ENCI332 Revision - Reinforced Concrete

Mikey Zhang & Stefano Pampanin

College of Civil Engineering,
University of Canterbury,
Christchurch,
New Zealand

May 23, 2011

Chapter 1

Introduc on to Reinforced
Concrete

1.1 The Fundamentals of Reinforced Concrete

Concrete has rela vely high compressive strength, however it has li le to none tensile
strength and it is bri le with li le or noinelas c deforma on abili es.
This is where steel comes in, as it is very strong for a rela vely small cross sec on and
also its duc le and there can undergo large inelas c deforma ons before failing.

1.2 Limit States

The defini on of the limit state is when a structure or one of its elements reaches a
point where it cannot perform as usual.

1.2.1 Ul mate Limit State (ULS)

The ULS does not indicate collapse. The ULS implies a par al structural collapse.

1.2.2 Servicability Limit States (SLS)

The SLS involves a disrup on of the func onality of the structure without any major
structural damage or collapse.

1.2.3 Limit State Design

The process for Limit State design involves:
• Iden fying all poten al modes of failure (i.e. the significant limit states)
• Determining acceptable levels of safety against occurence for each limit state.
• Considera on and sesign for each limit state
O en the Ul mate Limit State is desifned for first, a er which checks are made for
Serviceability.

1
Chapter 2

Reinforced Concrete Materials

2.1 Concrete
Concrete is a conglomerate of materials (cement, fine /and rough aggregates /and wa-
ter). The aggregates are there to provide volumetric stability.
We know that concrete is very strong in compression and extremely weak in tension
(effec ve has no tensile capacity). As a general rule of thumb we ignore the tensile
strength of concrete in design. The compressive strength fc' is measure using cylin-
ders of a standard sizes.
Concrete in axial compression can be considered linear-elas c up to about 0.5fc′ .
The Young's modulus of concrete, Ec, can be approximately calculated using:
√
Ec = 3320 fc′ + 6900M P a

2.2 Reinforcement Steel

Modern steel reinforcing bars have ribbing on them rolled onto them during manufac-
turing. These bars have an enhanced bond witht he concrete that leads to less rela ve
movement along the bar. With this we can assume strain compa bility, that is that is
the strains in the 2 materials (in the same plane) are equal.
Other important issues with reinforement steel is the amount of stress increase due
to strain-hardening.

2
Chapter 3

Reinforced Concrete Flexure

Design

3.1 The Role of Concrete and Reinforcement

Concrete is excellent at carrying compressive stresses
Reinforcement is required for

• Longitudinal bars in tension - concrete is weak in tension so longitudinal steel

reinforcement provides capacity across cracks. Also holds steel hoops in place.
• Longitudinal bars in compression - hold loops, increase capacity in compression

• Transverse reinforcement(hopes and es) -

1. carry shear and torsion forces
2. provides an -buckling restraint in longitudinal bars
3. provides confinement of the concrete core

For a singly reinforced beam we assume that tension occurs on the bo om (i.e. the
reinforced side) of the beam.

3.2 Flexural Theory

For our design we want to determine the ul mate (also called nominal) moment re-
sistance Mn, which is the flexural strength of the sec on. We make the following as-
sump ons in order to make our design.
• Plane sec on remains plane

• Perfect bond exists between the steel and concrete

• The concrete contribu on to tension is ignored

• The concrete and steel stress-strain rela onship is known

3
3.3 Beams with Rectangular Cross-sec on
3.3.1 Analysis of singly reinforced beams
In a singly reinforced beam, the longitudinal reinforcement resists tesile strength only.
We require Equilibrium so that the bending moment from the external ac ons is bal-
anced by the bending moment due to the internal couple.
We can use 2 equa ons of EQUILIBRIUM:
• Transla on: C = T
• Rota on: Mn = T*jd = Mn
From this we can we have 2 equa ons to solve 3 unknowns (C,T and jd)
We need to use strain compa bility (real onship between the strain in the concrete
and strain in the steel at each layer) to solve the problem.

