Communication

structures

Brian W. Smith
Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.
www.thomastelford.com

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

USA: ASCE Press, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4400
Japan: Maruzen Co. Ltd, Book Department, 3—10 Nihonbashi 2-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103
Australia: DA Books and Journals, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132, Victoria

First published 2007

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-7277-3400-6
# Brian W. Smith 2006

All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the Publishing Director, Thomas Telford Publishing,
Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.

This book is published on the understanding that the author is solely responsible for the statements
made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply that such
statements and/or opinions are or reflect the views or opinions of the publishers. While every
effort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed in this
publication provide a safe and accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can be accepted in
this respect by the author or publishers.

Typeset by Academic þ Technical, Bristol

Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Bodmin, Cornwall
Contents

Foreword ix

Preface xi

Acknowledgements xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

Chapter 2 History 6

Chapter 3 Design considerations 19

3.1 General, 19
3.2 Choice of site, 20
3.3 Choice of structure, 24
3.4 Economic considerations, 27
3.5 Environmental considerations, 27
3.6 Electronic considerations, 30
3.6.1 General, 30
3.6.2 Antenna characteristics, 33
3.6.3 Low-frequency antennas, 37
3.6.4 Medium-frequency antenna systems, 41
3.6.5 VHF and UHF antennas, 44
3.6.6 Digital audio broadcasting, 49
3.6.7 Mobile phone antennas, 51
3.7 Effect on existing services of subsequent additional
antennas, 54

Chapter 4 Failures of masts and towers 56

4.1 General, 56

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Communications structures

4.2 Icing failures, 59

4.3 Design/detail failures, 61
4.4 Maintenance failures, 63
4.5 Aircraft damage, 65
4.6 Vandal damage, 68
4.7 Lessons to be learned, 69

Chapter 5 Forms of structure 71

5.1 General, 71
5.2 Timber towers, 71
5.3 Concrete towers, 71
5.4 Lattice steel towers, 75
5.5 Lattice guyed masts, 81
5.6 Tubular guyed masts, 87
5.7 Concrete guyed masts, 90
5.8 Other forms of communication structures, 91

Chapter 6 Meteorological parameters 93

6.1 General, 93
6.2 Wind, 93
6.2.1 Wind climate, 95
6.2.2 Boundary layer, 99
6.2.3 Serviceability wind speeds, 102
6.3 Atmospheric icing, 104
6.3.1 General, 104
6.3.2 Physics and theoretical modelling of ice accretion, 107
6.3.3 Empirical models to estimate ice loads on
structures, 109
6.4 Earthquakes, 113
6.5 Temperature, 114
6.6 Other meteorological aspects, 115

Chapter 7 Wind resistance 117

7.1 General, 117
7.2 Symmetrical structures without ancillaries, 122
7.3 Symmetrical structures with limited ancillaries, 128
7.4 General method for structures containing
ancillaries, 129
7.5 Linear ancillaries, 133
7.6 Discrete ancillaries, 133
7.7 Cables, 133

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 Contents

7.8 Measurements on scale model of communications

tower, 134
7.9 Discrepancy between wind tunnel tests and full-scale
measurements, 137
7.10 Icing, 140

Chapter 8 Response 147

8.1 General, 147
8.2 Lattice towers, 148
8.3 Guyed masts, 150
8.3.1 General, 150
8.3.2 Frequency domain analysis, 152
8.3.3 Time domain analysis, 157
8.3.4 Simplified methods, 159
8.3.5 Summary, 176

Chapter 9 Strength 177

9.1 Introduction, 177
9.2 Design against buckling — individual members, 178
9.2.1 General, 178
9.2.2 Influence of local and torsional buckling, 180
9.2.3 Angle leg members, 181
9.2.4 Angle bracing members, 182
9.2.5 Tubular leg members, 184
9.2.6 Tubular bracing members, 184
9.2.7 Solid round members, 184
9.3 Secondary members (‘redundants’), 185
9.4 Bracing types, 186
9.5 Compound members, 189
9.6 Tension, 190
9.7 Connections, 190
9.7.1 General, 190
9.7.2 Flange joints in tubular or solid round leg
members, 190
9.7.3 Guy connections, 192

Chapter 10 Cables 195

10.1 General, 195
10.2 Types of cables, 195
10.3 Strength of guy ropes, 202
10.4 Rotational characteristics of steel ropes, 202

v
Communications structures

10.5 Modulus of elasticity, 203

10.6 Prestretching, 203
10.7 Still air tension, 206
10.8 Terminations, 206
10.8.1 General, 206
10.8.2 Types of terminations, 207

Chapter 11 Aerodynamic stability 210

11.1 General, 210
11.2 Vortex shedding, 211
11.2.1 General, 211
11.2.2 Background and critical wind speed, 211
11.2.3 Practical implications, 213
11.2.4 Damping devices, 214
11.3 Galloping, 216
11.3.1 General, 216
11.3.2 Critical wind speed, 216
11.3.3 Damping devices, 219

Chapter 12 Fatigue 220

12.1 General, 220
12.2 Lattice towers, 223
12.3 Lattice masts, 223
12.4 Guys, 226

Chapter 13 Foundations 228

13.1 General, 228
13.2 Foundation types, 228
13.2.1 Type I: to resist uplift, 228
13.2.2 Type II: to resist overturning, 231
13.2.3 Type III: to resist down thrust, 233
13.2.4 Type IV: guy anchorages, 233

Chapter 14 Codes and standards 239

14.1 History, 239
14.1.1 General, 239
14.1.2 Wind loading, 239
14.1.3 Ice loading, 242
14.1.4 Strength, 243
14.1.5 Other aspects, 243
14.2 Current codes, 244

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 Contents

14.2.1 General, 244

14.2.2 Comparison of current Codes, 245

Chapter 15 Access and safety 246

15.1 General, 246
15.2 IASS Recommendations for safe access, 249

Chapter 16 Fabrication and erection 251

16.1 Materials and fabrication, 251
16.1.1 Steel for towers and mast columns, 251
16.1.2 Aluminium, 257
16.1.3 Timber, 257
16.1.4 Plastics, 258
16.2 Erection, 258
16.2.1 General, 258
16.2.2 Erection of lattice towers, 259
16.2.3 Erection of guyed masts, 259

