2009-01-0539

Energy-Efficient Air Conditioning Systems

Utilizing Pneumatic Variable Compressors

Mingyu Wang, Mark J. Zima and Prasad S. Kadle

Delphi Corporation

Copyright © 2009 SAE International

ABSTRACT which is installed in the refrigerant line and sensitive to

Air Conditioning systems with reheat reduction based for
energy efficiency have generally been implemented with
either electronic variable compressors through active
stroke control or with fixed displacement compressors
through modifying the cycling set point. The present
work demonstrates a unique concept of achieving
energy efficiency via cycling a pneumatic variable
compressor at elevated set points. The energy efficiency
of such a system approaches that of an electronic
variable but significantly higher than that of a fixed
displacement compressor system. The cost of the
system, on the other hand, is substantially lower than
that of an electronic compressor. Secondary benefits
include a softer start than with a fixed compressor and a
considerably simpler control scheme than that required
by an electronic variable compressor.
INTRODUCTION
As a capacity control method, cycling of fixed
displacement compressors has been used since the
beginning of mobile air conditioning systems. Under
moderate or low thermal load conditions, excess
capacity of the air conditioning system designed for soak
and cool-down now poses a problem of excess: the air
cooled by the evaporator of the air conditioning system
is so low in temperature that the condensate from the air
stream becomes iced and blocks further airflow to be
discharged to the passenger compartment. The
preferred method for controlling the excess capacity is to
turn the compressor momentarily off by using a switch
the low side refrigerant pressure of the AC system.
When the air temperature is close to freezing and the
low side refrigerant pressure decreases to a trigger
point, the switch disconnects the power supply to the
compressor clutch to stop the compressor. When the air
stream temperature subsequently increases and the
refrigerant pressure rises to a second pressure setting,
the compressor switch reconnects the clutch to a power
supply and the compressor resumes operation. This
method of operation continues to be used today due to
the simplicity and low cost.
With the introduction of the microprocessor into the
automotive industry, capacity control for the fixed
displacement compressor gained a more precise and
direct method. The temperature of the exit air from the
evaporator is measured with a thermistor directly and
communicated to a microprocessor either in the engine
control module or in the air conditioning control head.
The microprocessor compares the measured
temperature with a pre-set control band, similar to a
thermostat in the home air conditioning system, and
makes the decision whether to turn on or off the
compressor. For this compressor cycling scheme,
typically there is a temperature set point and a
hysteresis band. The temperature set point determines
the level of temperature control, which is typically 1 to 2
degrees Celsius above the water freeze point. The
hysteresis band typically is 1.5 degrees Celsius, and is
designed to limit the frequency of the compressor
cycling and the temperature variations at the discharge
outlets.