3.3.2 Defining a stress block

A stress block is when we define a rectangular block to take the place of the non linear
behaviour of concrete on the stress strain profile. The stress block has the same area
and centeriod as the original stress-strain profile of the concrete
The dimensions of the stress block are:
• The width is α*f'c
• The depth is β*c (The distance from he top extreme fibre to the neutral axis)
When the strain of the concrete is 0.003 (For 300MPa concrete) and f'c < 55MPa then
α & β are equal to 0.85

3.3.3 Sec on Analysis

At the ULS, assuming the concrete has crushed or is crushing, then the strain compat-
ibility condi on can be calculated using methods of similar triangles.
We need to use methods of similar triangles to work out the εs of the steel using ε
of the concrete and the distance to the nuetral axis and the depth. This is due to the
fact that the concrete has cracked and the the whole sec on is unable to take both
tension & compression. One area must take tension and one must take compression.
This forms a neutral axis C.
We need to ensure sta c equilibrium:

TRANSLATION EQUILIBRIUM
Internal forces = 0 (or externally applied N)

ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM
Ext. Moment = Int. Moment

Remember that if we have properly accounted for all internal and external forces, the
moment capacity of a sec on doesn't depend on the point about which you calculate
the moment. We need a reinforcement ra o ρ which is defined as:
As
ρ=
bd

4
This is the area of the steel divided by the area of the concrete. To design a beam, we
assume that the tension steel has yeilded, i.e. εs is bigger than εy.
Then we figure out a value for the nuetral axis. Once we have this value of the nuetral
axis, a new vlaue of εs can be calculated. Compare this newly calculated εs value with
the εy of the grade of steel used. If εs > εy then our assump on was correct and that
the steel has yielded in tension. Typically for a singly reinforced beam, a well designed
beam should have a C ≤ Cb (Where Cb is the neutral axis at the balance point).
Asf y
c=
αβf ′ cb

This is if the concrete has yeilded in tension. If not then replace fy with Es εs. This will
work out the current strength of the steel and give a current fy .

3.4 Analysis of Doubly Reinforced Beams

In a doubly reinforced beam there is steel in both tension & compression steel. The
job of the compressive steel is to share the compressive load with the concrete. These
beams are commonly used for the following reasons:
• Make the overall depth smaller (or overall sec on size)

• Reduce the effects of stress

• Increase the duc lity of the sec on by allowing the nuetral axis depth to be
higher up. i.e. Less concrete is working at ULS, the steel strain is higher.

In a doubly reinforced se on, the resultant C is the sum of the compressive in the
concrete and steel (Cc +C's ). Forces C, T & jd are unknown.

3.4.1 Sec on Analysis of Doubly Reinforced Sec ons

This is pre y much similar to the singly reinforced beams. However me must accept
that the sec on duc lity is a func on of the nuetral axis and inversly propor onal to
its depth. This will lead to some interes ng facts

• Increasing NA - Duc lity decreases

• Increasing As - Duc lity decreases

• Increasing A's - Duc lity increases

• Increasing fy - Duc lity decreases

• Increasing depth - Duc lity increases

• Increasing width - Duc lity increases

By having an extra A's (compression steel), we must therefore modify the equilibrium
equa ons to include this.

Cc + C ′ s − T s = 0

5
Where Cc = α f'c ab C's = A'sf's Ts = Asfs. This means for our C calcula on we will have
an extra 'Steel Term' on the top of the equa on.
Asf s − A′ sf ′ s
c=
αβf ′ cb
from this we can see if we assume that both the top and bo om have failed (i.e. that
both fs = fy then the top will be 0 and the answer will obviously be wrong). Therefore
we need to change the equa on in a way so that the compression steel has not yielded
yet (A'sf's = ε'sE'sc. Where c is figured out using the strain condi ons). This way we get
a quadra c or itera ve process to do in order to work out c. Once c has been calculated,
then we need to go back and check if our assump ons were correct using the strain
compa bility. If correct then we are ok (if not, ie the compression steel has yielded
or the tension hasn't yeilded, then we would need to modify the c equa on so that it
reflects these changes. Then we need to work out a new c value and check against the
strain compa bility again. Rinse & repeat un l strain condi ons are sa sfied).
Finally the moment capacity can be calculated using:
a a
M n = T s · (d − ) + A′ sf y( − d′ )
2 2
Remember to use ε'sE's in the moment equa on instead of f's because we have to
express f's in terms of ε'sE's This is very similar to the example for singly reinforced
beam, except we have a second addi onal term due to the compressional steel.