Chapter 17 Maintenance 264

17.1 General, 264
17.2 Constraints, 264
17.3 Minimizing maintenance at the design stage, 265
17.4 Manuals, 267

Chapter 18 Seismic response 269

18.1 General, 269
18.2 Seismicity and earthquake-resistance performance levels, 270
18.3 Prediction of seismic response of structures, 271
18.3.1 General, 271
18.3.2 Self-supporting lattice towers, 272
18.3.3 Monopoles, 273
18.3.4 Guyed masts, 273
18.3.5 Antennas and ancillary components, 275
18.4 Geotechnical considerations, 275

Annex A Codes of Practice and Design Standards 276

A.1 General, 276
A.2 Comparisons of National Codes, 277
A.3 Scope, 277
A.4 Limit states/reliability classes, 277
A.5 Wind structure, 279

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Communications structures

A.5.1 General, 279

A.5.2 Wind resistance, 286
A.6 Ice loading, 292
A.7 Displacements/serviceability, 293
A.8 Partial safety factors, 295
A.9 Strength, 298
A.9.1 Compressive strength, 298
A.9.2 Tensile strength, 303
A.9.2.1 Steel structure, 303
A.9.2.2 Guys, 303
A.10 Guy assemblies, 304
A.10.1 General, 304
A.10.2 Prestretching, 304
A.10.3 Terminations, 304
A.10.4 Initial tensions, 305
A.11 Erection, 305
A.12 Insulators, 305
A.13 Access, 307

Annex B IASS Working Group Number 4: Masts and

Towers 308
B.1 Brief history, 308
B.2 Role in the future, 308
B.3 The members of the Group, 309

References 311

Index 327

viii
Foreword

Today none of us can enjoy modern life even for a single day without
maintaining communication with others or receiving information
from radio and TV. Nevertheless, very few of us recognize that these
modern conveniences are literally supported by structures properly
designed, constructed and maintained for that particular purpose.
Although some of the tasks of terrestrial antennas have been taken
over by celestial ones, more and more demands for transmission struc-
tures for local and ground communication have emerged in recent
years. In Japan, for instance, the meteorological radar station on top
of Mount Fuji, which had served for 35 years for weather forecasting,
was dismantled and replaced by satellites in 1999. Meanwhile, the
demand for a new Tokyo Tower for the ground digital communication
networks, which may be twice as tall as the existing one, is now under
discussion. A remarkably high structure like a TV tower often incorpo-
rates a viewing platform or restaurant for people at its top, and plays an
important role as a tourist centre in the locality, too.
Brian Smith’s book on communication structures is a thorough study
of the technology of structures supporting communication systems for
our society. It covers a very wide range of tower and mast structures,
and looks at them from their history, forms, loads, analysis and
design, codes and standards, fabrication and erection to their mainte-
nance. The book also deals with access and safety of masts and
towers, part of which has already been published within the IASS
(International Association for Shell & Spatial Structures). I am sure
that engineers who are working in the fields of design, analysis, fabrica-
tion and construction of masts and/or towers will accomplish their tasks
with confidence by making good consultation with the book, which also
contains comprehensive references for further study.

ix
Communications structures

Brian Smith and I have been good friends for more than fifteen years,
mainly through activities in the IASS. He has been a member of the
IASS for a long time, and is currently one of the most active
members of the IASS Executive Council. In 1997 he was conferred
the IASS Tsuboi Award for his excellent joint paper on ‘Simplified
Dynamic analysis Methods for Guyed masts in Turbulent Winds’
presented in the IASS Journal.
The IASS Working Group 4 for Masts and Towers, in which Brian
has played the leading role, is the most animated working group in
the Association. According to Brian he has received a great deal of
help and advice from members of Working Group 4. On behalf of the
IASS I am very proud of the Working Group as well as Brian himself,
and would like to congratulate the Working Group and all the consti-
tuent members of the Group on the publication of this remarkable book.
Mamoru Kawaguchi, President of IASS, June, 2006

In preparing the report for the Executive Council meeting held in Mont-
pellier, France on September 19, 2004, I was informed by Ulrik Støttrup-
Andersen, Chairman of IASS Working Group 4 on Masts and Towers,
that Brian Smith has, with the support of WG4, agreed to write a book
on communication structures, and that IASS WG4 will act as the
‘backing group’. By having the research results published in the form of
a book, available in libraries and/or bookshelves is the highest status
that can be achieved by an IASS working group and its members.
The importance of communication structures cannot be underesti-
mated, as the failure of communication facilities can sometimes be
quite destructive. One example was the malfunction of the communi-
cation facilities of a key station in the Kobe area of Japan immediately
after the January 17, 1995 earthquake. This event was said to have
prevented local governments knowing the level and scope of casualties
caused by the disaster; as we know, this is crucial for the rescue of
injured people from collapsed buildings in the first few critical hours.
On behalf of the IASS Technical Activities Committee, I would like
to congratulate Brian for his endeavor in making this book a reality, and
WG4 for their backing of such an endeavor. We believe that with this
book, engineers and researchers working on communication structures
and the like can benefit greatly from the huge amount of information
provided.
Y.B. Yang, Chair, Technical Activities Committee, IASS. Taipei, Taiwan

x
Preface

Communication structures, in the modern sense — masts and towers — are

now familiar to everybody as these structures are situated in the open
landscape as well as in the middle of our cities. The tall masts and
towers for broadcasting of radio and TV have gradually been accepted
by the public, and now their focus is on the numerous number of
smaller masts, towers and poles primarily used for mobile networks.
However, most of the general public are unaware of the engineering
challenges and specialisms behind these common structures. They are
not aware that ‘a guyed-mast is one of the most complicated structures
an engineer may be faced with’ when driving by in their cars they see a
300 m broadcast mast; and nobody worries or gets nervous when they
see on their TV screens the message ‘temporary deterioration of the
signal due to icing of the Emley Moor antenna’. It is of course wrong
to say ‘nobody’ because there is a group of people — structural engineers,
scientific researchers, mast and tower owners, antenna experts etc.,
which know and ‘worry’. This group, heavily involved in the analysis,
design, construction and operation of communication structures,
have for a long time been discussing new developments, exchanging
experiences, launching new designs, presenting numerous technical
papers etc. worldwide, but have not until now systematically accumu-
lated or gathered their knowledge into one work. This has led to a
situation where analysis and design of communication structures has
not appeared as part of the syllabus for structual engineers at technical
unversities; and young engineers starting on their professional career
have had no introduction to this field other than the experienced
personnel in a company.
With this book, Brian W. Smith has covered the subject very
effectively indeed; and this title will surely be invaluable not only for

