Activated Carbon Filters

Applications: Activated carbon (AC) is generally used

in water treatment for removing free chlorine and / or
organic compounds. Removal of organics from potable water
could be to prevent common organic acids such as humic or
fulvic from reacting with chlorine to form trihalomethanes (a
class of known carcinogens) or, to treat waste water to
remove any number of organic compounds to make the
water suitable for discharge. Similar to other types of water
treatment, however, AC filtration is effective for some
contaminants and not effective for others. AC filtration does
not remove microbes, sodium, nitrates, fluoride, and
hardness. Lead and other heavy metals are removed only by
a very specific type of AC and this would typically only be
feasible for point-of-use household filters.

Sources and Preparation: AC derives from an organic

source. Common ones used in water and waste water
treatment include coal (bituminous or anthracite) and
coconut shells. Carbon is formed when the basic source is
burned in virtual absence of oxygen which drives off the
heavy, organic molecules leaving about 30% of the original
mass remaining. This carbonaceous material must be further
treated or “activated” before it is useful in water treatment.
Activation fulfills several functions, including further driving
off unwanted molecules, but its major function is to open up
huge numbers of pores in the media; it is these pores that
result in such high adsorptive properties. The pore structure
is so important because pores offer the extremely high
surface area for contaminant adsorption. The equivalent
surface area of 1 pound of AC ranges from 60 to 150
acres! Adsorption is done in two ways:

   
Steam Activation - Activation is carried out at
high temperatures of 800 - 1000°C in the
presence of steam. Initially, gasification of the
 carbonized material with steam occurs; a
reaction known as the Water-Gas reaction. Air is
added to burn the gases without burning the
carbon, producing a graded, screened and de-
dusted activated carbon. Activated carbons
produced by steam activation generally exhibit
a 'fine' pore structure, ideal for the adsorption
of compounds from both the liquid and vapor
phase.

Chemical Activation - The raw material is

impregnated with a strong dehydrating agent,
typically phosphoric acid (P2O5) or zinc chloride
(ZnCl2) mixed into a paste and then heated to
temperatures of 500 - 800°C to activate the
carbon. Activated carbons produced by chemical
activation generally exhibit a very 'open' pore
structure, ideal for the adsorption of large
molecules.

How it Works

AC is basically used for two water treatment purposes and

each work in totally different ways.

1. Chlorine Removal: AC catalyzes removal of free chlorine

with little consumption or degradation of the carbon during
the process. This ability, however, requires tremendous
surface area and organics in the water will gradually adsorb
onto the carbon particle, blocking or occupying pores. This
leads to gradual loss of dechlorination ability and the need
to replace the carbon. Such carbon can be re-activated and
this is frequently done; however, reprocessed carbon should
only be used in waste water applications. Dechlorination
occurs very rapidly and filter flow rates are typically high.
One advantage of carbon for dechlorination is its low
operating cost once installed and virtual “fail safe”
operation. A disadvantage, however, is that once the
chlorine is removed in the top one inch or so of the media,
the damp environment and entrapped organics to serve as
 food source provide an ideal growth environment for
bacteria which will proliferate throughout the bed. This can
cause problems in medical applications or when using
carbon as pretreatment for reverse osmosis.

2. Organics Removal: AC removes organic compounds by

attracting and holding certain chemicals (a process known
as "adsorption") as water passes through it. The adsorption
process depends on the following factors: 1) physical
properties of the AC, such as pore size distribution and
surface area; 2) the chemical nature of the carbon source,
or the amount of oxygen and hydrogen associated with it;
3) chemical composition and concentration of the
contaminant; 4) the temperature and pH of the water; and
5) the flow rate or time exposure of water to AC. Some
additional considerations are described below:

   
a. Physical Properties: Forces of physical
attraction or adsorption of contaminants to the pore
walls is the most important AC filtration process.
The amount and distribution of pores play key roles
in determining how well contaminants are filtered.
The best filtration occurs when pores are barely
large enough to admit the contaminant molecule
(Figure 1). Because contaminants come in all
different sizes, they are attracted differently
depending on pore size of the filter. In general AC
filters are most effective in removing contaminants
that have relatively large molecules (most organic
chemicals). Type of raw carbon material and its
method of activation will affect types of
contaminants that are adsorbed.
Figure 1. Molecular screening in the micropores of
an activated carbon filter. (after G. L. Culp and R. L.
Culp)

b. Chemical Properties: Processes other than

physical attraction also affect AC filtration. The filter
surface may actually interact chemically with organic
molecules. Also electrical forces between the AC
surface and some contaminants may result in
adsorption or ion exchange. Adsorption, then, is also
affected by the chemical nature of the adsorbing
surface. The chemical properties of the adsorbing
surface are determined to a large extent by the
activation process. AC materials formed from
different activation processes will have chemical
properties that make them more or less attractive to
various contaminants. For example chloroform is
adsorbed best by AC that has the least amount of
oxygen associated with the pore surfaces.

c. Contaminant Properties: Large organic

molecules are most effectively adsorbed by AC. A
general rule of thumb is that similar materials tend
to associate. Organic molecules and activated
 carbon are similar materials; therefore there is a
stronger tendency for most organic chemicals to
associate with the activated carbon in the filter
rather than staying dissolved in a dissimilar material
like water. Generally, the least soluble organic
molecules are most strongly adsorbed. Often the
smaller organic molecules are held the tightest,
because they fit into the smaller pores.

d. Concentration: Concentration of organic

contaminants can affect the adsorption process. A
given AC filter may be more effective than another
type of AC filter at low contaminant concentrations,
but may be less effective than the other filter at high
concentrations. This type of behavior has been
observed with chloroform removal. The filter
manufacturer should be consulted to determine how
the filter will perform for specific chemicals at
different levels of contamination.

e. Water Temperature and pH: Adsorption usually

increases as pH and temperature decrease.
Chemical reactions and forms of chemicals are
closely related to pH and temperature. When pH and
temperature are lowered many organic chemicals
are in a more absorbable form.

f. Exposure Time: The process of adsorption is also

influenced by the length of time that the AC is in
contact with the contaminant in the water.
Increasing contact time allows greater amounts of
contaminant to be removed from the water. Contact
is improved by increasing the amount of AC in the
filter and reducing the flow rate of water through the
filter. Bed depth and flowrate are critical design
parameters.

Filtration Equipment

Filters similar to those used in multi-media filtration are

typically used for AC applications except without the air
scour step as part of backwash. Due to extended residence
time for removal of certain organics, however, higher filter
vessel sideshells may be specified to provide deeper carbon
beds resulting in longer reaction time. Backwash of carbon
beds functions to remove silt that may have been trapped,
to “fluff” the bed to prevent packing which results in head
loss and to remove carbon fines (these are produced by
friction of one granule upon the other). As described above,
there are a host of variables that must be considered in
designing a filtration system and selecting the best carbon
for the application