “Analysis of Stress in Unsymmerical Pipa Frame,” by hase Veal, Patoleum Refiner. Tune, 194, pp. 113-116. ‘89. "Tha Model Test Method," by L. GoAndrem, fieting, Pipe Sng and Air Conditioning, August, 1987, pp. 79-78, 90. “Steam Pipework Design it Shige, by P. T, Konth, Trans ‘The Testitate of Marine Engiaeera, vol LIX, September, 1947 1" Betorminetion by Moment Distrbsious of the Reactions sod the Momenes Arising (rm tho Expansion of Piping System: by RG, Datfare, Moutana State Caege Bultia No. 3, March, 1048 9} "Thrusts and Stresen i Tee-Dimensional Pipe Expansio Bends" vy ER. Finoiecome, The Engineer (London), pp. 360-334, 134 133. “"Modal Tost Ansiysis of Stam Biging,” by L. C, Andres Combuation, vol. 2, Apil, 1949, pp. 53-56. Be "Oa Beading of Carved Thin-Walled Tubes,” by E, Reisane Procnedings ofthe National Acadamy of Science, 1848 ‘35, PipeSterw Analysis for Thermal Expansion,” by Simou W. Lawaren, The Oit and Gar Journal, May 6.1840, por 80-88 35 “st the Flesblity Prism Help You Anaiyee Pipe Sires Power Generation,” by Chetles F. Green, Power Generation, Deser ber 1040, pp. 88°89. a7 "Patique Tests on Flanged Assambliea” by A. R, C. Markl snd 11 Genege, Trans. ASME, vol, 72,1980, pp. 77-87 98 “Expansion of L-Type Bends.” by FE. Wolosenick, Paralewm Refer, 1950 90. "Properties of Thin-Welled Curved Tubes of Short-Bend Radius" bp Te E. Pardue sad f. Vignes, Trane, ASME, vol. 13, 1S pp. 77-89 100" “otreduction to Piping Flerbility” (by A. R. C. Mark Piping Engineering Paper 401, Tube Turns, (ae, Louiwile, Ky February. 195. 10L "Flexural Forces oa Pressure Relist Valve," by F-E, Wolose sick, Heating Piping and AEs Conditioning uly, 1980, pp. 102-108, 102" “Equipment Streacea Imponed by Piping.” by Er, Wolose: ick, Puroisim Reiner Aug, 1090, 9p. 80-91, 109. Joints for High-Pressure, High-Temperature Pipiog.” by 1, M. Canton nag W.'8. Black, Trans, ASME, vol 73. 18, pp sate, 104. "Forces ig Pipe Bends From Expansions," by F, 8, Wolose wie, Paroleum Refer, October, 1080, pp. 103-108. 103. "Z, Le, Uc ted Bepaosion U-Bande” thy A. 1. C. Mark). Piping Engineering Paper 4.02, Tubs Turas, Ine, Loviavile, Kea: tuky, December, 1950, 106) "Yastalliisn.” festruction Leafet IL-110-28 for Type E ‘Turbines, Weatighouse Blstre Corporation, Dectinber, 1950. 0?” “Advanees ia Applied Mechanseay" by fe A. Clark sad E, Reisaner Academic Pree, Ine, New York, 1051 108 "Methods of Absorbing Expansions of Long-Range Traos- mission Ping.” by FE. Wolosewek, Pelvleam Aefinar. February, T9SL. pp. 68-44 109" Tables Speed Expansion Bead Selection vogel, Power, November, 185) Ho “"Tatiea for Figuring Pipe Shape,” by S. W. Splelvoget Pow, June, 185. it” “Esty Tables Crack Tove Pipe Problem,” by 8. W, Spiel sous) Power, October, 1982, Ti2 "the Bapestmental Determination of Pipe Reactions.” by WE. Cooper, US. Atoeie Buergy Commission by G. B. 185 11a “Piping Flaiblty ‘Anaiyai by Model Tet,” by L, C, Andrews, Trane. ASME, vol 78,1982, pp, 129-133, 114 "Fatigue Tans of Piping Components.” by A. RC, Mark, ‘Trans. ASME, vol 76, 1982, pp. 2370 TG. “Steam Pioigg Systeme Connected te Turbines” Bullatia GE-T-10\i, Turbine Divisio af the Geseral Elecirie Co. 116 "Taermal Shock and Other Comparsoo Testa of Austenitic 406 Feste Stela for Main Staam Pipieg—a Summary Report” ty WC Stewart apd WG. Sobre: Trana, ASME, val. 78.1963, pp. 105-1073 is7. SA Mate Method fof Flesbilty Analysis of Piping Sy sina" by 3. Er Brock, Trans, ASME, vol, 76,1052, pp. 5 Tle “Ekecments an Short-Radisa Pipe Beads” by N. Gros, presented ae macting of Shs Institution of Meshaniea! Engiocers Exedoe, England, December 12,1952 Tie” ‘the Fieubluty of SherrRadiva Pipe Beads,” by N, Grove apa H. Ford, presented at meeting of The Tasttution of Mechanical Engineers, London, December 12, 1952 120° "rhermal Stresoes in. Piping. Systema." by Willem E, ‘witbur, Ptatum Refine. March, 1985, pp. 145-163 TA "Proposed Filly Section ior ASA. Code for Prema Piping.” Report of Teak Farce on Flesiility of ASA Commitee BULL May 4. 1982, obaiaeblefeom ASME Otsees, 29 W. 3 St New ore 18) NY, 122. Sbyopaued Flexibility Section of the Code for Preaute Pipe ing aansuncameat in Mechantal Baginesring, woh 3. Jugs, 186. “21 "the Selution of PipeExpaasion Problema by Pusched- ‘Card Machines" by Ua Ht, Jobaaon, presoated atthe Fal Mestng ASME, Rochester, NeW, Oct. 7, 1953, 1D “Shutie Constanta 9d CoefBewsnta of Thermal Expaasion of Piping Materials Proposed for 1904 Code for Presue Piping. by Ri Miche, publiahed to thie sus, pp. 151-150, by 8. . Splat Appendix 1 ‘Text oF Protests Rutes ron Cuarren 3 oF Secriow 6 oF Cor von Bnessune Preto as Fonuutarso ay Tase Fonce ‘ox Funusierre (Nore: The provisions of this cbspter are not applicable to 12, alr, and oll cross-country transmission (underground) Piping.) ‘617 Preemie. (a) Piping systems are eubject to a diverity of loadings ereatng stresses of different typea and patteros, of which aly the folowing more signiGeant ones need generally be coo sidered piping stress analysis: 1 Presmse, (ternal oF exteral 2 Weigat of pipe, Sttings aad valves, contained Guid snd insulation. ‘3. Thermal expassion of the line ‘The Best two loadings produce sustained stresses which are evalu ated by conventional methods. The stresses duo to thermel expension, on the other hand, if of sulficiest initial magaitude will be relaxed as a result of local Gov in the form of yielding or iD the form of ceeep. Tho stress reduction wbich bas takeo plact will appear os a stress of reversed sign in the cold condition. ‘This phenomenon is designated ea sel-aprioging ofthe line and is imilar in effect to cold springing. ‘The amount auch eel-spring- jing will depend oa the magoitude of the iaitial hot etreas aud the temperature. Accordingly, while the hot stress tendo to diminish with time, the aum of the hot and cald suesses duriog aay one cycle will remain substantially constant. ‘Tis eum is referred 10 fs the stress range, The fact that the stresn range is the deter mining factor leads to the eelection of an allowable commbioed stress (range) in terms ofthe eum af the bot and cold S-vslues, () The beneficial effect of judicious cold priaging in asisting ‘the eyatem to attain ite most favorable condition sooner is recog nired. Tousmonch os the life of a system under eyclic condition depends primarily on the cress ragge rather