c


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

 
There are various definitions of coal, but the complementary definitions of
xc and the International Commission for Coal Petrology
(ICCP) handbook areused here. xc defined that
³coal is readily combustible rock containing more than 50% by weight and
more than 70% by volume of carbonaceous material, formed by the compaction
or induration of variously altered plant re mains similar to those of peaty
deposits.Differences in the kinds of plant materials (type), in degree of
metamorphism (rank), and range of impurity (grade) are characteristic of the
varieties of coals´. In the ICCP handbook , coal is defined as ³a
combustible sedimentary rock formed from plant remains in various stages of
preservation by processes which involved the compaction of the material buried
in basins, initially of moderate depth´. According to these definitions, it is clear
that coal is considered as a mixture of organic plant remains and inorganic
mineral matter that accumulated in a manner similar to modern-day peat
deposits. The major organic constituents of peat can be floral components of 
vascular and nonvascular plants as well as algae which are associated with
fungal, bacterial and animal remains xc  cc


  
 

c .
Generations of this vegetation died and se ttled to the swamp bottom, they
formed richcarbonaceous layer that was subsequently overlaid by layers of
mud and sand. As the burial depth increased, temperature and pressure rose
concomitantly, it compressed, hardened the organic material and preferentially
led to the lost of oxygen and hydrogen, and leaved a material with a higher
percentage of carbon. As coal seams usually originated from peat deposi tions,
then the crucial factors in the formation of a peat swamp would be also the
crucial factors in the formation of coal seams x
c 




p

p
 p


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p

p
p
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p

Providing that all favorable conditions required for peat accumulation are met, which involves the interplay of
subsidence, vegetation growth and sediment supply, these most significant coal seams tend to be associated with
maximum flooding surfaces (Hamilton and Tadros, 1994) hence marking the base of the highstand systems tract
(Fig. 5.15). Following a stage characterized by a high accommodation to sediment supply ratio during the
transgression of the shoreline, the time of end of shoreline transgression is arguably t he most favorable for peat
accumulation and subsequent coal development. During highstand normal regression, the balance between
accommodation and sedimentation gradually changes in the favor of the latter. This, coupled with the
decelerating rates of base-level rise, diminishes the chance for significant peat accumulations. The lower portion
of the highstand systems tract, defined by a predominantly aggradational sedimentation pattern, may still
include well-developed coal seams interbedded with overbank fluvial facies, above the tidally-influenced
transgressive fluvial channel fills. The upper portion of the highstand systems tract commonly lacks coal
deposits due to insufficient accommodation and the relatively high sediment input that results in the
amalgamation of meander belts. These trends in the likelihood of peat accumulation during highstand normal
regressions, as well as all other stages of the base -level cycle, are illustrated in Fig. 5.15.


Generalized trend of peat accumulation during the

various stages of a base-level cycle, in response to changes in accommodation.
See text for discussion. No temporal scale is implied for
the relative duration of systems tracts. Abbreviations: TST²transgressive
systems tract; RST²regressive systems tract; HST²highstand
systems tract; FSST²falling-stage systems tract; LST²
lowstand systems tract; MFS²maximum flooding surface; BSFR²
basal surface of forced regression; CC²correlative conformity
(2
2Hunt and Tucker, 1992); MRS²maximum regressive surface

Plants and animals living in a lake may be preserved as fossils in lacustrine deposits, and concentrations of organic materia l
lcan form beds of coal A delta building into shallow water will tend to have a large delta -plain area. If the climate is suitable
for abundant plant growth, peat mires may develop on parts of the plain away from the delta channels and delta successions
that have developed in a shallow-water setting may therefore include coalbeds. The overbank areas of a
delta top may be sites of prolific growth of vegetation, leading to the formation of peat and eventually coal. An important
product of these post-depositional processes is the formation and concentration of fossil fuels

›

›› 
Most coal is formed from the remains of plants that accumulated under swampy
conditions as peat (Fig. 4). Imprints of fossil stems, roots, and leaves are common in coal and
surrounding sedimentary rocks
‘owever, it takes a great amount of carbon rich plant material, time for that material to form peat, and
special geological and chemical conditions that protect the peat from degradation and erosion to
make amineable coal seam. Peat and the buried coal that eventually forms from it are part of our
planets carbon cycle.

‘
  

üarge amounts of plant materials accumulate in widespread peat-forming wetlands (called mires).
When mires accumulate within geologic basins, they can be deeply buried long enough for the peat
to be converted to coal (Fig. 7). Basins are broad, subsiding (sinking) depressions in the Earth.s crust
in which sediments accumulate. When peat is buried, pressure from the overlying sediments and heat
within the Earth transforms the peat chemically and physically into coal^ This process, called
.coalification,. results in several types or stages of coal. These stages of coal formation are classified
as .rank.. The ranks of coal, in increasing alteration from peat, are lignite (brown coal), subbituminous,
bituminous, semi-anthracite, and anthracite. If coal is heated beyond the rank of anthracite, it
becomes a form of almost pure carbon (graphite or natural coke). ‘igher rank coals produce more
heat per ton when they burn than lower rank coals because they are more concentrated forms of
carbon. Put another way, one must burn more low-rank than highrank coal to produce the same
amountof energy. During coalification, compaction and dewatering cause fractures to form in the coal.
These fractures are called .cleats.. Water moving through porous peat or through cleats in coal can
carry and deposit minerals. Some of the most common minerals in coal are silicates (quartz, clays),
carbonates (calcite, siderite) and sulfides (pyrite, marcasite). The elements within these minerals (for
example, sulfur) may cause environmental concerns during the processing and burning of coal.