xi
Communications structures

the new generation of engineers — whether they study at technical

universities or they start their professional carreer in engineering prac-
tices, telecom organisations, with contractors or mast and tower fabri-
cators, but also certainly for the established mast and tower experts.
Communication structures is the first work of its kind, which in an
instructive and clear way expounds the background of communication
structures, taking into account all the issues involved in the analysis,
design, fabrication, construction and maintenance. It is fully illustrated
with excellent photographs and figures throughout and makes references
to actual real-life constructions.
Brian W. Smith has been involved in the analysis and design of
communication structures all of his professional life as a partner of
Flint & Neill Partnership. He has been involved as the expert in all
the British codes and standards directly related to masts and towers,
and for those with influence on masts and towers. Internationally,
Brian has been a very active member of the IASS (International
Association for Shell and Spatial Structures) Working Group for Masts
and Towers since its formation in 1969, and for ten years he was
chairman of the group. Perhaps, most significant, is Brian’s influence
on the new common Eurocode for Towers and Masts, a work he has
chaired and steered from its inception in 1993 to the final draft which
was accepted unanimously by all the European states in 2003.
So when Brian gives credit for the book to the IASS WG 4 — it is for
all members of this Group a great honour — an honour that none of us
really deserve.
Ulrik Støttrup-Andersen, Chairman of IASS Working Group No. 4

xii
Acknowledgements

The author has received a great deal of help and advice during the
preparation of this manuscript. Working Group 4 (WG4) of the Inter-
national Association of Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) has
provided both much of the source material as well as support for this
venture. In particular, the following members of IASS WG4 have
provided both advice and technical input to certain chapters as
below:
Ondrej Fischer (Chapter 11)
Duncan Gould (Chapters 3, 7, 9, 13, 16 and Annex A)
Mark Grant (Chapter 15)
Tony di Guglielmo (Chapter 3)
Peter Heslop (Chapters 2, 3)
Mark Malouf (Chapter 14 and Annex A)
Don Marshall (Chapter 16)
Ciro Martoni (Chapter 10)
Ghyslaine McClure (Chapter 18)
John Mearns (Chapters 3, 16, 17)
Miroš Pirner (Chapter 7)
Bruce Sparling (Chapter 8)
John Wahba (Chapter 14 and Annex A)
Simon Weisman (Chapters 4, 5, 7, 8)
Geoff Wiskin (Chapters 2, 3, 4)
In addition Ulrik Støttrup-Andersen (Chairman of IASS WG4) and
Mogens Nielsen (Secretary of IASS WG4) reviewed and made valuable
comments on all chapters. A full list of the current active members of
IASS WG4 is given in Annex B.

xiii
Communications structures

Material which appears in Chapters 18 and Annex A is reproduced

with the permission of Canadian Standards Association. Material is
reproduced from CSA Standard CSA-537-01 Antennas, Towers and
Antenna Supporting Structures, which is copyrighted by Canada
Standards Association, 178 Rexdale Blvd, Toronto, Ontario,
M9W 1R3, www.csa.ca. While use of this material has been authorized,
CSA shall not be responsible for the manner in which the information is
presented, nor for any interpretations thereof.
Permission to reproduce extracts from BS 8100-4: 1995 is granted by
BSI British Standards and can be obtained from BSI Customer Services,
389 Chiswick High Road, London W4 4AL. Tel: þ44 (0)208996 9001.
email: cservices@bsi-global.com
The support of the IASS through the President, Professor Mamoru
Kawaguchi, and the Working Bureau is most gratefully acknowledged.
Finally, I would like to thank Flint & Neill Partnership for allowing
me to prepare this document with their support, for my colleagues
David MacKenzie and John Rees for reviewing the draft and providing
valuable comments, and to Helen Cartwright for patiently typing the
manuscript.
All figures are reproduced with the kind permission of Flint & Neill
Partnership unless otherwise accredited.

xiv
3
Design considerations

3.1 General
Frequently the design and construction of the antenna support
structure is, in terms of costs, a relatively small element in a complex
project comprising access roads, buildings, site development, trans-
mitters, monitoring equipment, power supplies, antennas and feeders.
The project management team will need experts in each of these
disciplines. However, the specification for each discipline is often
produced independently, in spite of the inter-relationships with other
disciplines. Generally the fundamental parameters are the available
frequency at which the signal is transmitted, and the proposed
service area (the population targeted to receive the service). A
‘service area plan’ is then developed, which explores available sites,
the height of structure needed and the radiated power necessary to
deliver the signal. This proposed radiated power, in turn, defines the
options for the physical size and disposition of the antenna and
feeders, which in their turn define the weights and wind resistance to
be carried by the structure. These data are then incorporated into
the design brief and passed to the structural engineer.
Frequently the structural engineer is unaware of possible alternatives
that may provide the client with a more economical solution. For
example, in broadcasting the transmitted signal strength or effective
radiated power (erp) is a function of the transmitter power and the gain
of the antenna array. By increasing the transmitter power the gain (and
thus the length of the antenna aperture) can be reduced, saving
antenna cost and significantly reducing the structural loading. Unfortu-
nately this increases the initial cost of the transmitters and also the
power consumption and running costs. Broadcast project engineers
hence have to try to optimize the combination of transmitter and

19
Communication structures

antenna costs but, unless they are alerted by the structural designer, rarely
consider the potential reduction in structure cost which a smaller antenna
might permit. For example, a slight reduction in antenna loading might
allow a standard ‘off-the-shelf ’ structure to be used rather than a more
costly ‘special’ design. More commonly on existing structures, a smaller
antenna may be possible without the need for structural strengthening
whereas a larger antenna could necessitate significant strengthening.