Uta theatres evel atany 006 time, no credit for cold pring i warranted with regard ‘a stresses, In'ealculating end thrusts aed moments acting oD equipment containing moving or removable parta with close clearances, the actual reactions at any one time Father than their range are significant and eredit accordingly is allowed for cold spring io the calculations of thrusts tad moments, 618 Material (e) This chapter applies to all classes of ma- Lerila permitted by the Code, (©) The thermal expansion range ¢ shall be determined [ror ‘Table-M" aa the difference betw2ea the unit expansion ehowa for the maximum normaloperating metal temperature and that or the minimum normal aperstiog eletal temperature (for bet Lines this may usually be taeen ss the erection temperature), For materials not included in this table, reference shall be made to suthoritative gource data, auch ag publicatiooe of the National Bureau of Standards, (6) The cold and hot moduli of elasticity, B, and Ey, respec: ‘ively, shall be taleen (com Table —¥ an the values sbowa for the roiraum snd maximum normel-operating metal temperatures, respectively. For materiale not included ia this table, reference Shall be made to authoritative source data, such as publeations ofthe National Bureau of Stendarde. (4) Poisson's ratio may be taken as 03 for all ferrous mate: riala at all temperatures.” (Eleewhere ia the Code there wil be found tables of values of Poisson's ratio for various roaterals ‘which tables are given for general information.) (@) The Sovalues, §, aod Sy at the mioimum aod maximum operating metal tomparatuces, repectively, to be used for de- ‘urmining the allowable expansion-steess range S, sbal be takeo for the type of piping system iovelved from the applicable tables in the respective ecetions of the Code, Ia the case ef welded pipe, ‘the longitudinal joint effcicncy may be diregarded, 419 General. (a) Pipiog systema shall be designed to bave suficient Goxibilty to prevent thermal expansion from causing 1—Tilure from overstreas of the piping material or anchors, 2—~ leakage at joints, or 3—detrimestal distortion of concected ‘equipment resulting from excessive thruste aod moments, (©) Fleuiility shall be provided by changes of direstion ia the piping tbrough the use of bends, loops, and of-sets; oF provision ‘hall be made to absorb thermal strains by expansion joints of the slip joint or bellows types." Tf desicable, Bexbility may be provided by creasing or corrugstiog portions or al of the pipe. © To order to motify the effect of expansion and cootraction, "Table of these properties will be provided upon adaption of these cule. "Tn the mewntime, dato publihed is Piping, Haadbooks or teogs tay ba eed "Ta thin case, anchors or tsa of sufSsient strength aod giitysball be installed to provide for ond foreas dus to fuld preauce and clver runsof pipe may be cold sprung. Cold spring say be takes into sczountia the ealeulation of the reactions a thowa in paragrapa, 6e1(2) provided an effective method of obtaining the designed cold spring is speifed and used 680 Baste Astumptions and Requirements, (a) Formal catela- tons of model teta shal be required only where reasonable doubt ‘exist os to the sdequate flexibility of a system. Each problem fall be apalyzed by a method appropriate ta the conditions (&) Standard assumptions and requirements are given io paragraphs (4) to (g). Where simplifying assumptions are used in ealeulations or model testa, the Likelihood of attendant under. ‘estimates of forces, moments, and etrestes ahall be taken into account, (6) In caleulatiog the Gexibility of & piping cystem betwee anchor points, the system shall be treated aa & whole. The signifcance of all parts of the line and of all restraints such es ‘lid bangers of guides, sal be considered. (2) Caleulations shall take into account stress intensification factors found to exiat in eampoaenta other than plain atragbt pipe. Credit may be taken for the extra flexibility of such Components. Io the absence of more directly applicable data, the Hexbility factor and streasintensicution factors shows in ‘Chart Tmay be used (2) Dimensional properties of pipe and Sttiogs as used in Aexibity calculations, shall be based on nominal dimensions () The total expacsion “range ‘rom the minimum w the ‘maximum norrel-operating tefuperature shall be used io all calculations, whether piping is cold sprung oF not. Not only the ‘expaasion ofthe lice itaeU, but also linear and angular movernenta of the equipment to which itis attached, eball be considered. ) Flexibility calculations shall be based on the modulus of elasticity Bt oom temperature. 421 Slretws and Reactions. (a) Using the above assumptions, the atreses and reactions due to expansion eball be investigated atallaigoiécant points (@) The expansion stresses shall be combiaed in accordance ‘sith the following formula Se = VSR SF Sy = EMy/Z = resultant beoding stress, psi 5S. = M22 = tordanal stress, psi A, = resultant beading moment, 1b/in. Mf, = torsional moment, Ibn, Z = section modulus of pipe, .* 1 = atreasintensifcation factor (©) Tee maximum computed expansion streas, Sp, shall ont exceed the allowable stress, Sq, Were Sq =f (95S, 40.5.8) subject ta the limitations of paragraph 682(b) srhere 'S, ~ allowable stress (S-valuc) ia the cold condition 'S, = allowable atress (S-value) in the hot condition ‘S, aod S, are to be taken from tables ia the applicable sections of the Code {= sirsnrange reduction factor for cyclic conditions ta be applied; in the absence of more applicable data the values of fsball be taken {com the following table: ‘Total no. offal Strstredustion sep even over ‘ator expected ite 7 7000 and Io Lo 4009, 08 22000) os 45000) °F 0000 08 250000 0d over 0816 (@) The reactiona (forces and moments) Ry and Ry in the hot and cold conditions, respectively, shall be obtained aa follows from the reactions R derive [rom the flexibility ¢xizulations na(—3)e Rack LoS) g Be Fy wbhoves i greater, and with the futher canis eat (S\/Se)(E./B)) is esa a0 1, where = cold spring fastor varying fran zero for ne col spring fone for 100 per cent cold spring Sp = maximum computed expansion stress E, = modulus of elasticity in the cold condition By modulus of elasticity in the lot consition Hs range of reactions corresponding to the full expansion range based on Ey 