3.5 Simplified quick analysis and design

The moment capacity can be evaluated in this simple form
a a
M n = T s · (d − ) + A′ sf y( − d′ )
2 2
This is assuming both tension & compression steel have yielded
Note that if we write the equa on of equilibrium about the centeroid of the of the
concrete, the contribu on of the compression has a rela ve limited lever arm. In gen-
eral, the moment contribu on of compression steel counts for about 15-20% of the
total moment capacity of the sec on, no more.
A very fast & approximate design can be done by only evalua ng the the moment ca-
pacity by simply taking into account the the tension steel, then adding 15-20The fastest
way to calculate the moment capacity is to use

M n = T jd = As · f y · jd

The only unknown in that equa on is the factor j. This factor can easily be looked up
on a graph, the value comes out to about 0.8-0.9

M n = T jd = As · f y · 0.85d

Similarly another good approxima on can be achieved by le ng jd ≈ (d-d')

M n = T jd = As · f y · (d − d′ )

Again the moment capacity from the compressional steel can be added by quickly
adding about 15-20

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3.6 Flexural Design for Singly Reinforced Beams
For design we must ensure that the capacity is equal to or greater than the moment
demand resul ng from structural analysis under ul mate limit states.
ϕ · Mn ≥ M ∗
Beams must exhibit duc le behavior, which is a ained by reinforcement. The rein-
forcement must stay within certain bounds, specifically, minimum & maximum amounts
of reinforcement ra os. Theres are defined as:
• Minimum reinforcement ra o, so that the dependable strength is sufficient (but
also to ensure cracking control under shrinkage condi ons)
√
fc′
ρmin =
4fy
• Maximum reinforcement ra o, ensuring that the nuetral axis depth, c is equal
or less than 0.75cb . This also implies
ρmax ≤ ρb
( )
f′ 600
ρmax = 0.75α1 β1 c
fy 600 + fy

3.6.1 Alterna ve Design Approaches

• Simplified (quickest) design
a a
M n = T s · (d − ) + A′ sf y( − d′ )
2 2
with jd assumed to be 0.85d or (d-d'). For a given moment demand, the Area
of steel can calculated by:
Mn
As ≥
ϕfy · (d − d′ )
Limits: The method doesn't target a good duc le behavior (i.e. involves no c
calcula ons) however if everything else is fixed, like sec on size then you can
actually also control the nuetral axis depth by just altering As
• Use of more refined equilibrium equa ons
As fy
c=
αβfc′ b
a
Mn = Ts · jd = As fy (d − )
2
Employ a trial & error approach to get the value of c
Mn
As ≥
ϕfy · (d − a2 )
In this situa on we can choose a value for the nuetral axis posi on. We express
this in terms a to plug into the equa on above.
Limits: This method is quite quick for singly reinforced beams, slightly longer for
doubly reinforced beams, in par cular if the steel has not yielded in compres-
sion.

7
 • Rigorous dimensionless formula on

REFER TO COURSE READER

3.7 Analysis of T-sec on or Flanged Beams

When beams & floors are made together, they act together when resis ng load. For
analysis and design there is a width of the slab that we must consider to act compos-
itely with the beam (flange effect)
When the slab is in tension (nega ve moments at the supports), the analysis can be
carried out as per a typical rectangular beam, only assuring that an adequate (code-
prescribed) amount of slab steel reinforcement adjacent to the beam is accounted for
in the resistance of the moment capacity of the beam.
When the slab is in compression (under sagging or posi ve moments), the compres-
sive stresses are assumed to e uniform within this effec ve width of the flange
In T-Beam construc on, the slab and web shall be build integrally or otherwise effec-
vely bonded together and the following requirements shall also be sa sfied.
The width of the slab is assumed to be effec ve as a T-beam flange resis ng compres-
sive stresses due to flexure shall be equal to or less than the width of the web plus-one
quarter the span of the length of the beam, and the effec ve compressive overhanging
slab width on each side of the web sall not exceed the smaller of:

• 8 mes the minimum slab thickness

• The total depth of the beam
( )
• The clear distance between adjacent beams mes the factor hb1h+h b1
b2
Where
hb1 is the depth of the beam being considered and hb2 is the depth of a adjacent
beam
in most cases under sagging moments the stress in the tensile reinforcement (at the
bo om of the beam sec on in case of flange in compression) is fs = fy when the
beam reaches the flexural strength.
This is because the large flange width allowed a much smaller neutral axis depth, c,
that is much smaller than the balanced failure neutral axis depth cb .

