Math 595.

99: Euler’s Sums

by David Ding and Sara Kang

We will evaluate the p-series

∞
X 1 1 1 1
2
= 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ···
n 2 3 4
n=1

This sum, also known as the Basel problem, was a major problem in the eighteenth century. Leading
mathematicians of the day, including Leibnitz, inventor of calculus, were unable to evaluate the sum. We
will examine Euler’s approach to this problem.
First let us consider Taylor series of sin x:

x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ···
3! 5! 7!
The Taylor series is an infinite polynomial, and, if we take a leap of faith, it should satisfy properties of
finite polynomials.
One property of finite polynomials is that if r1 , r2 , ..., rn are roots of a polynomial p(x), then
     
x x x x
p(x) = c 1 − 1− 1− ··· 1 −
r1 r2 r3 rn

Then, applying this property to sin x, we get

x3 x5 x7
    
1 1 1 1
sin x = x − + − + ··· = x 1 − 1− 1− 1− ···
3! 5! 7! r1 r2 r3 r4

When is sin x = 0? Answer: x = ±π, x = ±2π, or in general, x = ±kπ for an integer k. Plugging in
r1 = π, r2 = −π, r3 = 2π, r4 = −2π, and so forth, we get

x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ··· (1)
 3! x 5!
 7!  
x x  x
= x 1− 1+ 1− 1+ ··· (2)
π  π 2π 2π
x2 x2 x2 x2
     
= x 1− 2 1− 2 1− 2 1− ··· (3)
π 4π 9π 16π 2
or
sin x x2 x4 x6
= 1− + − + ···
x  3! 2 5!
 7! 2  
x2 x2
 
x x
= 1− 2 1− 2 1− 2 1− ···
π 4π 9π 16π 2

This equation, relating a transcendental function, an infinite sum, and an infinite product, is the basis for
Euler’s work. We can prove many cool things with this equation.

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 For instance, if we look at the x2 coefficient of the right hand side, we get

x2 x2 x2 x4
      
1 1 1 1
1− 2 1− 2 1− 2 1− ··· = 1 − + + + + · · · x2 + · · ·
π 4π 9π 16π 2 π 2 4π 2 9π 2 16π 2
2
since the first factor could contribute πx2 and every other factor contribute 1, or the second term could
x2
contribute 4π 2 and everything else contribute 1, and etc.

But this means that, by equating this expression for the x2 coefficient with the coefficient of x2 in the
sum representation of sinx x ,
1 1 1 1 1
= 2+ 2+ 2+ + ···
6 π 4π 9π 16π 2
Thus, we find
∞
X 1 1 1 1 π2
= 1 + + + + · · · =
n2 22 32 42 6
n=1

relating the sum of reciprocals of perfect squares to something that seems totally unrelated: π, the ratio
of the circumference of a circle to the diameter.
We could, of course, ask many more interesting questions. For instance, what is the sum ∞ 1
P
n=1 np in
general? It turns out that similar techniques could be used to compute this sum when p is even. Euler
was so excited by this discovery he computed this sum for every even p from 2 to 26, getting
∞
X 1 76977927(2π)26
=
n26 27!
n=1

If we know the sum of the p-series when p is even, what if p is odd? We leave this as an exercise for the
reader.
This p-series is also related to the so-called Riemann zeta function ζ(x), which is defined as
∞
X 1
ζ(x) =
nx
n=1

for x > 1. The zeta function could be defined for all complex numbers except x = 1-the harmonic series.
One interesting question concerns when ζ(x) = 0: a conjecture is that the nontrivial roots of the zeta
function occur when the real part of x is 21 , and the proof of this conjecture is one of the most important
unsolved problems in mathematics today. The p-series that Euler considered is still of interest today.

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 Homework
P∞ 1
In this problem, we shall try to find the sum n=1 n4 .

1. In the equation
x2 x2 x2 x4
    
1− 2 1− 2 1− 2 1− ···
π 4π 9π 16π 2
find the coefficient of x4 . What does this equal, according to the product-to-sum equation?

2. Expand:
 2
1 1 1 1
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ···
2 3 4 5
What does this equal?

3. Use the information of part 1 and 2 to deduce

∞
X 1
n4
n=1