2, and Ry represent the maximum reawtions estimated to occur ‘athe eald and hot conditions, respectively (6) The reactions #0 computed shall not exceed limite wbieb the attached equioment ean suity sustain, 682 Supports. (a) Pipe supports and eestrints aot expressly considered inflexibility calculations shall be designed to minimise interference with the thermal expansion of the line (@) The design and spacing of supports shall be checked to ssoure that the aura of the longitudinal atrestes due 1o weight and pressure dota not exceed S,, "Whote this som exceeds #/.S, but does not exceed Sy, the amount in excess of %/. S, shall be sub- tracted from 5. Appendix 2 AurenvaTe CLauses ror Charen 3 of Szeriox 6 oF Cone or Pressure Pirsc as Prorosto wy Tne M. W, Ktuooa Compare 680 Basic Assumptions and Requirements, (é) Formal anslysis ‘or model eat sball be required for pipelines which simultaneously tatafy the following conditions: Maximum normal operating metal temperature over 600 F. Nominal pipe diameter over Sin, Rated service pressure over 18 ps ‘The method of investigation ahall be appropriately selected to enaform with the condition of the problem under examination. (©) The requirements for analysis shal be considered sativsed for duplicate unite of successfully operating installations oF for replacements of piping syatems with a record of satisfactory (6) This recognized that for operating conditions not atis(ving coneurseatly the provisions of paragraph (@), an analysis for exch piping system is economically impractical An analvsin i, there fore, mandatory only ifthe following approximate criterion ie not satiafied by TR ray #9 ‘The constants 1.05 and O°, as well as the exponent of */, represent only approximate values, which wil he subject to fur ‘ther investigation and correction as needed [nthe foregoing equation D = nominal pipe size, in Y= resultant of restrained thermal expansion and net Finest lurminal displacements, in Y = anchor distarve Cong of straight Hine joining anchors), h = ratio of developed pips longth to anchor distance, dimen slonless. (g) Standard sssumptions and requirements are given in para rophs () to (9. (@) In caleulating the flexibility of « piping system between anchor points, the system shall be treated as a whole. ‘The sgnif- cance ofall parts of the line and of all restraints such solid Inangers ar guides, shall be considered. () For esleulations made in conformity with paragraph (a), suresrincensifcation and flexibility factors may be omitted if the piping system ie not sabjeet to more than 2000 stress eycles during iu expected life For lines subject. to more than 2000 stress fycles,calevations shall take into azzount streeintensfication fotore found to exist in components other than plain straight. pine. Credit mav be taken for the extra dexibility of such Components, Ta the absence of mare disectly applicable data, the Sesiblity factora and stress-intensfication fectors shown io Chare I may be used (9) For thermal-expansion analysis, dimensional properties of pips and éttinga shall be bastd on nominal dimensions (G) The total exparsion range from the minimum to the maxi ‘mum normal aperating temperate ell be used in all calcul tions, whether piping a cold sprung or not. Not only the expan- sion of the line itself, but ala linear aud segular movements of, the equipment to which it is attached, shall be eonsidered. ‘) Flenbility caleulations shall be based on the modulus of clatcity B, at room temperature {621 Sirasea and Reactions. (¢) The maximum combined pres sure aad expuasion strasn shall not exceed 0.75 times the rated lltimate tasile stength of the annealed material at room tera- perature. The maximum computed expansion alress Sy sball aot rceed thefllowng allowable value Se = 7 (025 8, +0285) here 'S, ~ allowable stess (S-value) in the cold condition ‘S, = allowable stress (S-value) i the hot condition (8, and §) ate to be taken from the tables i0 the apolicable testis af the Cade) ‘tresereduction factor to be applied for cyclic service; in the absence of more applicable data the values of { shall be taken from the following table: ‘Total no, of fall Steessceduction temp eyelen over Teton! apectes ie 7 7000 and tes 10 4009, os ‘son os ‘5000 o7 00000 08 250000 sd aver. as 1 the sum of longitudinal pressure and weight etzesnen is leas than Sy, the diference betoreen S, and the sum of these elreases may be added to Sy 1622 Supperte. (b) The design and spacing of eupportaabell be checked to assure that the sum of the longitudinal stresses due to seight and pressure doca not exceed S,. The analysis for pressure streseea shall be based on the ereded dimensions of the ibe(are anor dec goats 151 8) stort yaners 40 ison ada eam ‘sora Wet sores ug eH porte aes storey ptee yrooe 2 SUH Sorc era stony rosy terpen 2 fg fone pevtoriges petsasster efx os peyrce pet ey ergna yer aut ep ME Tape 4 *Pi0g ainth peony So Gums ys es try fevuamyavauig ow Aarnianeats 1 ANY13 Appendix 3 Pupsisiuary Factons ror Conven Pree In the following, the three successive approximations of von Kérmgn’s Rexibility factor are shown both in the form in which they are usually found in Wterature (L17) and in « refaemulation boy the author which makes them easier to compare 1s + 10 bo TET ‘eet 105 + 41964" + 4s00K+ 3+ Beh + 0aKs 9 + 0.255000/n* 12h + 13300 + 0.007s0O7R 252 + 73,912 + 2,446,176A' + 2,822, 4004" ‘SF BORDA 308,376K + 2822,400K6 5} 0.300306/m% + 0,00105987/4" TDi" 1.4004 + 0.019098/A" + 0.000017767— {0 discussing Shipman's paper (17), Jenks gave the following formulation at reGecting the nth approximation of the von Kérméo flexibility constant. be ait be ait where jis a complex function of h whieh has the following values: 3 FB Mas 8:Soee 8:3ure B:tzee ition G:drvas 8:858s26 0:Poce ‘Toe dexbilty factors obtained from the preceding four formu laa are compared with those obtained from Equation 12) for lour values of h covering tae normal useful range, Tt will be observed that this simple approximation gives values closely com= pring with the more precise of the otber formulations ay arate ee Discussion Jony E. Broce." This is ona of the most importaat papers hich has ever been written on the eubject af piping. The eatire industry is indebted to the members of tbe Task Force and of the working group for the atudy and inventive effort