3.2 Choice of site

The selection of the site must take into account:
. The area to be served by the installation; clearly this is dependent on
the type of service to be provided — cellular phone, television, micro-
wave networks, etc. — and on the density of population in that area.
This will have economic and environmental implications.
. The distribution of the population in that area; this could affect
the directionality needed of the antenna system and, possibly, the
orientation in plan of the structure itself (see section 3.6).
. The general nature of the terrain; this will affect the height of the
structure (see below).
. The presence, or otherwise, of high ground in the locality; this can
again alter the height of the structure, and the viability of sites in the
shadow of the high ground.
. The radiation pattern from the proposed antenna; for example for
TV broadcasting whether the horizontal pattern of radiation
should be omnidirectional or shaped to provide increased power
towards more distant parts of the served area. On occasions the
pattern needs to be shaped to protect an adjacent service on the
same frequency.
. For telecommunication structures used for mobile phone services,
the principal concern is the aesthetics of the structures, particularly
in suburban areas. Novel lattice structures are often needed to
placate local Authority demands and residents’ concerns (see
section 3.5).
The final choice is invariably a compromise between economics of
the proposed service and the demands of other services in different
frequency bands that could enable co-siting to be considered.
The range of a broadcast signal, and hence the service area covered, is
governed not only by the erp from the antenna but also by a combination
of the height of the antenna and the nature of the terrain and the

20
 Design considerations

Coverage

(a)

Same coverage as for level terrain, using shorter structure

(b)

Fig. 3.1 Aerial coverage

broadcast frequency. The higher the broadcast frequency the more the
service area will be restricted to line of sight from the antenna.
For TV and FM radio the height of the antenna above the mean
ground between the transmitter and receiver is a crucial factor in deter-
mining the strength of the signal received. This height depends partly
on the elevation of the chosen site, and partly on the height of the
antenna above the site ground level. Generally speaking, high supports
are required when the terrain is level (effective site height small) (see
Fig. 3.1(a)), and in such cases conditions will normally favour the erec-
tion of high structures, whereas in mountainous regions, where the
elevation of the site is significant but erection conditions difficult,
lower supports can be used (see Fig. 3.1(b)). This is well illustrated
by comparing Denmark and the Netherlands where mean site eleva-
tions are practically zero and antenna structures over 250 m high are
common, with Spain and Portugal where sites often exceed 500 m in
elevation and the average structure is some 60 m high.
The broadcast frequency also has a significant influence on the range
of the signal. Lower frequency signals have greater ability to diffract
around obstructions and hence the amount of shadowing from a fixed
source increases rapidly with frequency (see Fig. 3.2).
Ideally, however, the transmitting site should provide an unobstructed
line-of-sight over the area to be covered, particularly for UHF services.

21
Index

Page numbers in italics refer to diagrams and illustrations.

access antennas
codes and standards 307 see also masts and antennas by type
definition 247 band specific 78
safety 33 digital audio broadcasting 49ÿ51
climb duration 247 gain 44ÿ45
climber competency 250 interference between 54ÿ55
guidelines 246ÿ247 low-frequency systems 37ÿ41, 39
ladder types 249 medium-frequency systems 41ÿ44, 42,
system sophistication 248 43
aerodynamic responses see galloping; multi-purpose, compromises 26ÿ27,
vortex shedding 33ÿ34
aesthetics 2 radiation patterns
cellular phone antennas 52, 54, 92, 92 horizontal 35ÿ37, 37, 38, 44
aircraft vertical 34ÿ35, 35, 36
damage to guyed masts 65ÿ66, 66, 67, seismic responses 275
68 tilt/height effect 34, 35
mast warning lights 66, 265 VHF/UHF systems 44ÿ49, 45ÿ49
painted warnings 265 Australia
altitude, and wind speeds 282ÿ284, 283 codes and standards 276, 292
aluminium, uses of 257 reliability classes 280
angle leg members
angle bracing 182ÿ183 Båtsfjord cylindrical mast (Norway) 88
eccentricities 183 bending moment responses, guyed masts
compound cruciform bracing 165, 165
bolted 182, 182 Berlin Tower (Germany) 72
welded 182, 182 bi-metallic corrosion 266
symmetric bracing 181, 181 bolts, yield strength 257
unsymmetric bracing 181ÿ182, 181 boundary layer, wind climates 99
angled sections, buckling curves bracing systems 299
178ÿ180, 178, 179 see also connections
antenna aperture, definition 44 compound members 189ÿ190, 189

327
Communication structures
bracing systems (continued )
cross-bracing 186ÿ187, 186
with horizontals at centre
intersections 186, 187ÿ188
with redundants 186, 187
K 188, 188
cranked 188ÿ189, 188
multiple lattice 188, 189
portal frame 188, 189
single lattice 186, 186
tension 186, 187
in tension 190
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC),
wind loading curves 239ÿ240, 240
broadcast frequency
identifying 19
signal range 21ÿ23, 22
broadcasts
early
France 12
UK 13ÿ14
future developments 18
Marconi’s experiments 12ÿ13
buckling
curves, angle sections 178ÿ180, 178,
179
local and torsional 178, 180ÿ181
building mounted lattice towers, seismic
responses 272
Canada
codes and standards 276
reliability classes 280
cantilevers
guyed masts
erection 263
guy tensions 174, 175
patch load analysis 170ÿ171
lattice steel towers 86
capacitance discs, low-frequency
antennas 41
cellular phones
antennas 27, 52, 53, 54, 54
aesthetics 52, 54, 92, 92
design objectives 92
disguised as trees 30, 30
first generation systems 51ÿ52
second generation systems 52
328
services 18
third generation systems 52
Charpy V-notch tests, normalization 252
252
clamped terminations, guy cables 198
climber competency, and access safety
250
CN Tower Toronto (Canada) 72, 73
lightning strikes 115, 116
codes and standards
access 307
Australia 276
Canada 276, 279
comparisons 277, 278
deflection angles 295
drag coefficients 286ÿ287, 288ÿ291,
292
erection tolerances 305, 306
Eurocode 3 244, 276, 279, 282
Germany 244
guy assemblies 303ÿ305
guyed masts 279
deflection limits 243ÿ244
ice loadings 242, 292
insulators 305ÿ306
lattice steel towers 279
national 3
partial safety factors 295ÿ298
reliability classes 280ÿ281
serviceability factors 293ÿ295, 294
strength 243
compressive 298, 300ÿ303
tensile 303ÿ304
UK 245, 276
USA 244, 276, 279
wind loadings, early 239ÿ242, 240, 241
wind speeds
and altitude 282ÿ284, 283
and gust speeds 282
and topography 283ÿ284, 284, 285,
286
wind structures 279, 282ÿ284, 285,
286
collapses see failures
communication towers, environmental
impact 28ÿ29, 29
compound members, bracing systems
189ÿ190, 189
 Index

