Combustion Lab I

Combustion Laboratory I
st
1 Laboratory
Energy Balance
Prof. Dr: M.M El-Kassaby

&
Eng. Ahmed Magdy
QA
Alexandria University ‫جامعة اإلسكندرية‬
Faculty of Engineering ‫كلية الهندسة‬
Specialized Scientific Programs ‫البرامج العلمية المتخصصة‬
st
1 Laboratory
Engine cycles and Engine parts
|P a ge 1
1st Laboratory
Engine cycles and Engine parts
Objective
To know the meaning of Internal Combustion Engine, get the mean of combustion
theory, and to get familiar with the Engine main parts, and also with Four Stroke Engine
Discussion
When we speak about Internal Combustion Engine, we must to take every word and see
what it means
Engine: it is a machine that with it we can take power
Combustion: so we will take this power by burning
Internal: means that we will take power in the place where we burn
Combustion Theory
From the above shape, it is obvious that to make combustion you must to have 3 sources:
Oxygen which is found in Air, Fuel, and Source of heat which is found in the spark plug.
So in the car there are 3 important systems: -
a) Air System
b) Fuel System
c) Ignition System
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A. Four stroke engine
 Engine parts
Internal combustion piston engine

Components of a typical, four stroke cycles, internal combustion piston engine.
E - Exhaust camshaft
I - Intake camshaft
S - Spark plug
V - Valves
P - Piston
R - Connecting rod
C - Crankshaft
W - Water jacket for coolant flow
Spark plug
The spark plug supplies the spark that ignites the air/fuel mixture so that combustion can
occur. The spark must happen at just the right moment for things to work properly.
|P a ge 3
Valves
The intake and exhaust valves open at the proper time to let in air and fuel and to let out
exhaust. Note that both valves are closed during compression and combustion so that the
combustion chamber is sealed.
Piston
A piston is a cylindrical piece of metal that moves up and down inside the cylinder.
Piston rings
Piston rings provide a sliding seal between the outer edge of the piston and the inner edge
of the cylinder. The rings serve two purposes:
 They prevent the fuel/air mixture and exhaust in the combustion chamber from
leaking into the sump during compression and combustion.
 They keep oil in the sump from leaking into the combustion area, where it would
be burned and lost.
|P a ge 4
Connecting rod
The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. It can rotate at both ends so that
its angle can change as the piston moves and the crankshaft rotates.
Crankshaft
The crankshaft turns the piston's up and down motion into circular motion just like a
crank on a jack- in-the-box does.
Sump
The sump surrounds the crankshaft. It contains some amount of oil, which collects in the
bottom of the sump (the oil pan).
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 Engine operating cycle
|P a ge 6
nd
2 Laboratory
Engine cycles and Engine parts (cont)
|P a ge 7
2nd Laboratory
Engine cycles and Engine parts (cont)
Objective
To get familiar with the Engine main parts of two strokes, and the two stroke cycle
Discussion
What is the difference between Four Stroke Engine and Two Stroke Engine?
B. Two stroke engine
 Engine parts
Like other types of engines, a two-stroke engine has a crankcase that surrounds and
protects all other parts of the engine. Inside, it has a crankshaft, connecting rod and single
piston. It's also got an intake port, a reed valve, an exhaust port, and a cylinder---all in
addition to the combustion chamber, where the power is produced that moves whatever
the engine is powering.
|P a ge 8
Crankshaft
The crankshaft in a two-stroke engine rotates, moving the piston by means of the
connecting rod. These three parts are the only moving parts in a two-stroke engine. All
power produced is a direct result of the action of these three moving parts.
Connecting Rod
The connecting rod is connected to the crankshaft at one end, and to the piston at the
other. It translates the movement of the crankshaft so that the piston is moved up and
down.
Piston
The piston is moved up and down inside the cylinder by the crankshaft, which is
connected to it via the connecting rod.
 Engine operating cycle
|P a ge 9
Actions
Piston Occurring
Stroke Explanation
Direction during This
Stroke
Piston travels As the Piston travels up the barrel, fresh fuel/air mix is sucked
Stroke Induction &
up the into the crankcase (bottom of the engine) & the fuel/air mix in
1 Compression
cylinder barrel the cylinder (top of the engine) is compressed ready for ignition
The spark plug ignites the fuel/air mix in the cylinder, the
resulting explosion pushes the piston back down to the bottom
Piston travels of the cylinder, as the piston travels down, the transfer port
Stroke Ignition &
down the openings are exposed & the fresh fuel/air mix is sucked from the
2 Exhaust
cylinder barrel crankcase into the cylinder. As the fresh fuel/air mix is drawn
into the cylinder, it forces the spent exhaust gases out through
the exhaust port.
Now we will find the advantage and disadvantage of Two stroke Engines
with differentiate with Four stroke Engines:
Advantages:-
 Two-stroke engines do not have valves, which simplifies their construction and
lowers their weight.
 Two-stroke engines fire once every revolution, while four-stroke engines fire
once every other revolution. This gives two-stroke engines a significant power
boost.
 Two-stroke engines can work in any orientation, which can be important in
something like a chainsaw. A standard four-stroke engine may have problems
with oil flow unless it is upright, and solving this problem can add complexity to
the engine.
Disadvantages:-
 Two-stroke engines don't last nearly as long as four-stroke engines. The lack of a
dedicated lubrication system means that the parts of a two-stroke engine wear a
lot faster.
 Two-stroke oil is expensive, and you need about 4 ounces of it per gallon of gas.
You would burn about a gallon of oil every 1,000 miles if you used a two-stroke
engine in a car.
 Two-stroke engines do not use fuel efficiently, so you would get fewer miles per
gallon.
 Two-stroke engines produce a lot of pollution -- so much, in fact, that it is likely
that you won't see them around too much longer.
| P a g e 10
rd
3 Laboratory
Ignition system
| P a g e 11
3rd Laboratory
Ignition system
Objective
To know the third part of the combustion process in the spark ignition system, and to be
familiar with its consistetuent.
Discussion
 What is the difference between spark ignition system (Gasoline) and compression
ignition system (Diesel)?
 Types of ignition systems
Electro-Mechanical Ignition (conventional system)