3.7.1 Sec on Analysis of a T-Beam with Flange in Compression

If we assume that the tension steel has yielded fs = fy
Assume that the nuetral axis is in the flange cb = hf
Like simgly reinforced beams with tension failure, equilibrium of internal forces re-
quires that:
C=T
Where C = αfc′ aBf (the area in compression is the flange, thus b is Bf lange )
and T = As fy because we assumed that εs > εy
Therefore
As fy
c=
αβfc′ Bf

8
A erwards we need to check the assump ons we made at the beginning. If c ≤ hf
the NA depth lies within the flange as assumed, your assump ons are correct and you
can keep going, taking moments about the resultant concrete compressive forces Cc
( a)
Mn = T · jd = As fy d −
2
HOwever if c > hf then some of the web below the flange is in compression, you
have to re-write the equilibrium equa on spli ng the compression contribu on into
2 contribu ons: overhang(Ccf lange ) and web (Ccweb )
At equilibrium:
As fy − αfc′ hf (Bf − bw )
c=
αβfc′ bw
And so the moment capacity can be evaluated as
• If we take the moment about the tension steel
( ( )
′ a) ′ hf a
Mn = αfc abw d − + αfc hf (bf − bw ) −
2 2 2

• If we take the moment about the compression steel

( ( )
a) hf a
Mn = As fy d− + αfc′ hf (bf − bw ) −
2 2 2

Remember once c is found then we can check the strain profile can be drawn and our
assump on that the tension steel had yielded can be tested
IMPORTANT: if the flange is in tension (i.e. nega ve moment of a con nous beam/slab
on 3 supports) there is no difference between rectangular & T-shaped beam)

9
Chapter 4

Reinforced concrete Members

subject to flexure and Axial load

A column (also refered to as a beam column) carries both axial load & flexural loads,
whereas a beam is subjected to only flexural demand. These combined loadings are
carried in a similar way to a pure beam, however the longitudinal reinforcement bars
are required to carry syresses due to the axial force as well as due to the bending mo-
ment.

It is worth no ng that a loading system consis ng of an eccentric load N ∗ (with e

being the eccentrcity from the centroid of the sec on) is equivalent to a loading sys-
tem with the same axial load N and bending moment M ∗ = N ∗ e.

For a sec on with 3 bars on top & bo om, we always need to respect the 2 equa-
ons fo equilibrium (in addi on to strain compa bility)
Transla onal equilibrium:
In general Cs + Cc = N ∗ + T Therefore N ∗ = Cc + Cs − T
For rota onal equilibrium (for example taking oments about plas c centroid of the
sec on)
( ) ( ) ( )
∗ ∗ h h a ′ h
M =N e=T d− + Cc − + Cs − d = N∗ · e
′
2 2 2 2
Note that the plas c centroid of the sec on is the centroid of resistance of the sec-
on if all the concrete is compressed to the maximum stress 0.85fc and all the steel is
compressed to the yield stress (fy ), with uniform strain over the sec on.
The plas c centroid is thud the point of applica on of external axial load N0 that pro-
duces an axially loaded condi on at failure.
For symterically reinforced members (most of the cases, when dealing with column
elements), the plas c centroid coresponds to the centre of the cross sec on.