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The concepts of set point and hysteresis band also exist
in the cycling pressure switch in the form of a low
pressure set point for compressor disengagement and a
second, higher pressure set point for compressor re-
engagement. The difference between the two pressure
set points is equivalent to the hysteresis band in the
thermistor control scheme.
The considerations for designing the hysteresis band
include the protection of the compressor clutch and the
thermal comfort variation as perceived by the
passengers. Too narrow of a hysteresis band causes
the compressor to cycle at a higher frequency which
may cause the clutch to wear out prematurely. Too wide
a hysteresis band can lead to excessive temperature
variations at the discharge outlets which can be an
annoyance to the passengers in the car.
Recently, the cycling of the compressor gained a new
application beyond the simple capacity control for freeze
protection. With rising gasoline price and increased
environmental concerns, more energy efficient air
conditioning systems are being demanded by the vehicle
manufacturers to help increase the overall fuel economy
of vehicles. One popular method of increasing the
energy efficiency of an AC system is to reduce the
reheating of cooled air to a higher temperature to meet
the discharge temperature requirement in the passenger
compartment, either directly commanded by the
passenger, which is the case with manually controlled
air conditioning systems, or indirectly through the use of
an automatic climate system.
Air Temperature
Breath Temperature
Discharge Target
Evaporator Air Out
Temperature
Reheat
Set Point for Freeze Protection
Time
Fig. 1 Fixed Displacement Compressor Cycling
The reheat of air conditioned air to a higher discharge
temperature (Figure 1) is typical in the automotive
industry and has a long history - practically since the
introduction of the air conditioning systems into
automobiles. The main reason is that advanced
compressor control method was not available beyond
the simple pressure switch cycling control for freeze
protection. As a result, there are two fixed air
temperature levels available to an air conditioning
system: one temperature is provided by the refrigeration
system which is maintained at slightly above the water
freeze point and the second temperature is provided by
the engine coolant. By taking a portion of the cooled air
from the evaporator of the refrigeration system and
feeding it through the heater supplied with engine
coolant, the air temperature can be increased and
subsequently remixed with the remaining stream of air
from the evaporator to achieve any temperature
bracketed by the water freeze temperature and the
engine coolant temperature. The proportioning of air
through the heater is accomplished by a device in the
HVAC module known as the “mix door”.
This method of temperature control through the mixing
of cooled air and reheated air provides a system that is
precise and responsive. The inefficiency of such a
system in energy use is only highlighted recently as
energy conservation and environmental protection
became a new priority.
To reduce the reheat and, therefore, compressor energy
consumption, the compressor is cycled to an elevated
set point above that of the water freeze point. The
general principle is to cool the air only as low as needed
to meet the discharge temperature requirement. If the
discharge temperature target is 10 degrees Celsius,
there is no need to cool the air down to 2 degrees
Celsius only to reheat it back up to 10 degrees Celsius.
The compressor can be operated to the elevated
temperature set point of 10 degrees Celsius with the air
directly discharged to the passenger compartment
without reheating. Of course, there is an upper limit as to
how high one can raise the set point. Considerations
must be given to humidity comfort in the passenger
compartment and fogging risk at the windshield. A fixed
level of dehumidification must be maintained to provide
a comfortable and safe driving environment in the
vehicle. Typically, energy efficiency AC systems limit the
elevated temperature set point to around 10 degrees
Celsius.
An alternative to cycling the fixed displacement
compressors at an elevated set point for reheat
reduction is to use the more sophisticated electronic
variable compressors, whose control valve is capable of
operating at any set point through varying the command
current to the valve. Just as before, the compressor
operates at a reduced displacement to meet an elevated
temperature set point that is determined by the
discharge temperature target, humidity comfort, and
fogging risk at the windshield.
Air Temperature
Breath Temperature
Compressor Control Set Point Is
Equal to Discharge Target
Discharge Target
Freeze Control Set Point
Time
Fig. 2 Series Reheat Reduction with Electronic Variable
Compressors
Figure 2 shows a typical discharge temperature history
when the reheat reduction is achieved with an electronic
variable compressor. As the discharge temperature
change is achieved through active displacement control
without cycling the compressor, the discharge
temperature is distinctly smooth and lack of variation.
CYCLING OF PNEUMATIC VARIABLE
COMPRESSOR FOR SERIES REHEAT
REDUCTION
The pneumatic variable compressors (Figure 3) are
designed to control the capacity of the compressor
through varying the stroke of the compressor pistons [1].
Within a pneumatic variable compressor, the case
pressure is varied between the suction pressure and the
discharge pressure of the compressor by way of a 3-port
valve. The case pressure works against the discharge
pressure to modulate the stroke of the piston, thereby
controlling the capacity of the compressor. Through the
regulation of the compressor displacement, the suction
pressure of the compressor is controlled to a near
constant under various operating conditions which
keeps the condensate on the evaporator from freezing.
Fig. 3 Pneumatic Variable Displacement Compressor
Air Temperature
Breath Temperature
Evaporator Air Out
Temperature
Discharge Target
Reheat
Set Point for Freeze Protection
Time
Fig. 4 Discharge Temperature by Mixing With Pneumatic
Variable Compressor under Freeze Control
By design, a pneumatic variable compressor intrinsically
controls to prevent evaporator freeze. The air
temperature coming out of the evaporator is maintained
slightly above the freeze point of water. The discharge
temperature control is achieved using the same method
of series reheating and mix door operation. Figure 4
shows a typical temperature control profile for an air
conditioning system with a pneumatic compressor.
The pneumatic variable compressor is effective in that it
eliminates the needs to cycle the compressor in order to
prevent evaporator freeze. Higher energy efficiency than
cycling fixed displacement compressor is achieved due
to the steadier and continuous operation of the
compressor [2]. However, under the new context of
energy efficiency, the pneumatic compressor’s internal
control is incapable of regulating to a different control set
point to allow series reheat reduction. The additional
system efficiency associated with series reheat
reduction appears to be out of reach for pneumatic
variable compressors.
It is in this context that the Cycling Pneumatic Compressor ready to discharge into the passenger compartment to
concept was proposed. With this unconventional and maintain comfort.
counter-intuitive method of operating the pneumatic
variable compressors [1, 2], higher energy efficiency AC OSA
Temp Door
operation can be achieved in several regards. First of all, Blower Evaporator