that is repre- sented by the May 4, 1953, Report, and the preseot paper goes beyond this in presenting not only the results but also the rationale, Further, it should be remarked that the monner of presenting not only this paper but also the ‘Task Forse Report is io Keeping with the excellent tradition established in connec- tion with the development of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code nd earvid o0 ia the ASME-¢poosored American Staodnrd Code for Pressure Pipiog—a tradition of orderly de- velopment incorporating contributions by a2 many interested = Director of Research, Midwest Pining Company, St. Lous, Mo, Mem. ASME: persone as possible, with full and aympathetic study boing given toall miaorty viewpoiats, nad with active solicitation of all kiads of eriticiam. "A special word of praine is due to the author of this paper, for although the Tasle Force Report representa a joint fffort, itis evident that at lest in the preparation ef this excel= leat paper, the author has gone far bayand the eall of duty ‘The sriter'e further comments wil be given uniter the headings ofthe section titles ta which they pertain Flesibilly Paclore and Strest-Inensifcation Factors, The prve- tical piping engineer ia not ina position ta select érom all the theoretical and experimeatal data which have appeared on the subject of devibility factora und strese-intensifeation fnetors in pining componenta. The selection represented by the simpliged Formulas (2] through (6) in the tect of the paper and in Chart 1 of the Report will be of great convenience. While itis not un- Tikely that further research in years to come may augzeat modificn- tion of sone of these forraulas, it may be fuirly stated that they represent as good a selection as may presently be made and they are a great improvement over previous formulas ta sim plicity and convenience. It is particularly striking that, with proper interpretation of the quantities involved, Formule (5) fs vali for #0 many different piping components, and the author [5 to be thanked for having introduced this formula in his paper, reference (114). ‘The author mentions that the bené-flevibility factor given by Formula {1] oF [2] or other similar formulas was used only for neplane’” bending before Yigness (70) shawed that it also should be used for “owt-ot-piane” bending. Unfortunately, the sppearance of the Vigness paper was not suficent to change & ther fmly established practice. The Task Force Report does not emphasize the applicability of this factor to both types of bending, and many analysts cootinu to ignore the increased outat-plase Sesbility. Ta the writer's opinior, the Report thouldforeibly direct the reader's attention to this development. (One other remark i in order concerning stress-intensieation factors, The wecond paragraph of the section bested Strese- TotensiGeation Factore adequately defines these Factors for the purposes ofthe paper. Flowever, there are other types of stress fatensifeation factors epplying t0 pipe loadings other than thoee of iotereat io pipiog-Sexibility analysis. For example, the factor ARs — Daive ae aT ives the intensiécation of hoop stress due to internal presnure ‘hich takes place at the theost of pipe bend or elbow (118). Primary Analysis, ‘The author's exposition ia the Grst, of ‘which the writer is aware, that lata the sources of inacouracy fp Analytical evaluations of what he calla "shape factors” Tt is vitally important that these sources of error be recognized, for ‘atherwise the analyst and those to whom the anelysisis aubmithed ‘cannot have a meeting of minds. That is definitely not to say, however, that the corresponding errors should be eliminated’ or ‘outlawed; a good analysts on the lookout for approximations ‘which afford a considerable saving in eflortat theexenseof bute frnall and tolerable loes in accuracy. However, the approxima tion should not be hidden oF denied; instead, it should be deline- sted fully and its effects on the final results should be evaluated Substitution of square eorners for curved members ia only ane of the many ways that an actual piping conSguration may be “idealized” preliminary to the actual mathematical or model analysia. Frequently it is justiGed to neglect relatively slight changes indirection, amall offets, and soon, in order to simplify ‘the configuration actually subjected to analysis; however, the ‘axtent of such “idealization” should be made clear TF Numbers in parenthcees refer to the author's bibliography.‘The “squate-corner approximation” which ia widely used til has never been eveluated fully. Life is short and problems are Aificult so that this idealization will eontinue to be used, but tie tw be hoped that further developments will enable us to make reliable estimates of its effets on ealeulated reeulta and that still ‘ther developmente will provide a truly simple method of carrect- inga tquare-corner analysis 30 as to obtain reaults defictaly known to be within wlerable Yimite af weeurney. The writer is not particularly hopeful that these developments will be lorth- coming in a matter of justn few years, though. (One indication of how decaptive this area may be, may be eden from the author's statement that the equare-comer approsima- tion, leads to an overestimate of reactions, ..” This was an pinion which the writer shared until he was brought up ahort by statement of Dr. E.G. Baler: “A serious abjection (to the saquare-corner approximation) hes been Uhat aquare-carnet ertars are usually on the wrong side, that is, lexbility ie over-esti- mated." An attempt to reconcile the difference leads the writer to the conclusion that both statements are correct—if applied to the proper type of configuration. The writer's experience, and oreaumably algo that of the author, have been mainly with sta- tionary installations whereas that of Dr. Baker is with marine installations. A bend or elbow, as compared to a aguar® corner, has te opposing effects an Nexibility. On the one hand, the ICgemdn-Hovgoard-Vigness-Beskin, ete, flexibility factor causes the bend to be more dexible than the omer; on the other hand, the beod or elbow “ahort-eute™ the corner and geometrically offers a tifer path. In stationary intallations, the bend radiva ie eral! compared to a representa the straight-line distance between end points) that