10
4.1 Effects of axial load on the flexure behavior of a mem-
ber
The axial load carried by the sec on is o en defined by the axial load ra o
N∗
Ag fc′

As the axial load ra o increases in the sec on, there is an decrease in the sec on duc-
lity capacity due to the earlier a ainment of the concrete crushing value (εc = 0.003)
and subsequent early yield of the compression reinforcement. It can be shown that
the moment capacity (flexural strength) of the sec on is influenced by the axial load.
This can be shown on a M-N diagram. This diagram is esesn ally a failure surface,
where failure is defined as being the a ainment if the flexural or axial strength based
on the earlier defini ons.
The 5 points on the M-N diagram can be figured out like so:

1. Pure compression failure Nc

M =0
N= 0.85fc′ (Ac − Asteel ) + As fy + A′s fy′
The 0.85 is used here to represent the effects of long-term loading. In the equa-
on above, It kaes into account the fact that the steel causes the overall area of
concrete to decrease, however in most cases this can be neglected.
2. Pure Tension Failure Nt
M =0
N = As fy + A′s fy′

3. Pure Flexure Failure M0

M0 = As fy (d − d′ )
For simplicity we can assume steel-steel internal couple. Or in more detail, cal-
culate the moment capacity as discussed in previous sec ons.

4. Balanced Failure Mb Nb First we must calculate the nuetral axis posi on

εcu
cb = d
εcu + εy
ab = β1 cb
Nb = 0.85fc′ ab b + As fy + A′s fy′
( ) ( ) ( )
′ h ab ′ ′ h ′ h
Mb = 0.85fc αb b − + As fy − d + As fy d −
2 2 2 2
The value of the axial load ra o generally lies in the range of 0.05 to 0.4 (witht
he lower values typical of bridge piers ans walls, the higher values more typical
of RC frame interior coumns).
To calculate addi onal points corresponding to the typical Design Region (be-
tween pure beam behaviour and balance point), the samw equilibrium equa-
ons are used.

11
 5. Generic point N, M
(a) Assume a neutral axis pos on c (in bwtween the 2 values corresponding
to the pure flexure and the balance point Cb )
(b) Calculate
N = 0.85fc′ ab + As fy + A′s fy′
(steel strain needs to be checked)
(c) Calculate the moment M
( ) ( ) ( )
h a h h
M = 0.85fc′ ab − + A′s fy′ − d′ + As fy d −
2 2 2 2
OR ALTERNATIVELY
(a) Fix a value of N in betweem 0 & Nb
(b) Find the Nuetral Axis posi on c from the transla on equilibrium
(c) Calculate the moment M
( ) ( ) ( )
h a h h
M = 0.85fc′ ab − + A′s fy′ − d′ + As fy d −
2 2 2 2

4.1.1 M-N interac on diagram for sec ons with asymmetric reinforce-
ment
If the reinforcement layout in a column sec on is symetric then the M-N interac on
diagram will be symmteric about the N axis. However if the steel is not distributed
evenly (assymetric) the shape of the of the M-N interac on curve will be different for
posi ve and nega ve moments.

4.1.2 Using the M-N diagram for analysis & design

To use the M-N interac on diagram for analysis the following process is used:
1. Evaluate and plot the M-N interac on diagram of the sec on (Capacity)
2. Plot the demand M ∗ and N ∗
3. Determine whether your demand lies within the M-N interac on curve (remem-
ber to consider ϕ, the safety factor.
If design charts are available (typically with dimensionless parameters), we need to
1. Select a realis c geometry of the column sec on (following architectural plans or
such that the axial load ra o id far away from the cri cal value Nb corresponding
to balance point failure
2. Evaluate the dimensionless moment demand µ & ν
3. Plot in the design chart (corresponding to the sec on shape, layout and concrete
or steel mechanical proper es) the demand and choose (desgn) the parametric
curves (func on of either the longitudinal reinforcement ra o ρ or the mechan-
ical reinforcement ra o ω) which envelopes the demand.
4. Once you have derived ρmin & ωmax , you can design the required reinforcement
and sec on dimensions.

12
4.1.3 Solu ons Process
1. Figure out the design loads for both moment and axial load

2. Convert the design loads to a design stress using: (These stresses are in MPa)
N∗
Ndesign =
BD
M∗
Mdesign =
BD2
3. Locate a point on the graph that corresponds to the previous values, to work out
a reinforcement ra o
4. Using this reinforcement ra o and the sec on size work out an area for the steel
reinforcement
5. Work out the 5 points on the M-N diagram

(a) Pure tension & compression axial load capacity

(b) Column capacity under pure flexure If the top and bo om have the same
reinforcement ra o we therefore can see that there is no way the top steel
(ompression steel) has yielded. Therefore to work out a value of c we must
use an itera ve process. Once a value of c has been calculated, we must
then check it against the strain equa ons to confirm assump ons.
(c) Balance point.
Work out where the Cb is using the balance failure criteria. The work out
N & as usual.
(d) Generic point
Choose a value of c (preferably one that guarantees tension failure)
Work out values of M & N as usual.

