Fiber (American English) or Fibre (International English) are hair-like materials (they

look like threads) that form the building blocks from which yarn and fabric are made.
Natural plant and animal fibres have provided the raw materials to meet our fibre needs.
No matter which climatic zone humans settled they were able to utilise the fibres of
native species to make products such as clothes, cloths, buildings and cordage. Many of
the ancient plant fibres are no longer in use. Fibres such as jute, sisal, coir and kapok only
started to be imported into Europe from the nineteenth century.

Hemp and linen are amongst the oldest plants used for fabric products. Hemp was
cultivated in China in 2,800 BC. Cotton has been produced in India for millennia and was
introduced into Europe in the 1300s.

Some of the more recently introduced natural plant fibres reflect their origins and
distribution. Jute originated in India and its name is Bengali meaning 'braid of hair'. The
name 'ramie' comes from the Malay and has been variously known as grass linen, China
linen and grass cloth. Another Malay word that has given itself to a fibre is 'kapok'.
Kapok is a silky fibre from the east Indian tree which is sometimes called silk cotton or
Java cotton.

Phormium is the mane of the fibre from an evergreen tree native to New Zealand - also
known as New Zealand flax

According to archaeologists and anthropologists, the earliest clothing likely consisted of

fur, leather, leaves, or grass that were draped, wrapped, or tied around the body.
Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, since clothing materials deteriorate
quickly compared to stone, bone, shell and metal artifacts.

Scientists are still debating when people started wearing clothes. research suggests the
invention of clothing may have coincided with the northward migration of modern Homo
sapiens away from the warm climate of Africa, thought to have begun between 50,000
and 100,000 years ago. For now, the date of the origin of clothing remains unresolved.
There are basically two groups of fibers:

- Natural fibers, consisting of animal and plant fibers

- Man-made or manufactured/synthetic fibers.

Animal Fibres

Angora

There are two types of Angora:

- Mohair (made from the Angora Goat)
- Angora Rabbit Hair (made from the Angora Rabbit).

Typically when we talk about Angora, we refer to Angora Rabbit Hair, while the fibers
from the Angora Goat are more commonly known as Mohair. It is 7 times warmer than
wool, and is ideal for baby clothes, winter underwear, sweaters and mittens. As only a
small amount of wool can be harvested from these adorable creatures, angora is often
combined with other fibers to minimize the high cost of this luxurious fiber.

Camel Family (Alpaca/Llama/Camel/Vicuna)

Yarns made from the fibers of these animals are very soft, lustrous, lightweight and
warm.

Alpaca is often used for the manufacture of warm, luxurious apparel.

The down hairs of the Llama will produce a soft yarn also suitable for the manufacture of
apparel.

Camel hair is from the extremely soft and fine fur from the undercoat of the camel.
Camel's hair can be used alone but is most often combined with fine wool for
overcoating, topcoating, sportswear and sports hosiery.

Vicuna is the world´s most valuable fiber. Vicuna is small and wild and belongs to the
Camel family. It yields the finest animal fiber in the world. This fiber is rare and very
expensive.

Cashmere
Cashmere, also known as the fiber of kings, is produced from the fine, soft undercoat of
hair of the Kashmir goat. Sixty percent of the world's supply of cashmere is produced in
China, Mongolia and Tibet, and the remainder from Turkey, Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran,
Kashmere, Australia and New Zealand.

Cashmere yarn is extremely soft, lightweight, yet very warm. It is very luxurious and
possesses excellent drape. As each Kashmir goat is capable of producing an average of
only 4-6 ounces of underdown per year, Cashmere is hence very expensive.

Mohair

Made from the hairs of the Angora goat, mohair is durable, warm, extremely lightweight,
and lustrous with a soft hand. It is the most resilient natural textile fiber, and is often
combined with other fibers in the production of apparel and home fashion items.

The finest grade of mohair is Kid Mohair, obtained from the first shearing of a young
angora goat. Kid Mohair possesses the unique feature of natural wicking properties that
takes perspiration away from the skin, preventing bacterial build up and odor.