compression strengths cranked K-bracing systems 188ÿ189,

angle leg members 188
angle bracing 182ÿ183 critical wind speeds
compound cruciform bracing 182, galloping 216ÿ219, 217
182 vortex shedding 211ÿ212
symmetric bracing 181, 181 cross-bracing, bracing systems, with
unsymmetric bracing 181ÿ182, 181 horizontals at centre intersections
angle sections, buckling curves 186, 187ÿ188
178ÿ180, 178, 179 cross-bracing systems 186ÿ187, 186
codes and standards 298, 300ÿ303 with horizontals at centre
round sections 83, 184ÿ185 intersections 186, 187ÿ188
tubular bracing members 184, 184 with redundants 186, 187
tubular leg members 184 cross-lays, wire ropes 198
concrete guyed masts Crystal Palace Tower 78, 79
advantages 90 cylinders
disadvantages 90ÿ91 drag 120, 121, 137ÿ138, 138
concrete towers vortex shedding 213ÿ214
antenna mounting 72 strake damping 214, 215
deflection advantages 72 tuned mass dampers 214ÿ215
drag factors 72
first 28, 71ÿ72 DAB see digital audio broadcasting
height-to-base ratios 76 Danish standard towers 79, 80
public access 72 guy cables, articulation 104, 193
steel topmasts, height-to-base ratios 76 dead loads 2ÿ3
structure 72ÿ73 deflection angles, codes and standards
weight 72 295
connections delta-type low-frequency antennas 40
flange joints design, corrosion protection, galvanizing
solid round legs 190ÿ191, 191 88, 265, 266
tubular round legs 191ÿ192, 191 design faults, guyed masts, failures due
guy cables to 61, 62, 63
freedom of rotation 193, 194, 194 digital audio broadcasting (DAB)
stay plates 192, 192, 194 antenna requirements 33
corrosion multimedia potential 51
bi-metallic 266 multiplex carriers 50
concrete 90 reception 50
humidity 94, 115 transmitter spacing 51
pollution 94 dipoles
corrosion protection batwing 45ÿ46, 45
external 86ÿ87 with reflector screens 46, 47
galvanizing 88, 265, 266 screening 36ÿ37
guy cables 65 wind effects 36ÿ37
galvanizing 266, 267 dish antennas, wind resistance 100ÿ101,
greasing 266 118
zinc-rich paste 267 downthrust resistance, foundations 229,
tubes, internal 81 233, 233, 234
crack detection, fatigue damage downtime, due to wind speeds 102ÿ104,
225ÿ226, 226 103

329
Communication structures
drag
ancillaries 128ÿ132, 129ÿ131, 287
discrete 133
guy cables 133ÿ134, 134, 144ÿ145,
145
linear 133
Australian code 292
circular members 120
codes and standards 286ÿ287,
288ÿ291, 292
crosswinds 127ÿ128
cylinders 120, 121, 137ÿ138, 138
dish antennas 118ÿ119
guyed masts, fluctuations 162ÿ163
icing
coefficients 141ÿ142, 142
guy cables 140
light 140ÿ141, 141
mean loading 117
round members 83
square structures 117, 118
and angle of incidence 125ÿ126,
125, 126
circular section members 124, 126
flat-sided members 123, 125
wind on corner 290
wind on face 288
structural ‘panels’ 118, 119
and surface roughness 138ÿ139, 139
triangular structures 117ÿ118, 118
ancillaries 129, 129, 130
angle of incidence 126ÿ127, 127,
128
circular section members 124, 127,
129, 130
flat-sided members 123, 131
wind on corner 291
wind on face 289
and turbulence 124ÿ125, 139
wind tunnel tests 118, 131ÿ132,
134ÿ137, 135, 136
with ancillaries 135, 137
discrepancies 137ÿ140, 138, 139
dustfall effects 94, 116
dynamic analysis
see also simplified dynamic analysis
guyed masts 150ÿ154, 152
background components 155
330
bending moment components
156ÿ157, 156
gust factor analysis 168ÿ170, 168
mean components 154ÿ155
non-linearity responses 153ÿ154
resonant components 155ÿ156
and simplified analysis 168, 168
time domain 148
simulation 3
dynamic responses
calculations 147ÿ148
lattice towers 148, 149, 150
earthing systems
lightning strikes 44, 116
low-frequency antennas 40
earthquakes see seismic responses
economics, balancing 19ÿ20, 69ÿ70
Eddystone lighthouses 8, 10
Smeaton’s 8, 10
Winstanley’s 8, 9
effective radiated power (erp)
definitions 19
maximising 33
Eiffel, Gustave 10ÿ12
Eiffel tower (France) 9ÿ12, 11, 17, 27
broadcasts from 12
Electronics Industries Association (EIA)
(USA) 244
elevation, sites 21, 21, 23
Emley Moor TV transmitter (1st),
failure, icing 60ÿ61, 113
Emley Moor TV transmitter (2nd) 73,
74
Listed Building Status 28, 75
endurance curves, welded details
221ÿ222, 221
environmental impact
Eiffel tower 27
planning permissions 70
tall communications towers 28ÿ29
equal lays, wire ropes 198
erection 4
guyed masts 260ÿ263, 262
lattice towers 259ÿ260, 260
tolerances, codes and standards 305,
306
weather 259