for AC operations requiring freeze point control, either due

to defogging or defrosting, continuous operation of the
pneumatic compressor can be maintained under reduced
v
compressor displacement, which delivers higher energy
AI Door
efficiency than the cycling fixed displacement
compressors. As the discharge temperature target
increases for reheat reduction, the compressor will still
Recirc
operate continuously for certain ambient conditions due to Heater

the control properties of the pneumatic valve. For other

ambient conditions, it is possible that a combination of
Fig. 5 Temperature Control in HVAC Module
stroke reduction and lower frequency cycling work
together to provide the elevated discharge temperature. It
HEATER OUTFLOW AIR TEMPERATURE
is commonly understood that cycling reduces the COP of
CALCULATION
the AC system [2, 3, 4, 5]. Consequently, higher energy
efficiency operation is achieved than cycling the fixed
Assuming that the coolant temperature is known through
displacement compressor alone.
the vehicle communication bus, and the evaporator air
outflow temperature is measured by a thermistor, the
Not intrinsic to cycling the pneumatic compressor, the
outflow air temperature from the heater can be
cycling characteristics can be managed to decrease the
determined by the heater effectiveness map.
cycling frequency so as not to affect compressor
reliability on the one hand, and to achieve higher energy
The heater effectiveness is the ratio of the air
efficiency on the other.
temperature rise through the heater over the maximum
temperature difference available to the heater, as given
CYCLING MANAGEMENT FOR THE PNEUMATIC in Equation (1):
VARIABLE COMPRESSORS
Thtr − Tevp
Whereas it is straight forward to cycle the pneumatic ε= (1)
variable compressor for reheat reduction and higher Tclt − Tevp
energy efficiency, the management of the cycling
characteristics to achieve enhanced energy efficiency
For a particular heater, the effectiveness is a function of
and compressor reliability is a bit more intricate. Herein
the air flow rate and the coolant flow rate. Equation (2)
we present a method that is based on understanding the
describes this relationship:
human comfort impact of the discharge temperature
ε = F (m& air , m& clt )
variations and the physical mechanism of the discharge
(2)
temperature variations.

Figure 5 shows the working of the HVAC module. The
blower draws either fresh air from the outside of the
vehicle or recirculated air from the inside of the
passenger compartment depending on the position of
the air inlet door. Regardless of the source, the blower
sends the air through the evaporator of the refrigeration
system to be cooled to a lower temperature, typically
slightly above the freeze point of water for basic
systems, or elevated temperature for energy efficient
systems.
The air coming out of the evaporator is split into two
streams. One part of the airflow goes through a heater
where it is warmed up by the engine coolant. The
second part bypasses the heater. After the heater, the
two streams of air are combined in a mixing chamber
From Equations (1) and (2), the outflow air temperature
from the heater can be determined by way of equation
(3),
Thtr = ε (Tclt − Tevp ) + Tevp (3)
BULK DISCHARGE TEMPERATURE
The bulk discharge temperature from the HVAC module
can be determined by mixing the two streams of air, that
which goes through the heater and that which bypasses
the heater. The percentage of the heater airflow is
designated by a fractional flow function f (ω ) , where ω
is the mixing door position spanning the range of Full
Cold (0%) to Full Hot (100%). The formula for
calculating the bulk discharge temperature is given in
Equation (4),

Tdis = [1 − f (ω )]Tevp + f (ω )Thtr (4)