Wool

Wool is a natural fiber made from the fleece of sheep. Talk about wool and it conjures up
a picture of cozy warmth. However, wool is not uniform among all sheep. Sheep live in a
wide variety of climates and conditions, and develop their wool to suit the conditions
under which they live or are bred. Wool is popular in the manufacture of clothing and
home furnishings as it is warm, resists wrinkle, is lightweight and durable, absorbs
moisture, is flame resistant, and has a natural stretch and elasticity.

Silk

Silk is a natural protein fibre containing about 70-75% of actual fibre fibroin secreted
from two salivary glands in the head of the silkworm larva, and about 25-30% sericin, a
gum which cements the two filaments together.

Silk has a high natural lustre and sheen of a white or cream color. It has a reputation as a
luxurious and sensuous fabric, retains its shape, drapes well, caresses the figure, and
shimmers with a luster all its own. Silk is naturally hypoallergenic, yet is still breathable;
it absorbs moisture and reduces humidity, which makes it cool in the summer and warm
in the winter.

Plant Fibres

Cotton

Cotton is a soft fiber that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant. Cool, soft and
comfortable, cotton is presently the world's most used fiber. Every part of the cotton plant
is useful and we see its application in industries such as apparel, home furnishings,
medical and surgical, automobile, etc.

Linen

Linen is a plant fiber made from the stalk of the flax plant. It is one of the earliest fibers
to be made into string and cloth and is the strongest of the vegetable fibers, with 2 to 3
times the strength of cotton.

Like cotton, linen takes to dyes easily and can be boiled without damaging the fiber.
Fabrics made from linen are comfortable, highly absorbent, and has a natural luster and
crisp hand. Linen wrinkles easily but also presses easily. It has poor elasticity and does
not spring back readily like wool.

Ramie

Ramie, also known as China grass, is one of the oldest and strongest natural plant fibers
principally used in fabric production. Similar to linen, it is natural white in color, has a
high luster and an unusual resistance to bacteria and molds. It is very absorbent (more
absorbent than linen) and is even stronger when wet. It is, however, stiff and brittle and
not as durable as other fibers, and is best in blends with other fibers such as cotton or
wool

Hemp

Hemp is a bast fiber plant similar to flax, kenaf, jute and ramie. It possesses properties
similar to other bast fibers (flax, kenaf, jute and ramie) and excels in fiber length,
strength, durability, absorbency, antimildew and antimicrobial properties.

Jute

Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fiber that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. Jute
is commonly used in the production of bags, sacks, canvas, rope, jute yarn, twine and
backings for carpet.

Manufactured/Synthetic Fibers

Acrylic Fiber

Acrylic fiber is a synthetic polymer fiber that contains at least 85% acrylonitrile. Soft,
lightweight, springy and warm, acrylic is comfortable to wear and resembles wool, yet is
easy to care and is machine washable. Fabrics made from acrylic are generally non-
allergenic, resilient, durable, have outstanding wickability, and are resistant to moths,
oils, chemicals and sunlight degradation.

Acrylic fibers may frequently be found in combination with other natural fibers.

Polyamide (Nylon)

Nylon was historically developed as a synthetic substitute for silk. It is lightweight,

drapes well, has low absorbency and dries quickly, and is resistant to dirt, chemicals and
perspiration. One of the strongest man-made fiber, the use of nylon can be found in
apparel, home furnishings and outdoor equipment that take a lot of hard wear, like
stockings, swimwear, activewear, upholstery, tents and life vests.

Polyester

Polyester is a strong fiber that is resistant to crease, stretching and shrinkage, hence the
ability to hold its shape well. Touted the best 'wash-and-wear' fiber, polyester is easy to
care for and is washable, hence its wide usage in essentially every form of apparel and
home furnishings.

Blends of polyester with natural fibers such as cotton, rayon, or wool extend the
durability of these blended fabrics.