Once all of these points are a ained, plot them on the M-N diagram. Also plot a
second curve of the design capacity (ϕ · Mn ). Also plot a point of your moment
& axial demand. If this is within the curve of the design capacity then the design
of the beam is OK.

13
Chapter 5

Analysis of a beam or column

with distributed reinforcement

It's common in the field that we find sec ons that don't have just reinforcement in the
top and bo om, but rather all around the sec on.
In this case to assess the moment capacity of the sec on it is simply necessary to prop-
erly count for the contribu on of each reinforcement 'layer'.
The sec on is divided into layers of concrete and steel and a complete sec on analy-
sis is carried out using trial and error approach. This is generally slow and done on a
computer. The complexity of the ques on is propor onal to the numbers of sublayers
that are required to represent the sec on.
General Moment-curvature analysis
ε
1. For a given value of ϕ (where ϕ is equal to c

2. Guess c
3. Calculate the various epsilons

4. Calculate the stresses in the concrete and steel layers

5. Calculate the forces

6. Check axial force equilibrium

7. if you're c is right and the axial force equilibrium check out then go onto calculate
the moment capcity. If not then choose a new value of c and iterate again.

5.1 Bi Axial Bending respose of Columns

When column are loaded simultaneously by moments about 2 orthogonal axes, the
resul ng response of the sec on can be changed significantly. Generally we see a
decrease in the strength and s ffness of the column, which can lead to resduced duc le
capacity, and effect that is par cularly important under earthquake condi ons.
As standard, sec on strain compa bility , stress train rela onships and sec on and
sec on equilibrium are adopted to evaluate the moment capacity of the sec on.
The analysis of a sec on under bi-axia; bending requies trial & adjustment to find the

14
inlcina on and the depth of the nuetral axis that sa sfies equilibrium. This is very me
consuming and normally its done on a computer.
Design charts are usually available for regular sec on shape and reinforcement layout.
The expressions for Cc x & y (indica ng the distance from the centroid of the stress
block to the extreme fibre in compression) depend on the shape of the equivalent
compression stress block.
The effects of the bi-axial moment demand on the sec on capacity can be visualized
using a Mx − My − N interac on diagram in a similar way to what is described for
the M-N interac on diagram (uni-direc onal). However, now a third axis is included,
as shown in the course reader.
For a given axial load (P or N is held constant) the 3D surface can be viewed in a 2D
domain, from which a reduced moment capacity about each orthogonal axis of the
sec on can be clearly observed. The most basic form of the interac on diagram for
given level of axial load is typically considered an ellipse given by the equa on below.
( )m ( )n
Mux Muy
+ =1
Muxo Muyo

Where Mux = Pu ey and Muy = Pu ex and Muxo and Muyo are the uniaxial flexural
strengths about the x and y axes for the constant load considera on. One defini on
of m and n is given as:
( ) loglog0.5 ( ) loglog0.5
Mux β
Muy β
+ =1
Muxo Muyo

In simple terms, we can show that the flexural capacity of a structural element sub-
jected to a bi-direc onal moment demand can be significantly reduced (typically in the
order of 20-30

15
Chapter 6

Shear Strength Theory

Structural members subjected to flexural moment will in general also be subjected to