Simplification of Equation (4) gives,

Air Temperature
Discharge

Tdis = [1 − f (ω )ε ]Tevp + f (ω )εTclt (5) Temperature

Evaporator Air Out

DISCHARGE TEMPERATURE VARIATION DUE TO Temperature δ T evp δ T dis
CYCLING
Set Point for Freeze Protection Discharge Target
During cycling of the compressor, the air temperature
out of the evaporator varies cyclically according to the
cycling of the compressor. With the AC running in freeze
Time
control mode, the temperature variation of the outflow air
from the evaporator is suppressed by passing through
the heater. In the energy efficient mode of operation Fig. 6 Discharge Temperature Variation Is At Maximum
When Mix Door Is At Full Cold
where the compressor cycles at an elevated set point,
the air is often directly discharged to the passenger
compartment, thus the air temperature variation at the
evaporator is directly passed into the passenger
compartment which is perceivable by the passengers.
Discharge
Air Temperature

Temperature δ T dis
The relationship between the air temperature variation at
the evaporator outflow and the variation of the bulk
Discharge Target
discharge can be obtained by the differential analysis of

Reheat
Equation (5). Taking the difference of both sides of Evaporator Air Out
Equation (5), we derive, Temperature δ T evp

δTdis = [1 − f (ω )ε ]δTevp (6) Set Point for Freeze Protection

From Equation (6), it can be seen that the bulk Time

discharge temperature variation is greatest when the
temperature door position is at Full Cold where the Fig. 7 Discharge Temperature Variation Is At Minimum
heater fractional flow is zero,
OPTIMIZED CYCLING FOR CONSTANT
f (ω ) = 0 (7) TEMPERATURE VARIATION AT DISCHARGE
OUTLETS
At this position, the temperature variation of the bulk
discharge is directly equal to the temperature variation at Based on the prior analysis of the relationship between
the evaporator caused by compressor cycling: the temperature variation of the outflow of the
evaporator and of the bulk discharge temperature, the
δTdis = δTevp (8) first method of cycling optimization attempts to maintain
a constant discharge temperature variation at the
discharge outlets through a prescribed schedule of
This equality of temperature variations is shown in Figure temperature hysteresis band at the evaporator for the
6. cycling of compressors as is given in Equation (10),

On the other hand, when the entire air stream goes

δTdis
through the heater, the discharge temperature variation δTevp ,hys =
will be at a minimum, as is shown in Figure 7. Equation [1 − f (ω )ε ] (10 )

(9) represents this minimum analytically.