The ignition system is expected to give billions of sparks to the cylinders without a single
miss, to burn the charge (air+fuel) in the combustion chamber. So we create a high
voltage on two poles between them a space so we ionized the air and spark created. This
happen in the spark plug in the cylinder head.
Ignition system parts:-
| P a g e 12
Schematic for Ignition system
1 Battery
2 Ignition switch
3 Ignition coil
4 condenser
5 contact breaker
6 The Distributor
7 Spark Plugs
Now we will take each part of the past and study it in detail
1. Battery
It is only electric source in the vehicle, it provide us with 12 Volt DC current. Lead-acid
batteries for automotive use are made with slightly different construction techniques.
| P a g e 13
2. Ignition switch
It is the contact that with it we begin the move of the car, when we closed the circuit the
current flow from the battery to the rest of the circuit and give us the current that we
want.
3. Ignition coil
 Primary coil
 Secondary coil
 Contact breaker
 Condenser
To make spark between poles of the spark plug we need to raise the volt of the battery
from 12 Volt to 12 Kvolt (12000 Volt) or more than it (may reach to 24000 Volt)
depending on the compression ratio. For this reason we use Ignition Coil.
| P a g e 14
But there is a problem in converting the battery voltage to high voltage , this problem is
the battery support us with a DC current and the Ignition coil must work at AC current ,
because the Ignition coil raise or reduce the Voltage with the relation between the number
of laps in the primary coil to number of laps in the secondary coil, and the voltage in the
d
primary coil to the voltage in the secondary coil in case that  0.0 and this
dt
condition not satisfied except in Ac Current only.
n primary V primary d
  only  0.0
nsecondary Vsecondary dt
To solve this problem we use Contact Breaker
I (Amp) I (Amp)
Time Time
With contact breaker without contact breaker
Conventional coil
Ignition switch
| P a g e 15
The contact breaker
Its function is to open and closed the circuit with high speed to convert the DC current to
AC current. But as a result of the rate of high speed cut and contact of the current, it
works on causing spark and wears in the contact points. To prevent this we use
Condenser.
Condenser function
1. Prevent contact breaker points from sparking and pitting.
2. Increase the rate of collapse of the magnetic field which increase E.M.F
 Dwell angle
It is the period during which the contact breaker points are closed
Note
Cam and rotor are located on distributor shaft
Distributor shaft cam shaft speed