characterizes the cooiguration, and consequently the increased fleibility is of greater inBuence than is the ebort- cut effet. On the ather hand, marine installations ate likely to ‘be more confined and the bend radius i a larger fraction of the corresponding representative dimension ao thet the shortcut effect predominates Pie. 7 Comranisow or Sqoane-Conven ArrnoxtyTion ave Exact Souvron von Eauac Lea U-Bewe ‘That the square-corner approximation can give values of rence tive forces and moments which are sometimes #00 high and some- times tog low may be seca from Fig. 7 of this discustion, where the simplest possible cace is analysed—that of ao equal leg L- bend. (in preparing Fig. 7, valuca were ealoulated only for L/R = 0, 1, 4 9, and infinity,)' IF the tangenta are chort relative 10 the bend radius, the short-cut effect governe and the squace- corner approximation underestimates reactions. Far longer Privato commanteation, Apil 29,1083 tangents, homever, the incressed Roxibilty of the bend goveros snd the eartions are overestimated in the aquere-corner approxi- ration, Of course the eflet. depends upon the value of the bend Aexibitiy factor, ‘Another paint should he raised concerning the natute of the approximations implicit in certain analytical solutions. tm ftrictly tro-dimensional eases, there ia such e thing as s “neutral sie" and the resultant force system can be reduced to & single foree passing thravgh the Melastic centroid” of tbe configuration find lying along the neutrad axis. tn. eymmetrical cases neutral axis does indeed parallel the line-connecting anchors, hhut asthe author indieates, errora result from making this assump- tion in nonsymmetrical eases. In general three-dimensionsl cages, there i n0 such thing 254 neutral uxia, The eenultant force tystem consists of three moment componente dad three force om ‘ponenteall of which caa be represented in various ways, namely, ‘a wrench, 29/8 motor, as & combinatian of s line vector and 4 res vector, and 39 00 Only in very special cases does the wrench or motor becorae singular, reducing ta a Line veetor of force with the frve-moment vector Vanishing, end only i these case ie it possible to apeak of A neural asda,” Altempts to represent «. three-dimeasionsl jrovlem ia terme of a neutral axis imply doing some violeoce fo the fundamental principles of mechanies. Again, this is not o say that the attempts age not warranted if they euocesd in affording & great simplieation with but litle lose in accuracy, but it does not appear thet the question of how muck the a2. ‘curacy avers has been explored adequately ‘Fioslly, some inaccuracy is involved fa neglecting secondary ‘vending terms for bends and elbows. Yo almost all eases the cervor 8 sight and the simpiiieation great: however, for Hgbt configurations involving short~radius thin-wall elbows, Ube secondary terms may become of great importance. Ta faimess it should be mentioned that no great slficulty is involved in taking the secondary terms into account in using the Pipiog Handbook method of sralysia. “SalfsSpring ond Cold-Spring Bfects, The analyses of the Re- port and of the paper asoume shat there ie & single quantity ¢ Iwhich characterises the amount af cold apring in the aystesn. tn Certain actoal designs, however, different degrees of cold spring are-employed in two ot three of the co-ordinate dimensions. Teie not clear what computational procedure may be implied in such cases by the rules incorparatad in Uhe Report ‘The writer invites the suthar's further comments concerning the factor */; whieh appears in Formula (17].. The uae of this factor theoretically results in an overestimate of the initia) bot reaction and this fact, coupled with the extreme conservatism or ostrchlike attitude of many manufacturers of rotating of recipro- cating equipment, may result ia the rejaction of some designs ‘which actually are wlequate. It a recognized that the #/ limita 4on.on the amount of cold spring that can be counted for certain computational purposes hea been pact of the Cade for several ‘years, Does the Task Force have particular reason for reaffirming this sttitade? Toes the */, limitation reBect recognition of the fact that all Gomputations and analyses ere but imperfect way of predicting physical behaviar, and that nomatter how carefully cold-springing is calculated and performed, actual reactions ere ‘94 Ukely to be ceduced to leas than one third theic calculated walues without eold spring? 1ithieisa, the writer would euggest thatthe formals for 2, become ~(-2) Ba Author's referoace (78), 9. BODEk 3E, {ohichever is larger) so that cold spring in excess of 100 per cent might not be employed to reruce the theoretical value of below what ia reasonable ‘The statement ".. service failures are astociated with cyclic, rather than static stress application..." appearsin support of the ateesorrange concept. One may remark in passing that the service failures to which reference ia made are clearly those in piping and ‘connections and not in rotting or eeciprocating mechanical eqaip- rent where a mal- or nonfunction ia more usually the result of static overload, However, there are practical eases where static fuesa rather than stress range governs the integrity ofthe piping itse. In-very “tight” configurations composed of very thio-wall piping and compenants, loeal crippling may govern. ‘The phe- homenon is one of instability rather than of etrength and it i recognised that the Code eannot include rules fer such exceptional Allnwoble Sirezy Range. The writer believes that the stress range concept is useful and generally valid und ia pleosd to see it recognized by the proposed rules of the Task Force Report However, he fesls that there should be leeway for designer and user if conditions eal fori to agree upon other criteria appro print to the particular situation involved. ‘Thelaat paragraph of thinzection of the paper should not eseape atiention and the Code rules themselves should contain. an Admonitory remark concerning the effect of corrsion Allocable Reactions. The weiter would like to commend the suthor’s evaluation of the liek of roalim reflected inthe limits tions os alloweble piping resctiona presently eatablihed by manu- factarers af the equipment to which the piping attaches and of the economies which would result from an upwerd revision