As is shown in Figure 8, under this hysteresis band
δTdis = [1 − ε ]δTevp (9 ) schedule, the band is at its narrowest when the air mix
door is at the Full Cold position, where the temperature
band for the cycling of the compressor is identical to the
temperature variation allowed at the discharge outlets.
When the air mix door is at any other position, the
hysteresis band will be allowed to widen according to
Equation (10), resulting in more cycle-off time for the
compressor with the associated benefit of increased
energy efficiency for operating the compressor.
By definition, the perceived temperature variation at the
discharge outlet is constant across the entire operating
range of the mix door positions.
Evap Air Out Temp Hysteresis Band
δ T dis
0 100%
Mix Door Position
Fig. 8 Evaporator Air-Out Hysteresis Band
Allowed Discharge Variation δTdis
0 25 C
Fig. 9 Discharge Temperature Variation Allowed To
Change
OPTIMIZED CYCLING FOR CONSTANT CABIN
THERMAL COMFORT
The second optimization method allows the bulk
discharge temperature variation at the outlets to be
scheduled according to the discharge temperature itself,
as is showed in Figure 9. This discharge temperature
variation schedule is based on the fundamental
understanding of human thermal comfort sensitivity to
temperature variations. It is well known through human
comfort engineering that passengers are sensitive to
discharge temperature variations when the air is
discharged at a temperature that is close to 25 degrees
Celsius. As the conditioned air is discharged at a much
higher or much lower temperature, the ability to discern
temperature variations decreases. The essence of the
present method is the maintenance of a constant human
comfort in the presence of discharge temperature
variations.
Equation (11) takes the specification of discharge
temperature variation from Figure 9 and translates it into
a schedule for the evaporator air out temperature
hysteresis band for the cycling of the compressor. Figure
10 demonstrates the hysteresis band as a function of the
discharge temperature and air mix door position.
δTdis (Tdis )
δTevp, hys =
[1 − f (ω )ε ] (11)
Evap Air Out Temp Hysteresis Band
δ T dis (T dis = 2C or 60C)
δ T dis (T dis =25C)
0 100%
Mix Door Position
Fig. 10 Hysteresis Band Defined by Human Thermal
Comfort Sensitivity
The present method of cycling control allows higher
energy efficiency operation by allowing greater
Discharge Temperature temperature variations in the insensitive zone of human
thermal comfort to the discharge temperatures, such as
close to the Full Cold or Full Hot range of the discharge
temperatures. For discharge temperature zones where
human thermal comfort is sensitive, the discharge
temperature variation is restricted properly.
SERIES REHEAT REDUCTION ON MANUAL AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS WITH CYCLING
PNEUMATIC COMPRESSOR
To properly define Series Reheat Reduction
methodology for the manual air conditioning systems, let
us first define the envelope of the upper limit of the
Evaporator Air Out Temperature (EOAT) at various
ambient temperatures that will meet the cooling,
humidity and safety requirements.
The target EOAT temperature is determined as a temperature will be slightly warmer by the duct
function of the current ambient temperature. Figure 11 temperature rise. If, on the other hand, the knob is set at
shows one such definition. The top flat portion of the the EOAT discharge temperature, which varies
curve is determined by the humidity comfort requirement according to the ambient temperature and is defined in
of 45% relative humidity for a comfortable cabin at 24 Figure 11, the compressor cycling point will be set to the
degrees Celsius. The part of the curve to the right is EOAT temperature and the air passing through the
defined by the cooling capacity requirement to maintain evaporator will be directly discharged to the outlets. The
the cabin at a comfortable temperature when the air mix door will be positioned at the full cold position
ambient temperature is high. The part to the left is inside the HVAC module.
determined by windshield fogging when the ambient
temperature is low leading to reduced windshield glass For the temperature knob positions between the FC and
temperature. The lowest evaporator air out temperature EOAT, the compressor cycling set point is obtained by
is obtained when the compressor is operating to freeze interpolating between Tfrz and the EOAT temperature,
control. This is the case either when the air conditioning with the knob position as the independent variable. In
system is working to provide full cooling capacity at high this range of operation, the air mix door will be
ambient temperature, or to provide full dehumidification maintained at the full cold position throughout.
capacity at mid to low ambient temperatures.
Designating the knob position with the variable P, which
Acceptable Elevated Evaporator Out Air Temperature takes the value of 0~100%, with 0% being FC and 100%
being FH, and assuming ideal (straight-line) linearity, the
12

EOAT
requested discharge temperature corresponding to any
Evaporator Air Out Temperature (Deg. C)

10 knob position can be given as,

Tdis = FC + P(FH − FC )
8
EOAT (12)
6

4
Ignoring the duct temperature rise for the moment, the
2
T
frz knob position requesting a discharge temperature equal
to the highest allowable Evaporator Out target
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
temperature EOAT given an ambient temperature is
Ambient Temperature (Deg. C) given by,

Fig. 11 Target EOAT Temperature for Series Reheat EOAT − FC

Reduction PEAOT = 100 (13)
FH − FC

For the following range of the temperature knob

positions,

PEOAT > P > 0 (14)