Olefin (also known as Polyolefin or Polypropylene)

Olefin is probably one of the less known manufactured fiber in the apparel industry.
Strong, lightweight, comfortable. quick drying and resistant to stains, soil, chemicals,
mildew, weather, sunlight and abrasion, olefin has been used almost exclusively in the
home furnishings area and the high performance activewear market, for such items as
backpacking, canoeing, and mountain climbing apparel since its development in 1961.
More recently, we are seeing a higher usage of olefin in activewear, sportswear, socks,
thermal underwear and lining fabrics.

2.4 Advantages of natural fibres:

+ Low specific weight, which results in a higher specific strength and stiffness than glass.
This is a benefit especially in parts designed for bending stiffness.
+ It is a renewable resource, the production requires little energy, CO2 is used while
oxygen is given back to the environment.

+ Producible with low investment at low cost, which makes the material an interesting
product for low-wage countries.

+ Friendly processing, no wear of tooling, no skin irritation

+ Thermal recycling is possible, where glass causes problems in combustion furnaces.

+ Good thermal and acoustic insulating properties

2.5 Disadvantages of natural fibres:

- Lower strength properties, particularly its impact strength
- Variable quality, depending on unpredictable influences such as weather.
- Moisture absorption, which causes swelling of the fibres
- Restricted maximum processing temperature.
- Lower durability, fibre treatments can improve this considerably.
- Poor fire resistance
- Price can fluctuate by harvest results or agricultural politics

The advantages of synthetic fibers:

(1) Synthetic fibres are strong so they can take up heavy loads easily.
(2) They have got high tensile strength, which enables them to carry weights.
(3) They easily retain their original shape, even if they get wrinkled. So they are
convenient to wash and wear.
(4) They have great elasticity due to which can be easily streched.
(5) Synthetic fibres are generally soft, so they are used to make variety of clothes and
clothing materials.

The disadvantages of synthetic fibres are:

a) They trap the heat in our body.

b) They make us sweat profousely.
c) They contain chemicals which may harm our skin.
d) They are not very comfortable.
Wool from different animals:
WOOL SPECIALTY FIBERS, although still classified as wool, are further classified by the animal
the fiber comes from.

Alpaca fleece is very rich and silky with considerable luster. It comes from the Alpaca.

Mohair is from the angora goat and is highly resilient and strong. Mohair’s luster, not softness,
determines its value. Mohair is used in home decorating fabrics as well as garment fabrics
including tropical worsteds.

Angora wool is from the angora rabbit. This soft fiber is used in sweaters, mittens and baby
clothes.

Camel hair is from the extremely soft and fine fur from the undercoat of the camel. Camel’s hair
can be used alone but is most often combined with fine wool for overcoating, topcoating,
sportswear and sports hosiery. Because of the beauty of the color, fabrics containing camel’s hair
are usually left in the natural camel color or dyed a darker brown. Light weight and soft, it is said
that a 22 oz. camel fabric is as warm as a 32 oz. woolen fabric.

Cashmere is from the Kasmir goat down. Separation of the soft fibers from the long, coarse hair
is tedious and difficult, contributing to the expense of the fabric. The soft hair is woven or knitted
into fine garments and can also be blended with silk, cotton, or wool.

Vicuna is the softest coat cloth in the world. The amount of coarse hair to be separated from the
soft fibers is negligible and yields the finest animal fiber in the world. Vicuna is a member of the
Llama family and is small and wild. Since it is generally killed to obtain the fleece, it is protected
by rigorous conservation measures. This fiber is rare and very expensive, costing several
hundred dollars per yard.