of suck limitations. The writer understands that this is a question under eonsideration hy a group of users of major rotating equity What Systema Require Analysis? [t would be mest belpil if the proponents of Formula (23] would present an evaluaticn of the applicability and accuracy of this formula and if others were ta contribute to the subject. Formulas like this constitote, in effect, greatly simplified methods of analysis which, i their range fof validity could be assessed, would be very useful for ranging shots and highly approximate analysis, However, the writer fides with the majority opinion of the Task Fore in not wishing to raise this oF Spproximate formula to the dignity of 8 criterion for mandatory requirement for analysis. Conclusion. The weiter has submitted comments on the May 4, 1958, Report directly ta the Task Force (and it should be hoped that sll persons haviag an interest in the problem of piping fexi- bility will aimilarly contsiuute their commenta). One point which was developed in these commenta deserves mention here. The Code should deGitely provide for altersate procedures of intar~ pretation in certain exceptional casea where sl nterested parties ‘ean agree upoa aa ansirer based upon sound engiacering principles ‘even if this implies deviating from a strict and literal applica of the Code rules. Otherwise, legal or contract technicalities, ‘enforced by inspectors powerless ta make exceptions, may require Uuneeonomical design an F.M. Kasance.™” Referring to the Preamble 617 of the Pro- posed Rules for Chapter 3, Section 6, of the Cade for Pressure Piping, and algo to the fourth and ith paragraphs under Sell Spring’ and Cold-Spring Effects of the present. paper, dealing with the relavation of the first hot cycle of a piping system, the following evramenta are offered: "Stall Engineer, Burta and Rog, Ine., New York. N.Y ‘The Grst stress cycle indicates that the atrese exceeded the elastic limit in one oF more areas and must have produced local- ined deformation that later showed up as self-pring and stress ‘shen the line was allowed to becoine col, This averstres iv not desirable and neither is the change of grain steacture that will ta place in these deformed areas. This changed grain structure will hives higher ereep rate Irom the reat of tha pipe where the train structure wes not ralieally altered by overstress "In ther words, any piping tyatein that shoves 4 rapid relaxation (other than the normal creep tharacteriatic (or the designed tres) has been weakened ia some area br areas and ite strength ig no longer certain, This, the writer suumits, i not a good approech to the design of high-temperature piping ‘The writer believes that it has been fairly well established toat this loclized deformation does not take place in the contilever portions af the piping aystem (except pomibly for a very small distance adjacent to bends and elbows whan these contain aver- trea), and dat this relueing Ueformation occurs in the beads and elbows of the piping ayatem with the present approach to Gesign. For most losd-resiating members any permanent deformation for 3et that accompanies atresses below the yield point of tbe rater does not damage the members seriously. Tei the per= ‘manent delormation that occurs at the yield point that is dane eros ‘The prablem should be tackled at its source, bends, andelbaw, and something whould be done at tiese points. The writer leo believes it ta be incorreet for the proposed Cade section to accept local overstresa in any part of a piping syater. Reinforcement ‘would be added in any other place where it was known that high local sizess was presont. Why nat at bends and elbows? tt sppears thet the atressintensifcation factor for bends and elbows equites serious reevaluation and revision Upward. ‘tia felt that the proposed Code eection should requite higher ‘schedule thickness for bends and elbows (xlso possibly tees) than the required pipe thickness eo a8 to eliminate or minimize local Aeformation caused by exceeding the elastic limit. ‘Such a requirement also wil aid the more ecanomil design of piping eystems. At present 400 high price ia being paid for the false feaibUity of bends and elbows by am stressintenafication Factor thet not enly eaneels out any apparent gain but eauses an overdesign of the Whole piping system in order to peevent the stressintensifcaton factor from: carrying the stress in the elbows ‘over the allowable stress limit. Thickening the elbows will tend to eliminete what is generally a minor source of feibility of the piping system, but anil being the stress characteriatc into line Sith the rest of the piping design. Relaxation, ifitahould occur, should be through slow crcep and uailormly relative through the ‘various stressed portion® of the piping system H.C.E. Meren.” To the author should go the thanke of the Society and industry in geoeral for his most excellent paper. » “Many years ago the sailer discovered tat, when he became involved inthe subjectof stresses in ining aa the result of thermal ‘expansion he was entering a labyrinth from which he has not been ble to extricate himself to this day. ‘That the subject is & most complex one is attested by the long Bibliography accompanying the paper, and some of the names that appear in tha Bibliography are onea thetarlllongbe remem- bered. Such men as Prof, Wiliam Bavgaara, Mr. Sabin Crocker, Mr-D.B.Rossheim, Mr. A. T..C. Markl, and many, many others "Analysis Of Basis Problems of High Temperature Cree." by 0.D, Sharby 008 J. E. Dorn ve'Suotaliugieal Aspecta of Strongth at Tigh Temperature.” by. G.