shear stresses that can significantly alter the behaviour of a member. When a simple
beam is subjected to loads that cause shear stresses, the lines along which the principal
stresses (both tension & compression) across the length and depth of the member can
be plo ed are called stress trajectories. To determine the stress pa erns in a member
we can use conven onal elas c theory. The principal stresses and the plane direc on
they act can in fact be calculated using the Mohr's circle for stress.
The shear stress ac ng on an element within a beam sec on can be found from:
VQ
v=
Ibw
Where V is the shear forve ac ng on the cross sec on, Q is the sta c moment of area
about the nuetral axis and I is the second moment of area and bw the width of the
member at the depth the stress is being calculated.
The cracking pa ern of a simply supported beam subjected to a 4 point load will be in
fact very similar to what predicted by elas c theory. Ver cal cracked will form first in
the region of constant (and maximum) moment (flexure only). Outside of this region,
the combina on of flexure and shear will lead to a rota on of the principal tensile and
compressive stresses, thus to the foruma on of inclined cracks.
It is conven onal to assume that the inclina on (with horizontal axis for a beam, with
the ver cal axis for a column) of "shear" cracks is approximately 45◦ . More precisely it
tends to vary between 35◦ to 45◦ . This angle can reduce when an axial load is applied
to the structural member, as it will be pointed out in the second part of the course.

6.1 Behaviour a er cracking

6.1.1 Members without shear reinforcement
THe mode by which the internal shear stresses are transferred from the loading point
to the support depends on the member geometry and how the load is applied.
In general we can say that when the shear reinforcement is not present, shear stresses
are resisted by amisture of an arch ac on and a beam ac on. The extent to which each
mechanism contributes to shear resistance at various level ox external load intensity
will depend on the compa bility of dforma on associated to these ac ons.

16
 1. In the case of short/deep beams, a load applied to the top of the beam can be
carried directly to the supports by arch ac on, in which a compression strut and
tension e are formed.
This type of mechanism will also develope if the shear flow ac ng on a hori-
zontal plane between the reinforcement and the compression zone cannot be
transferred due to the longitudinal bars debonding , or the transfer of flow is
prevented by an inclined crack extending from the point load to the reac ons.
The shear capacity of the arch mechanism can be found from:

Varch = ϕvc bw d

Where the shear contribu on provided by the concrete vc can be in principle

calculated as a func on of the tensile strength of the concrete, the sapect ra o
of the beam and the longitudinal beam reinforcement ra o:
( )
√ Vu d
′
vc = 1.9 fc + 2500ρ
Mu
Where ρ is the flexural reinforcement ra o, while vu and Mu are the maximum
factored shear and moments in the member. The ra o Vu and Mu is an aspect
ra o indica ng the efficieny of the arch ac on. This however is a very old for-
mula from ACI-ASCE 1962)

2. In longer or shallower members a transfer mechanism across the cracks is nec-

essary to get the load to the reac ons. The shear cracks divide can lever blocks
which acts as flexural beams. This shear transfer mechanism is thus refered to
as "beam ac on".
The average shear stress, v, across the depth of the beam is found from:
V
v=
bw jd
or more simply put
V
v=
bw d
The shear force at the crack is resisted by 3 mechanisms
• Vcz = the shear force carried across the compression region
• Vd′ = the shear force carried by the aggregate interlock with a ver cal component
Va . This is due to the crack surface not being a snooth surface, you can't have
shear failure straight away.
• Vd = the shear force carried by dowel ac on of flexural reinforcement
Of these 3 components, aggregate interlock accounts for most of the shear transfer
(≈70%), however this decreases rapidly as the crack width increases. Note that the
proper es of the aggregate (ceushed or rounded) will have an effect on the aggregate
interlock contribu on.
For design in NZ the nominal shear force, Vn , provided by the concrete through the 3
mechanisms above is defined as:

Vn = vc bw d

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Where Vc is the nominalshear stress provided by the concrete mechanisms.
nb: in a rectangular beam b = bw since bw is the width of the web.
The Value of vc depends on 2 things:
√
• The tensile concrete strength k fc′
• Crack control and area of concrete in compression (which is a func on of the
tensile steel ra o ρw = bAwsd (this accounts for dowl ac on)
• From experimental findings, the NZ concrete design standard reccomends the
following emperical equa ons:
√
vb = (0.007 + 10ρw ) fc′
√ √
vb shall not be greater than 0.2 fc′ no less than 0.08 fc′

– For beams:
vc = vb
– For columns in compression:
( )
3N ∗
vc = 1+ vb
Ag fc′
– For columns in tension
( )
14N ∗
vc = 1+ vb
Ag fc′
Where N ∗ is the axial load taken posi ve in compression and Ag is the cross
sec on area of the column.
Note: the above equa ons imply that the shear capacity increases if the axial
load increases.