erp see effective radiated power
Eurocode 3 244, 276
reliability classes 280
fabrication 4
bolts, yield strength 257
faults, failures due to 63
poor
flange plates 255, 256
tubular legs 255ÿ257, 256
slotted holes 257
failures 3ÿ4
by terrorism 68ÿ69
by vandalism 68ÿ69, 69
economic considerations 69ÿ70
fabrication faults 63
guyed masts 56ÿ57, 58
aircraft damage 65ÿ66, 66, 67, 68
design faults 61, 62, 63
maintenance 63, 64, 65
single guy cables 68
stay plates 62, 63
icing 59, 113
triggering mechanisms 60
maintenance, procedures 63, 64, 65,
70
fatigue damage
assessing 220
endurance curves, welded details
221ÿ222, 221
guy cables 226ÿ227
guyed masts
construction standards 223ÿ224
crack detection 225ÿ226, 226
flange joints 224ÿ225, 225
lattice towers 223
low cycle 220
total 222ÿ223
vortex excitation 220ÿ221
wind causes 104, 220
Finland, icing conditions 140ÿ141
flange joints
poor fabrication 255, 256
solid round legs 190ÿ191, 191
tubular round legs 191ÿ192, 191
foundations
downthrust resistance 229, 233, 233,
234
Index
guy cables
conventional 233ÿ235, 235
inverted T 235, 237
tension rod 237ÿ238, 238
tie rod 236, 237
two stays 235, 236
guyed lattice masts 85ÿ86, 85
lattice steel towers 232
overturning resistance 229, 230, 231
tubular guyed masts 88, 89
uplift resistance 228ÿ229, 230, 231,
231
freezing snow, icing due to 104, 106
fundamental parameters
service area 19
signal frequency 19
Gabin mast (Poland), failure, guy
replacement 64, 65
gain, TV antennas 44ÿ45
galloping
calculations 216
causes 216ÿ217, 218ÿ219
damping devices 219
definition 216
iced cables 216ÿ217, 217
spoilers 217
wake 218
galvanizing
corrosion protection 88, 265, 266
guy cables 266, 267
geotechnical site considerations 275
Germany, codes and standards 244
glass-fibre cylinders, antenna screening
46, 47
glaze icing, formation 104, 106
groundwave components, medium-
frequency systems 41
gust response factors
lattice steel towers 148, 149
terrain categories 148, 149
gust speeds, and wind speeds 282
guy cables
see also galloping; guy insulators;
vortex shedding
aircraft damage to 66, 67
anchorages
conventional 233ÿ235, 235
331
Communication structures
guy cables
anchorages (continued )
inverted T 235, 237
tension rod 237ÿ238, 238
tie rod 236, 237
two stays 235, 236
connections
freedom of rotation 193, 194, 194
stay plates 192, 192, 194
corrosion 65
corrosion protection
galvanizing 266, 267
greasing 266
zinc-rich paste 267
fatigue damage 226ÿ227
icing 107, 107
accretion 144ÿ145, 145
assymetric loadings due to 109
assymetric shedding 113
drag coefficient 145
formation 108ÿ109, 109
wind drag 140
ideal parameters 195
nomenclature 196, 196
ropes
clamped terminations 198
core 196
lays 196, 197, 198, 201, 202, 203
locked-coil 199ÿ200, 199, 202,
203, 205
modulus of elasticity 203, 203
non-metallic 201
parallel laid wires in a strand 200
polypropylene impregnated
200ÿ201, 201, 267
prestretching 203ÿ204, 205, 206,
304
rotational characteristics 202ÿ203,
202
spiral strands 198ÿ199, 199, 202,
203, 205
strength 202
use of standard 196
slope, optimum 25
still air tensioning 206
temperature effects 114
terminations 206ÿ207, 304ÿ305
guy sockets 207, 207, 208
332
loops 208, 209
preformed grips 208ÿ209
wind resistance 133ÿ134, 134
guy insulators
costs 27
installing 263
guy sockets, terminations 207, 207, 208
guyed lattice masts 82
failures, maintenance 63, 65
foundations, fixed 85ÿ86, 85
guy cables
directions 83
inclination 83
spacing 81ÿ82, 83
twin 84ÿ85, 84
leg sections 82ÿ83
omnidirectional antennas 82
top sections 82
torsional restraint
arms 85, 85
twin guys 84ÿ85, 84
vertical thrust 82
weight 89ÿ90
guyed masts 17
see also concrete guyed masts; guy
cables; guyed lattice masts;
tubular guyed masts
aircraft damage 65ÿ66, 66, 67, 68
bases, pinned 167
cantilevers
erection 263
guy tensions 174, 175
patch load analysis 170ÿ171
codes and standards, deflection limits
243ÿ244
design faults, failures due to 61, 62,
63
dynamic analysis 150ÿ154, 152
see also guyed masts, simplified
analysis
background components 155
bending moment components
156ÿ157, 156
gust factor analysis 168ÿ170, 168
mean components 154ÿ155
non-linearity responses 153ÿ154
resonant components 155ÿ156
and simplified analysis 168, 168