¥. Smith ‘" Gitbs ¥ Cox, tne, Now York, N.Y.have doe much to throw lighton the subject and provide meant to caleulate the stresses and reactices which may be encountered in service as a result of the expansion of piping. ‘The mere dificuties involved in computing the physical char- actersties of elaborate piping aystems are in themselves enor. mous, and we owe an everlasting debt of gratitude to Professor Hovguard for the basic equations he developed, (On the surface it would appear that once we had methods for determining the stresses, all thet would be necessary would he to set sacsfuctory limits on such stresses for vatious conditions, land that would be the end of the matter. However, io a paper by Mr. D. B. Rossheim and Mr. A. R. C, Markl in July, 1940, the caoception of stress range came iato prominence. ‘When the writer wes first asked to sccept membership on the ‘Subcommittee oa Flexibility, he wassil very much of the opinion that, by determining the stares as accurataly a8 practicable and establishing limits for these atrestes, all would be well, us this method bad given satisfactory results in the many Naval vessels where they were applied. But then the strestrange concept began to enter the picture sod, while it took the writer some time lo get even a hazy view of the importance of this conception, it became a part of the pr pored revision to the Code as the result of two very forwitous circumstances, ‘The writes waa requited to spend considerable time in Eyrope a year ago, but bulre lesving asked « emall group ta work on 8 draft of the proposed revision. This group coasiated of Moses. Markl, Spielvogel, Blair, sad Wallstrom, and the ater cannot refrain (rom stating ovee more bis appreciation to these mea for the wonderful work they did in coming up with a proposed draft, which, atar the committee asa whole met, was ubmitted tothe Executive Committee as a report, and har Ween circulated to the meiabership, ‘The ezcond frtuitous circumstance is that or the past year the writer has been gomewhat "under the weather” which perbepstar riven him mare time to think, and aa e result has come to accept the concept of the atress range not merely with some celustance bout enthusiastically as a stroke of genius. Te order to come to this conclusion, he had to develop a certain few mental images which would make it clear what was involved in using the etrese-range concept ‘The Sret point was thatin Professor Hovguard’s work he states that where a pipe is ineveased in length between two anchorage points asthe result of temperature, the streates are substantially the eae as would occur if the enchorage poinla were moved mechanically by an extarnal force which produced a displacement, equal to the increase in length due to temperature, except for dif: ferences due to changes in moduli of elasticity ‘The second poist was that based on the foregoing statement i we wore to erect piping aystem cold with 100 per cent cold spring in all directions, we could compute the stresses in the 201d condition and when this eyatem was heated up to the fll temperature, the stress {a the hot condition would be zero, On the other hand, if the system were erected with zero cold pring, the stresses wuld be equal to those accurring in the cold condition with 100 pet cent cold spring except that they would be opposite in sign and that they would be somewhat less ‘because of the differences in moduli cf elasticity ‘Next, whon establishing limite of areas fer the stresses as com- puted for the cold condition with 100 per cent cold epring, the Steess which ena occur under any future conditions is limited, ‘whether cold spring ie used or not, We bave the phenomena of ael-apring snd relaxation to coo- sider, aad while these factors will not alfect the stress range to which tbe pipe will be subjected, they will vend to relieve the ‘maximum etreces in either the bat oF cold condition, a Thus the use of cold spring in eo far as ares ia conceraed be- comes of ite impartance, But is of importance where the reac- tions and moments ab attachments to equipment are eancemed, “The proposed revision tthe Code includes the necessary formulas fr dealing with these reactions Ta considering this complex subject, the committee has hept stcongly in mind thre fundamental principles (6) Any requirements in a Code must be kept a2 simple as peatble since 4 Code isnot textbook, but an attempt i extab- Teh sgyponts aa co wheo danger might exist. (0) The greatest cree of regulations ie that, they regulate too much and, by #0 doing, ramp the Ireedom of the designer, and sometimes even result in frele designs being developed to Sreumvent unreasonable replations (@) Sie the whole subject sb exceedingly complex, the deter- mination, as othe method tobe weed tor making analyaee and a3 to when wach computations are required, sbould be Tet in the hand ofthe designera who, onthe atber hand, sould be prepared to provide necesary ata, fend when a serious eed for same is Indicate, Ta conclsio, the writer withes to thank tbe eutbor and all he sesber ofthe committee for what they bave accompliabed and fate that it ia hi Belief that the sooner this proposed Code ean be adopted, the Bear i wl be for industry “There are many comment Chat ail have to be digested butit ‘aoped tat before long the committee can meet again and cena fp the loos en. L. Pact. The author's paper and the reporte of the Task Force are valuable contributions to a better understanding and clarifeation of the many problems invalved in the growing Geld of pipestress analysis Thi discussion is conceraed only with the brief statements tiven by the author on approximate assumptions. Since detailed, Correct pipa-ctrane calculations ate very time-consuming, 6 large volume of work is dene by using approximate assumptions ‘Therefore a more delailed comment on some of these assump tions seems worth while. ‘While the author's statements hold for the majority of pipe. stress probleme, sme exceptions may obour. Tegarding the sub stitution of square corners for curved members, there ere pipe bends having large Yacii (R= SD, of larger), and heavy wall Uhicknesses, whose virtual longths ace smaller Chan those of the substituting square corners, ‘This Will the ease when the virtual bend length, L’ ~ 1.871 KR ig less than the length of the square T= 28, oF forall bends, whose Nexibilty (actors are less than K = 1278 2 “i ‘While there are few beads with auch low K-values, their existence, nevertheless, thould be nated. Substitution of equare corsers for fuch bends ill tend to "loosen up" rather than “tighten” the Pie ‘Whether the substitution of quare corners for bends and elbows will result in an over or underestimate of the stceses is dificult to predict. Besides the flexibility eetor and stros-intensifeation factor, the proportion of curved member lengths to total pipe length, and the location of the curves members with respect to the neues! avis (Uhrust ling) will also affect che end results. The fnestal ais iteelt may ehft considerably when the square-corner substitution is made, thus changing the moment arme as well as the forees, A shift of the point of maximum tres for the ‘0 sesumptions also may result, Ob Refinery Divison, Arthur . MeKee and Go bio. Assoe Mem. ASME, Cloveand,2 Regarding the agcumption that the neutral ass parallels the Fine connecting the anchors, this holds only for symmetry sith respeet to a line. For pipes shich are symmetrical with respect to o point (such ax a aymmetrical Z-shape), this assumption ‘would place the neutral axis as passing through the anchors. But sven « position of the neutral axis would result in zevo- bending moments and xero-bending atress at the anchors, which obviously is incoreect ©. 