the compressor cycling set point is given by,

EOAT − FC
Tset = ⋅ P + FC (15)
PEAOT
FC FH
For the temperature knob positions between EOAT and
FH, the air mix door position is moved away from the
Full Cold position (0%) to get a warmer discharge
temperature than EOAT. For the same range of
Fig. 12 Manual Temperature Knob with Integrated temperature knob positions, the compressor cycling set
Series Reheat Reduction
point is maintained at the maximum elevation of EOAT,
as depicted in Figure 11. With the air mix door away
The manual AC system with Series Reheat Reduction
from the 0% position, a stream of air will be passed
relies on how the compressor operates at two key points
through the heater and remixed with the remaining
of the manual temperature control knob as highlighted in
bypassing stream. Depending on the temperature knob
Figure 12. At the FC point, the compressor will operate
position, the air mix door will be correspondingly
to freeze control set point, i.e., Tfrz, and the discharge
positioned to provide the requested discharge
temperature.
For the range of knob positions given by,
100% >= P > PEAOT (16)
the expected air mix door position in the module with
perfect linearity can be calculated by the following
equation,
P − PEOAT
Ψ = 100 (17)
100 − PEOAT
where Ψ denotes the air mix door position with a range
of 0~100%.
It is to be noted that near the FH end on the temperature
knob, which can be further delineated with a calibratible
variable, the requested discharge temperature is very
high. For comfort heating purpose, the compressor can
be safely turned off to gain further energy efficiency.
Care should be taken to turn the compressor back on
when Defrost or Defog mode of air discharge is
requested.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The Cycling Pneumatic Compressor methodology
outlined above has been implemented and tested on an
Air Conditioning System test stand to evaluate the
energy saving potential of such a methodology. The
refrigeration system components were set up identically
to an existing vehicle AC conditioning system so that
operating conditions can be established realistically.
On the system stand, the ambient conditions of
10Cx90%, 15.6Cx80%, 21.1Cx70%, 26.7Cx60%,
32.2Cx50%, and 40.6x35% (originally defined in English
Units as 50Fx90%, 60Fx80%, 70Fx70%, 80Fx60%,
90Fx50%, 105Fx35%) were simulated by controlling the
inlet air conditions to the condenser and the evaporator
of the refrigeration system. Other controlled parameters
such as the air flow rate through the condenser and the
compressor RPM are obtained on the modeled vehicle
for each vehicle speed. The condenser airflow rate as a
function of the vehicle speed was directly taken from the
air conditioning development process of the vehicle.
The modeled vehicle has an Automatic Climate Control
System which automatically adjusts the HVAC module
air flow rate and the discharge temperature request. By
correlating data from road trips, the steady state blower
voltage and the associated evaporator air flow rate were
established for each ambient conditions and vehicle
speed. Similarly, the compressor RPM and vehicle
speed correlation were easily obtained from the road trip
data.
With the supporting data from the modeled vehicle,
complete operating conditions were established for the
test stand to simulate the above listed ambient
conditions and for the vehicle speeds of Idle, 48.3kph,
80.5kph, and 112.6kph (originally 30mph, 50mph, and
70mph in English Units).
Four configurations of compressor and control were
evaluated. Starting with the baseline fixed displacement
compressor in freeze control, the fixed compressor with
Series Reheat Reduction, pneumatic variable
compressor under freeze control, and pneumatic
variable compressor cycled for Series Reheat
Reduction, were all tested on the bench with the testing
matrix of ambient conditions and vehicle speeds.
The fixed displacement compressor and the pneumatic
variable compressor were selected to be close to each
other in refrigeration capacity. The fixed displacement
compressor has 155cc displacement with a slightly
better volumetric efficiency, which makes it a close
match to the variable displacement compressor with a
160cc displacement.
The tested compressor is mounted on a torque bench
whereby an electrical motor is used to drive the
compressor. The compressor power is obtained by
monitoring the torque and the compressor RPM.
Figure 13 summarizes the compressor power
consumption of the four configurations. For each
ambient condition in the chart, the compressor power is
averaged across the tested vehicle speeds: Idle,
48.3kph, 80.5kph, and 112.6kph (Idle, 30mph, 50mph,
and 70mph in English Units). Needless to mention, the
compressor power of all four configurations increases
with increasing ambient thermal load. With minor
exception at the low ambient, where absolute
compressor power is low and relative variations in
testing data increases, there is a clear trend that the
fixed displacement compressor under freeze control
requires the highest amount of compressor power.
Under the same freeze control condition, the pneumatic
variable compressor provides the same cooling but
requires less shaft power. The fixed displacement
compressor with Series Reheat Reduction ranks third in
terms of saving compressor power. The best saving is
achieved with the cycling pneumatic variable
compressor executing Series Reheat Reduction.
 Energy Efficiency of Cycling Pneumatic Variable Compressor
and Fixed Displacement Compressor
2.5
Compressor power is obtained by averaging over
Idle, 48.3, 80.5, 112.6 kph (idle, 30, 50,70 mph)