erection 258ÿ261, 260
failures 56ÿ57, 58
bracing rods 63, 65
during guy replacement 64, 65
ice loading 59ÿ61
stay plates 62, 63
fatigue damage
construction standards 223ÿ224
crack detection 225ÿ226, 226
flange joints 224ÿ225, 225
guy supports, analysis 173, 173
guy tensions
gust factors 174
patch load methods 174ÿ175
height, determinants 25ÿ26
multi-purpose, compromises 26ÿ27
seismic responses 91, 273ÿ274
simplified analysis 159ÿ161
bending moment responses 165,
165
and dynamically sensitive masts 167
patch load methods 160ÿ164, 162,
167ÿ168, 168, 169ÿ172, 171,
172
static procedures 164ÿ165, 166,
167
single cable failure 68
square 24, 25
stay lanes, elevation 24ÿ25
time domain analysis 148, 157ÿ159,
159
advantages 157
aerodynamic damping 158
turbulence simulation 158ÿ159,
159
triangular 24, 25
turbulance, modes 150, 151
vandalism 68ÿ69, 69
vortex shedding, damping 215
warning lights 66
weight 17
wind load fluctuations 162ÿ163
hail effects 94
health and safety see safety
height-to-base ratios
concrete towers 76
with steel topmasts 76
Index
lattice steel towers 75ÿ76
horizontal radiation patterns,
omni-directional 35ÿ37, 37, 38,
44
Houston mast (USA), maintenance
failure 63
humidity effects, corrosion 94, 115
hybrid connections 184, 184
IASS see International Association of
Shell and Spatial Structures
icing 2, 94, 110
codes and standards 242, 292
drag
coefficients 141ÿ142, 142
radiused corners 143ÿ144, 143
failures due to 59
guyed masts 59ÿ61
triggering mechanisms 60
freezing snow 104, 106
galloping 216ÿ217, 217
glaze 104, 106
growth rates 107ÿ108
guy cables 107, 107
accretion 144ÿ145, 145
assymetric loadings due to 109
assymetric shedding 113
formation 108ÿ109, 109
wind drag 140
lattice towers 59, 59
light, drag 140ÿ141, 141
loadings, codes 242
loads due to 106ÿ107
estimating 110ÿ111
precipitation 59ÿ60
rime 104, 105, 106
formation 108
hard 104, 105ÿ106
soft 104ÿ105
risk assessments 111
and vortex shedding 60ÿ61
zoning map, UK 111ÿ112, 112
inspection programmes 70
insulators
codes and standards 305ÿ306
guy, costs 27
lightning strikes 116
interference, between antennas 54ÿ55
333
Communication structures
International Association of Shell and
Spatial Structures (IASS) 244
access safety recommendations
248ÿ250, 249
masts and towers 308ÿ310
reliability classes 281
International Aviation Organization
(IAO), aircraft warnings 66, 265
international frequency ranges
radio 31, 32, 37
television 31, 32
K-bracing systems 188, 188
cranked 188ÿ189, 188
ladder types, access safety 249
Lang’s lay, wire ropes 198, 201
lattice steel towers
see also guyed lattice masts
antenna attachments 77ÿ78
building mounted, seismic responses
272
cantilevers 86
codes and standards 279
costs 27
cylindrical sections 86
Danish standard 79, 80
diagonals, bolted connections 79, 81,
81
dynamic responses 148, 149, 149
gusts 148, 149
erection 258ÿ260, 260
fatigue damage 223
foundations 232
height-to-base ratios 75ÿ76
heights 75
icing 59, 59
internal corrosion 81
as relay stations 76ÿ77, 77
sections 78ÿ79
round bars 86ÿ87
tubular connections 79, 80
seismic responses 272ÿ273
torsional rigidity 76, 77
turbulence modes 150, 151
vortex shedding 212ÿ213
lattice towers, glass reinforced plastic
259
334
lays
wire ropes 196, 197, 198
cross- 198
equal 198
Lang’s 198, 201
ordinary 198
lighthouses, Eddystone 8, 9, 10
lightning strikes 94, 115, 116
earthing 44, 116
insulators 116
medium-frequency systems 43
Lisnagarvey mast 43, 43
Listed Building Status, Emley Moor TV
transmitter 28, 74, 75
local and torsional buckling 178,
180ÿ181
locked-coil ropes 199ÿ200, 199
prestretching 204, 205, 206
loop terminations, guy cables 208, 209
low temperature embrittlement, steel 115
low-frequency antennas 37ÿ40, 38, 39
capacitance discs 41
delta-type 40
design objectives 38
earthing systems 40
T-type 40, 40
umbrella designs 38ÿ40, 39
maintenance 5, 70
constraints 264ÿ265
failures during, clamp failures 63
manuals 267ÿ268
minimizing, at design stages 265ÿ267
programmes 70
Marconi, Guglielmo 12ÿ13
medium-frequency systems
column length, base impedance 43
current distributions 42ÿ43, 42
groundwave components 41
lightning strikes 43ÿ44
skywave components 41
static 43
microwave dish antennas, plan rotation
36
mobile phones see cellular phones
modulus of elasticity
ropes 203, 203
variability 204
 Index

monopoles, seismic responses 273 timber towers 71

Moscow Tower (Russia) 72 UK 13ÿ15
Mount Sutro Tower (USA) 47, 48 redundants see stabilizing members
multi-purpose antennas, compromises relay stations
26ÿ27, 33ÿ34 directional importance 77, 78
multiple lattice bracing systems 188, lattice steel towers 76ÿ77, 77, 78
189 Reynold’s number
multiplex carriers, digital audio definition 120
broadcasting 50 icing, drag coefficients 141ÿ142, 142
rime ice 105, 106
ordinary lays, wire ropes 198 formation 108, 108
overturning resistance, foundations 229, hard 104, 105ÿ106
230, 231 soft 104ÿ105
risk assessments
panel antennas 48, 49 icing 111
parallel laid wires in a strand 200 terrorism 69
partial safety factors, codes and ropes, non-metallic 201
standards 295ÿ298 ropes (steel)
planning permissions, environmental clamped terminations 198
impact 70 core 196
plastics lays
lattice structures 259 cross-ropes 198
shell radomes 259ÿ260 equal 198
sunlight degradation 94, 115 Lang’s 198, 201
‘tree’ communication towers 30, 30, ordinary 198, 202, 203, 205
258 wire 196, 197, 198
pollution effects, corrosion 94 locked-coil 199ÿ200, 199, 202, 203
polypropylene impregnated ropes prestretching 204, 205, 206
200ÿ201, 201, 267 modulus of elasticity 203, 203
portal frame bracing systems 188, 189 variability 204
Post Office Tower 74 parallel laid wires in a strand 200
bomb attack 68 polypropylene impregnated 200ÿ201,
structure 73 201
precipitation icing 59ÿ60 prestretching
preformed grip terminations, guy cables constructional 203, 304
208ÿ209 curves 204, 205
cyclical 204
radiation patterns rotational characteristics 202ÿ203,
horizontal, omni-directional 35ÿ37, 202
37, 38, 44 spiral strands 198ÿ199, 199, 202, 203
vertical 34ÿ35, 35, 36 prestretching 204, 205, 206
radio strength 202
digital broadcasting, antenna use of standard 196
requirements 33 round sections
France 12 see also tubes
international frequency ranges 31, 32, compression strength 83, 184ÿ185
37 solid, flange joints 191, 191
relay stations 76ÿ77, 77 wind resistance 83, 86, 120