5. L, Rowiwsow. The stras range with emphasis on the anticipated cycling is cortainly of greater physialsignifeance than the maximum combined stres It is better aot to combine (Gs we have been doing) strest components like the pressure longitudinal stress and the weightload stress with the thermal- expansion stress which may be ralaved by yielding or by cold pring. The pressure longitudinal stress may be considered fully by conservative selction of pipe-wall thickzess to arcommmedate the pressure circunuereatial stress, With shipbosrd piping the weightload stress are negligible because numerous supports are Used to limit away and vibration Tealso may be pointed out that the alress-range concept it wse- ful where the movement is not entirely thermal. Such an exam ple gecursin shipboard piping. Ia pipe extends over consider- bie length of the vessel, ite Restoiity may be inereased to accom modate hull strnine. Both thia hull-moverunt etress and the thermal-expansion stress will be reduced by any plastie traia in the piping, and what are most serious about these slreses are their periodicities, However, it ia undesirable to etate: "Formal calculations oF ‘model ita shall be required only where reaconabie doubt exists a3 to the adequate Saxibility ofa system.” This etatemen? mm plies that the approvimate thermab-exponsion streees are readily abservable, Such is frequently notwo.. Purthermore, with highee temperature (above, say, 800 F) detailed thermalatresstimates sre proBtable not only because of the larger thermal movements ‘but alto because of the greater cost of the alloy piping and ofits fabriestiog, With the current lessening of busivess activity more, ‘and not le, attention could be directed to thermal-steas detail ‘Our ASA Code mny be too conservative but this should be or- rected by inereasing the allowahte ares or stress-range values Eawesr L, Rovinsox. The writer wishes to emphasize the Importance of recognizing and trying to evaluate and limit the meximam accumulated total strain in any Worst location. ‘The paper isn excellent exposition ofthe proposed new section fon Hewbility of the Code for Preswure Piping. Certainly itis highly desirable te take cognizance of the stress range and pre- seribe a limitation for i Certainly the initial tress does relax snd tands to snneal away. But, by this very proces, it does add ta accumulated creep, Creep is not uniform but it tends to be concentrated in the moat highly ateased elbows or runs of pipe while the lower streseed lengths provide follow-up elasticity to multiply creep in critical regions. Tt would be desiable to try to evaluste the situation in ‘these places and peesribe suitable Limits, "The write ie somewhat los than satisfied with the comparisons embodied in the algobraic formulations given in the Appendix > the report of the Task Force. ‘These formulations reynesent only fone eet of conditions whereas it would seem appropriate to give teognisance to at lest four eels of conditions: (a) hot condition, {@) cold condition; (c) range of street or steniny (4) maximum tote osal creep. Engineer. Cente Teshnical Department, Shipbuiltg Division Bethlehem Steel Company. Quiney, Masa. Mem. ASME. ™ Siructural Engioeet. Turbine Division, General Electric Com. pany, Schenectady: NY." Fellow ASME, ‘The Task Force eeported that the amount of relaxation is un- known and esnnot he judged relinhly. If this were eompletsly 4, Whe writer Would point out that this uncertainty would cane stitute a very good reason for taking steps Co sssure complete Freedom from stres in the hiot condition in order to minimize local ereep due to relaxation. However, tse writer would point ‘out that either the relaxation properties of piping, muterials are well known or may Ue readily determined by well-known rehaca- tion creep tests, If the proposed new section is to make no prom vision for estimeting numerically the relaxation characteratce Uf piping system, the writer recommends that it ought to give Uefiite encoseagement to the elimination ofall need for relava~ ‘on during the early periods of operation by requiring installation to be sich aa will assure it to be feee from stresa when bol. D.B, Rossuets! ano E. F. Suearren” The author ia ta be congratulated for the broadly comprehensive diacussion he bas presented, which more than fullls the purpose of the paper in explaining the background of the Tusk Porce Report. Ip this paper the asthor has documented carefully the accepted facts, and his wellthoughtost conclusions are largely incontestable ‘sithin the confines of present-day knowledge. Therafere this sigeussion will atempt to do na more than cali atention toa few points on which we fel further progress is mostly ta be desited ‘We nate that in describing the General Process of Solution, ‘wherein the author has listed significant physica préperties of the ‘ie material, he has omitted such propertien aa tenaile strength and various measures of ductility, g2 Wall as impact values and transition temperature. While we do not have any specif pro- posals to offer at thia time we shout like to suggeet that irecture fa pipe materials often may be dependent upor.propertiea which ft present are lorgeiy nassessed, and chat a fully depesdable design basis avaits further fundamental research in the mecha: nism of fracture made undar the co-operation of engineets and physical metallurgists, ‘Under the abject Flexibility Factor, we should like to call attention to what we believe io a noteworthy omission ia not iacussing the work of Clark and Reiesner (authors reference 107), who auecceded in obtaining an asymplatic solution of the

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