2
SP15 AC
6CVC160 AC
Compressor Power (KW)

SP15 EEAC
6CVC160 EEAC
1.5

0.5

0
10CX90% 15.6Cx80% 21.1Cx70% 26.7Cx60% 32.2Cx50% 40.6Cx35%
Ambient Conditions

Fig. 13 Energy Efficiency of Compressors on the Bench

10.0

9.0
% Improvement During FTP Highway
% Improvement During SC03
8.0
Fuel Economy Improvement (%)

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
VCe VCpSRHR VCpFrz FixSRHR FixFrz

Compressor and Control

Fig. 14 Vehicle Fuel Economy Improvement due to Compressors and Controls with Fixed
Displacement Compressor in Freeze Control as Baseline
After the concept was successfully validated on the test
stand, further evaluation was carried out on a compact
production car with a small engine. The fuel economy
impact of the Cycling Pneumatic Compressor was tested,
along with the fixed displacement compressors and
electronic variable compressors, in a certified Emission
Test Chamber. Evaluation of the compressor and controls
were carried out using the EPA FTP and SC03 driving
cycles with the compressor turned on for both.
Figure 14 shows the vehicle fuel economy impact of the
compressors and controls under the SC03 driving cycle
when the ambient temperature is at 24 degrees Celsius
(75 degrees Fahrenheit). With the fixed compressor
performing freeze control as the baseline, the vehicle
Fuel Economy improvement due to compressor upgrade
or control methodology change is summarized. What is
clearly indicated by these tests is that the electronic
variable compressor executing Series Reheat Reduction
is the most effective in helping increasing the vehicle
fuel economy. This is achieved, of course, at some cost
penalty for the electronic variable compressor. What is
to be highlighted here is that immediately next to the
electronic variable compressor, the most energy efficient
air conditioning system operation is achieved by the
pneumatic variable compressor performing Series
Reheat Reduction. As expected, the fixed displacement
compressor under freeze control is ranked the lowest
and consumes the highest amount of fuel. A slight
surprise is that the fixed displacement compressor with
Series Reheat Reduction did not outperform the
pneumatic variable compressor under freeze control, as
is the case in the system stand testing. The discrepancy
may be explained by the fact the two classes of
compressors are used: the bench testing used
compressors in the 155~160cc displacement range and
the vehicle testing here used compressors in the
125~130cc displacement range. Additionally, Powertrain
Control Module’s anticipation routine may bias the tests
result slightly.
In the same figure, the FTP Highway driving cycle test
results for the same vehicle and compressors are
shown. The FTP driving cycle tests do reconfirm what
has been learned from the bench testing and the SC03
cycle testing, that the cycling pneumatic compressor
provides energy efficiency benefits surpassing those
possible with the cycling fixed displacement compressor,
and often very close to those from the electronic variable
compressors.
Additional validation of the present Cycling Pneumatic
Compressor methodology was carried out on a mid-
sized sedan with a V-6 engine. Integration of the control
head interface as outlined in earlier sections was
implemented. This vehicle implementation allows
seamless phasing-in and phasing-out of the Series
Reheat Reduction, based on both the ambient
temperature and the temperature knob position.
A key point of evaluation on the mid-sized sedan is the
drivability impact of cycling the pneumatic variable
compressor. Road trip tests of the vehicle indicate that
the cycling of the pneumatic variable compressor is
completely imperceptible to the driver of the vehicle. The
low torque impact on the powertrain is attributed to the
stroke control characteristics of the pneumatic variable
compressors. When declutched, the pneumatic variable
compressor’s internal mechanisms return the resting
stroke position to a default value that can be custom-
designed. Presently, the default resting stroke is either
at 10% or 40%. When the compressor is re-engaged,
the compressor stroke will move from the resting stroke
to a stroke dynamically determined by the AC system
operation. This re-engagement property of the
pneumatic variable compressor provides the low impact
on the powertrain.
The other factor that imparts low impact engagement is
that the Series Reheat Reduction via cycling of the
pneumatic compressor occurs mostly at mid to low
ambient temperatures. As such, the compressor torque
is low or moderate to begin with, which ensures
minimum powertrain interference when cycled. At higher
ambient conditions, the application of the Series Reheat
Reduction is scaled back to provide sufficient cooling
capacity. The control of the compressor is governed by
freeze control. As a result, capacity control at higher
ambient is returned to internal pneumatic control and
there is no cycling occurring with high torque value.
The low torque cycling of the compressor is beneficial
externally to the powertrain in terms of low torque
interference. It is also beneficial to the clutch reliability. It
may be expected that the clutches designed to cycle the
fixed displacement compressor should last beyond its
standard design life when used in the context of
pneumatic compressor.
CONCLUSION
The pneumatic variable compressor was designed to
eliminate the cycling forced by the application of the
fixed displacement compressor so as to achieve
capacity control to prevent freeze. In the two decades
after the pneumatic variable compressor was introduced,
it has proven superior in its high energy efficiency
operation and low powertrain impact. It is interesting to
see that the application of the cycling methodology to a
compressor designed to eliminate it yields such a
beneficial result in achieving Series Reheat Reduction.
Through bench testing, small vehicle testing in Emission
Chamber, and finally on a mid-sized sedan on the road,
it has been demonstrated that cycling the pneumatic
variable compressor provides a reliable method to
execute Series Reheat Reduction for enhanced energy
efficiency operation of the air conditioning system. It
offers energy efficiency better than what is possible with
the cycling fixed compressors under Series Reheat
Reduction. It provides energy efficiency benefit close to
that offered by the electronic variable compressor
executing Series Reheat Reduction and does it at a
reasonable low cost.
CONTACT
Mingyu Wang is a Staff Research Engineer with 14
years of experience in the area of advanced PTC and
HVAC systems development. He holds a Ph.D. in
Mechanical Engineering from Duke University and is a
member of SAE. He can be reached at (716) 439-2493
or mingyu.wang@delphi.com
DEFINITIONS, ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS

It has been observed through on-road vehicle operation AC Air Conditioning

that cycling of the pneumatic variable compressor is AI Air Inlet
superior to cycling of the fixed displacement compressor COP Coefficient Of Performance
because of the low, resting stroke of the pneumatic Econ Economy
variable compressor and the associated low starting EOAT Evaporator Out Air Temperature, also
torque. This is especially important for small cars with position on temperature knob
low displacement engine. It frees the powertrain of FC Full Cold
engagement torque interference from the compressor FH Full Hot
and allows for smooth powertrain operation. HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
OSA Outside Air
REFERENCES P Temperature knob percentage position
RPM Revolutions Per Minute
1. Skinner, T. J. and Swadner, R. L., V-5 Automotive T Temperature
Variable Displacement Air Conditioning
Compressor, SAE Transactions, Section 1, Vol. 94, Greek Symbols
1985.
2. Rattsa, E. B. and Brown, J. S., Experimental δ Difference
Analysis Of Cycling In An Automotive Air ε Heat Exchanger Effectiveness
Conditioning System, Applied Thermal Engineering, ω Mixed door position
Volume 20, Issue 11, Pages 1039-1058, August 1, Ψ Mixed door position
2000.
Subscripts
3. Nadamoto, H. and Kubota, A., Power Saving with
the Use of Variable Displacement Compressors, htr Heater
SAE1999-01-0875, SAE International Congress and evp Evaporator
Exposition, Detroit, Michigan, USA, March 1-4, clt Coolant
1999. dis Discharge
4. Park, Y. C., McEnaney, R., Boewe, D., Yin, J. M. frz freeze
and Hrnjak, P. S., Steady State and Cycling hys Hysteresis
Performance of a Typical R134a Mobile A/C set Cycling set point
System, SAE1999-01-1190, 1999 SAE International
Congress and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan, USA,
March 1-4, 1999.
5. Rasmussen, B., Uribe, T., Alleyne, A. and Bullard,
C., Evaluation of Control Strategies for Compressor
Rapid Cycling, SAE2004-01-0913, 2004 SAE World
Congress, Detroit, Michigan, USA, March 8-11,
2004.