Production of wool

Processing fibres into wool

The wool which is used for knitting sweaters or for weaving shawls is the finished
product of a long process, which involves the following steps:

Step I: The fleece of the sheep along with a thin layer of skin is removed from its body. This
process is called shearing

Machines similar to those used by barbers are used to shave off hair. Usually, hair are removed
during the hot weather. This enables sheep to survive without their protective coat of hair. The hair
provide woollen fibres. Woollen fibres are then processed to obtain woollen yarn. Shearing does
not hurt the sheep just as it does not hurt when you get a hair cut or your father shaves his beard.
Do you know why? The uppermost layer of the skin is dead. Also, the hair of sheep grow
again just as your hair does
Step II: The sheared skin with hair is thoroughly washed in tanks to remove grease, dust
and dirt. This is called scouring. Nowadays scouring is done by machines.

Step III: After scouring, sorting is done. The hairy skin is sent to a factory where hair of
different textures are separated or sorted.

Step IV: The small fluffy fibres, called burrs, are picked out from the hair. These are the
same burrs whichsometimes appear on your sweaters. The fibres are scoured again and dried.
This is the wool ready to be drawn into fibres.

Step V: The fibres can be dyed in various colours, as the natural fleece of sheep and goats
is black, brown or white.

Step VI: The fibres are straightened, combed and rolled into yarn [Fig. 3.8 (d)]. The
longer fibres are made into wool for sweaters and the shorter fibres are spun and woven
into woollen cloth.

Occupational Hazards:
Wool industry is an important means of livelihood for many people in our country. But
sorter’s job is risky as sometimes they get infected by a bacterium, anthrax which
causes a fatal blood disease called sorter’s disease. Such risks faced by workers in any
industry are called occupational hazards.

Introduction:
Silk fibres are also animal fibres. Silkworms spin the ‘silk fibres’. The rearing of
silkworms for obtaining silk is called sericulture.

Life history of silk moth

The female silk moth lays eggs, from which hatch larvae which are called caterpillars
silkworms. They grow in size and when the caterpillar is ready to enter the next stage of
its life history called pupa, it first weaves a net to hold itself. Then it swings its head from side to
side in the form of the figure of eight (8). During these movements of the head, the caterpillar
secretes fibre made of a protein which hardens on exposure to air and becomes silk fibre. Soon
the caterpillar completely covers itself by silk fibres. This covering is known as cocoon. The
further development of the moth continues inside the cocoon.

From cocoon to silk

For obtaining silk, moths are reared and their cocoons are collected to get silk threads.

Rearing silkworms:

A female silk moth lays hundreds of eggs at a time. The eggs are stored carefully on
strips of cloth or paper and sold to silkworm farmers. The farmers keep eggs under
hygienic conditions and under suitable conditions of temperature and humidity.

The eggs are warmed to a suitable temperature for the larvae to hatch from eggs. This is
done when mulberry trees [Fig. 3.10 (b)] bear a fresh crop of leaves. The larvae, called
caterpillars or silkworms, eat day and night and increase enormously in size.

The worms are kept in clean bamboo trays along with freshly chopped mulberry leaves.
After 25 to 30 days, the caterpillars stop eating and move to a tiny chamber of bamboo in
the tray to spin cocoons. Small racks or twigs may be provided in the trays to which
cocoons get attached. The caterpillar or silkworm spins the cocoon inside which develops
the silk moth.

Processing silk:

A pile of cocoons is used for obtaining silk fibres. The cocoons are kept under the sun or
boiled or exposed to steam. The silk fibres separate out. The process of taking out threads
from the cocoon for use as silk is called reeling the silk. Reeling is done in special
machines, which unwind the threads or fibres of silk from the cocoon. Silk fibres are then
spun into silk threads, which are woven into silk cloth by weavers.
Health hazards in Sericulture:

a. Workers are required to work in units that are cramped, damp and poorly ventilated
resulting in respiratory problems.

b. The handling of dead worms with bare hands also leads to illness and infection.

c. While the cocoons are put in hot water to loosen fibres, workers tend to put their bare
hands inside to see if the the fibres are loosened. This results blisters and injuries leading
to secondary infection.

d. Standing for almost 12-16 hours a day focusing on their work leads to severe
backaches, spine problems and problems related to vision.

e. Continuous exposure to noise made by spinning and winding machines result in

hearing problems.