6.1.2 Types of shear failture for members without shear rein-

forcement
– Diagonal tension failure - Where the moment cracks the sec on from the
bo om
– Diagonal compression failure - Where the moment cracks the web sec on
in compession, typically occurs in I beams.

6.1.3 situa ons where shear reinforcement is not necessary

According to the NZ concrete structures design standards NZS3101, a minimum
area of shear reinforcement shall be provided except for:
1. In beams with a total depth equal to or less than 250mm
2. In beams casted monolithically with slabs, where the overal depth is equal
to or less than the smaller of the half of the width of the web or 300mm.
3. In one way slabs
Therefore in one way floorslabs, which generally act and are designed as beams, there
is no need to include addi onal transverse steel reinforcement for shear.

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6.1.4 Members with shear reinforcement: Truss mechanism analogy
If transverse reinforcement is provided in a member, the shear strength a er cracking
is increased. The transfer mechanism for shear stress in a cracked member is analo-
gous to a truss. This simplifica on (truss theory) that allows us to construct a logical
design model was first proposed arounf1900, forst by Ri er and then by Morsch.

To complete the truss mechanism analogy, it is necessary to include ver cal or trans-
verse steel bars, called s rrups, es or hoops, that carry the tenson components of
the truss. The topand bo om of the truss mechanisms are given by compression ans
tension shords. Thus the complementary tension-compression couple Ts and Cc that
we have introduced for beam flexure theory is also relied upon to increase the shear
capacity of reinforced conrete members.
To derive the truss model, the following assump ons are made:
• The truss is formed by lumping all transverse steels cut by sec on A-A into one
ver cal member b-c. Note that the solid truss lines are tension stress paths.
• All the diagonal concrete members cut by sec on B-B are lumped into one diag-
onal member e-f. In the orginal truss model the angle of the struts was assumed
to be 45◦ , however this can actually vary.
• The compression chord along the top of the truss is actually a forcein the con-
crete but it is shown as a truss member because it simply completes the truss.
Note that compression stresses are carried by the concrete struts shown by
dashed lines.
• We assume that all s rrups yield by the me the failure load is reached. This
makes the truss sta cally determinate, and therefore solveable. This all yeild
approach is called the pas c truss model.
• In the original truss mechanism developement the components Vcz , Va′ , Vd were
ignored, however modern codes allow for concrete contribu ons.
The basic force in a s rrup or hoop is
vs Vs
A y fy = tan θ =
jd jd cot θ
From this basic assump on, further code defini ons are o en made, however this
conceptually simple mechanism s ll forms the basis to design approaches.

NZ concrete design
For the NZ concrete design the 45◦ angle model is assumed
The shear force carried by the concrete, vc is goven by the equa ons in the previous
sec ons.
The amount of shear demand in excess of that carried by the concrete will be made
up by the transverse reinforcement.
Therefore the area of shear reinforcement perpedicular to the axis of the member,
within a distance s (the s rrup spacing) is given by:
(vn − vc )bw s
Av =
fyt

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Where bw if the web-width of the member, s is the s rrup spacing and fyt the yield
stress of the s rrups.
IMPORTANT : note that most of the interna onal codes, at least 50When shear rein-
forcement is required by the minimum to be included in the member is given by:
bw s
Av = 0.35
fyt

So the total shear strength capcity of a member according to the NZ code is:
d
Vn = Vc + Vs = vc bw d + Ay fy
s
Note that in other codes, they use jd instead of d in the above equa on to reflect the
actual internal lever arm distance. Also the horizontal length of the crack would be in
jd
general equal to tan θ = jd cot θ

Types of shear failure for members with shear reinforcement

• Failure due to yield of s rrups

• Failure from loss of s rrup anchorages - this is par cularly an issue for members
subject to earthquake loading

• Crushing of web
• Failure of the tension chord

• Serviceability failure due to excessive crack widths at serviceability loads.

6.1.5 Further aspects of shear design

There also exist other methods to work out the concrete contribu on to shear strength.
Most of these do not agree with each other. For example in Eurocode 2, they assume
that the angle of the crack is a variable (instead of being fixed like NZS). While more
complicated, the basic premise is the same as that of NZS.
∫
X(ω) = inf− infx(t)e−Iωt dt

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