335
Communication structures
safety
access 33
climb duration 247
climber competency 250
guidelines 246ÿ247
ladder types 249
sophistication of 248
IASS recommendations 248ÿ250, 249
legal requirements 5
training schemes 246
security, sites, vandalism 68ÿ69, 69
seismic responses 3, 94, 113ÿ114,
269ÿ270
antennas 275
categories 270ÿ271
geotechnical site considerations 275
guyed masts 91, 273ÿ274
lattice towers 272ÿ273
monopoles 273
peak ground accelerations 271
sensitivity predictions 271ÿ272
service area, plan 19
serviceability components 4
serviceability factors, codes and
standards 293ÿ295, 294
serviceability limits, and wind
predictions 102ÿ104, 103
shadow effects, VHF/UHF systems 49
shell radomes, plastic 258
signal range, broadcast frequency 21ÿ22,
22
simplified dynamic analysis
guyed masts 159ÿ161
bending moment responses 165,
165
and dynamically sensitive masts
167
and full analysis 168, 168
patch load methods 160ÿ164, 162,
167ÿ168, 168, 169ÿ172, 171,
172
static procedures 164ÿ165, 166,
167
single lattice bracing systems 186, 186
sites
broadcast frequency 21ÿ23, 22
elevation 21, 21, 23
geotechnical considerations 275
336
multi-purpose structures 22
parameters 23
selection parameters 20
service area 20ÿ21
Sjællands Odde tower (Denmark) 130,
132
skywave components, medium-frequency
systems 41
snow see icing
solar heating 114
tilt effect 35
spiral strand ropes 198ÿ199, 199, 202,
203, 205
prestretching 204, 205, 206
square structures
wind effects 100, 100
wind resistance 117, 118
stabilizing members
K bracing 185
triangular structures 185ÿ186
value of 185
standards see codes and standards
static, medium-frequency systems 43
stayplates, failure of 62, 63
steel
see also fabrication; ropes (steel)
angle 254, 300
buckling curves 178ÿ180, 178, 179
strength 301ÿ302, 302
Charpy V-notch tests
normalization252 252
specifications 253ÿ254
chemical composition 253, 254
circular 300
corrosion protection 86ÿ87
galvanising 88, 265, 266
low temperature embrittlement 115
mild
high-yeild stress 253
strengths 251
plates, cutting 257
rapid loading, brittle fractures 252
round 254ÿ255
brittle failures 255
compression resistance 83
residual stresses 255
wind resistance 83, 86, 120
temperatures, service 251, 253, 254
 Index

tubes and wind speeds 283ÿ284, 284, 285,

costs 79 286
diagonal connections to 79, 80, 81 Torre de Collserola (Spain) 29, 29
welding, fracture toughness 253 construction 91
still air tensioning, guy cables 206 torsional and local buckling 178,
strength components 4 180ÿ181
strengths see compression strengths; torsional restraint
local and torsional buckling arms 85, 85
Stuttgart Tower (Germany) 28, 71 twin guys 84ÿ85, 84
sunlight degradation, plastics 94, 115 torsional rigidity, lattice steel towers 76,
77
T-type low-frequency antennas 40, 40 Tower of Babel 6, 7
television Tower of Pharos 6, 7, 8
antennas towers
see also guyed masts see also communication towers;
maximum service area 24 concrete towers; lattice steel
digital broadcasting, antenna towers; timber towers
requirements 33 church 8
early in history 6, 7, 8
France 13 lighthouses 8, 9, 10
UK 15ÿ17, 16 ‘tree’ communication towers 30, 30,
international frequency ranges 31, 32 258
temperature effects 94 triangular structures
guy cables 114 stabilizing members 185ÿ186
low extremes 114ÿ115 wind effects 100, 100
steel embrittlement 115, 251 wind resistance 117ÿ118, 118
solar heating 114 tubes
tilt effect 35 costs 79
tensile strength, codes and standards diagonal connections to 79, 80, 81
303ÿ304 internal corrosion 81
tension, strength in 190 tubular bracing members 184, 184
tension bracing systems 186, 187 tubular guyed masts 88
terrain categories, gust response factors advantages 87
148, 149 corrosion protection 88
terrorism, risk assessments 69 disadvantages 87
Teutoberger mast (Germany), design foundations 88, 89
faults 62, 63 guy planes 88
tilt, antennas, due to solar heating 35 internal access lifts 88
timber towers 71, 257ÿ258 structure 87ÿ88
radio transparency 71, 257 weight 89ÿ90
time domain analysis tubular leg members
guyed masts 148, 157ÿ159, 159 compression strengths 184
advantages 157 fabrication, poor 255ÿ257, 256
aerodynamic damping 158 flange joints 191ÿ192, 191
turbulence simulation 158ÿ159, turbulence
159 modes
topography guyed masts 150, 151
aerial coverage 21, 21 lattice towers 150, 151

337
Communication structures
turbulence
modes (continued )
simulation, time domain analysis
158ÿ159, 159
and wind resistance 124ÿ125, 139
UHF systems see VHF/UHF systems
ultimate loads, wind effects, probability
of exceedance 97ÿ98, 98
United Kingdom
broadcasting development
radio 13ÿ15
television 15ÿ17, 16
codes and standards 245, 276
reliability standards 281
ice zoning map 111ÿ112, 112
uplift resistance, foundations 228ÿ229,
230, 231, 231
USA
codes and standards 244, 276
reliability classes 281
vandalism, guyed masts 68ÿ69, 69
vertical radiation patterns 34ÿ35, 35,
36
VHF/UHF systems
antenna mountings
candelabra type 47, 48
dipoles 45ÿ46, 45, 46
glass-fibre cylinders 46, 47
maintenance 46
panels 48, 49
shadow effects 49
verticality, importance of 48ÿ49
vortex excitation, fatigue 220ÿ221
vortex shedding
causes 211ÿ212, 212
critical wind speeds 211ÿ212
cylindrical masts 213ÿ214
damping devices
strakes 214, 215
tuned mass dampers 214ÿ215
guyed masts, damping 215
and ice loading 60ÿ61
338
wake galloping 218
welded details, endurance curves
221ÿ222, 221
welding, steel, fracture toughness 253
wind climates 93ÿ94
atmospheric circulation 95ÿ97, 95
boundary layer 99
extreme speeds 96, 97ÿ98, 98
wind directions, critical 100, 100
wind loadings 2
see also drag
curves
BBC 239ÿ240, 240
early 241ÿ242, 241
dipoles 36
dish antennas 100ÿ101
fatigue damage 104
height relationships 99ÿ100
square structures 100, 100
topographical factors 101ÿ102
triangular structures 100, 100
turbulence 99
ultimate, probability of exceedance
97ÿ98, 98
vertical wind profile 101
vortex shedding, ice 60ÿ61
wind predictions 102
and serviceability limits 102ÿ104, 103
wind resistance see drag
wind speeds
and altitude 282ÿ284, 283
downtime due to 102ÿ104, 103
and gust speeds 282
and topography 283ÿ284, 284, 285,
286
wind tunnels
drag tests 118, 131ÿ132, 134ÿ137, 136
with ancillaries 135, 137
discrepancies 137ÿ140, 138, 139
early use of 11ÿ12
wire ropes see guy cables; lays
Ylläs mast (Finland), failure, icing 60,
61, 113