= 1/2 crank shaft speed (4 – stroke)
= crank shaft speed (2 – stroke)
4. The Distributor
To distribute the high voltage on the spark plug as a specific arrange we use Distributor.
But also there is another function for the distributor as it runs the contact breaker cam.
Distributor contains two integral parts that help us in overcoming the change in loads:
a. Centrifugal Advance
b. Vacuum Advance
| P a g e 16
a. Centrifugal Advance
We know that burning the charge (air+fuel) taking a specific time (≈0.2 mili second) so if
we timing the spark at a specific angle and this angle is constant, so as the engine speed
increase the time that we want the spark to goes and will reduce the engine performance.
So we must to advance the ignition angle to make the charge (air+fuel) have its time in
ignition. What makes this is the Centrifugal device.
When the engine speed increase so the centrifugal force will move the cam plate in the
direction of rotation of the rotor so it will make the contact breaker open and close early
so the spark is advanced
| P a g e 17
Why we need to make the spark on its time?
Case (a)
Very Early ignition, it causes high raise in the pressure and temperature, and so the
engine may suffer from knocking as a result of existence of high pressure waves
Case (b)
It is ignition at the proper time and it cause increase in pressure but in the way we want
and so obtaining the optimum performance of the engine
Case (c)
Very late ignition and as a result of this case we lose power, in addition much more fuel
consumption
b. Vacuum Advance
Time of burning the charge also depend on the percent of the mixture. If the percent of
fuel to air is large, so the burning will be faster and it is good mixture between fuel and
air. When the fuel to air ratio is large we called it rich mixture (as in no load and full
load) and this mean fast and easy burning.
But in lean mixture which means fuel to air ratio is small (as in part load) so it mean hard
burning so we need to advance the spark by using the vacuum pressure from the intake
manifold in case of part load.
| P a g e 18
5. The spark plug

Contains the electrodes which are the most important parts required to generate the
ignition spark and seals off the combustion chamber
| P a g e 19
th
4 Laboratory
Diesel Engine
| P a g e 20
4th Laboratory
Diesel Engine
Objective
To be familiar with Diesel engine, and know the important parts in these Engine specially
the Fuel injection.
Discussion
 Comparison between Gasoline Engine and Diesel Engine.
Diesel Engine
In theory, diesel engines and gasoline engines are quite similar. They are both internal
combustion engines designed to convert the chemical energy available in fuel into
mechanical energy. This mechanical energy moves pistons up and down inside cylinders.
The pistons are connected to a crankshaft, and the up-and-down motion of the pistons,
known as linear motion, creates the rotary motion needed to turn the wheels of a car
forward.
Both diesel engines and gasoline engines covert fuel into energy through a series of small
explosions or combustions.
| P a g e 21
The major difference between diesel and gasoline is the way these explosions happen. In
a gasoline engine, fuel is mixed with air, compressed by pistons and ignited by sparks
from spark plugs. In a diesel engine, however, the air is compressed first, and then the
fuel is injected. Because air heats up when it's compressed, the fuel ignites.
Remember that the diesel engine has no spark plug, that it intakes air and compresses it,
and that it then injects the fuel directly into the combustion chamber (direct injection). It
is the heat of the compressed air that lights the fuel in a diesel engine.
Injection Systems
It is important system that used for delivering the fuel to the combustion champers. It
consists of many parts, these parts are:
 Fuel tank
 Fuel filter
 Fuel pump
 Fuel lines
 injectors
All these parts are important in the system and we cannot get rid of any part of these
parts. And this system must do the following requirement:
 Metering
 Timing
 Rate of fuel injection
 Atomization
| P a g e 22
The most important parts in the injection system are the injection pump and the injector
so we will concern with these two parts and study them in some detail.
Injection pump
Injection pump used to increase the pressure of the fuel to push it in its path to the
injector and to meter the quantity of the fuel as the driver want.
There are many types of injection pumps such as
 In-line injection pump

 Distributor injection pump
 Single –barrel injection pump
 Common rail system
All of these types have its application that is used in it, so depend on the application we
choose the pump
We will study only one type of these pumps it is the In-line injection pump
In-line injection pump
The in- line injection pump has a pumping element (plunger-and-barrel assembly) for
each of the engine's cylinders. These pumping elements are arranged "in- line" with each
other. The pump's camshaft is driven by the engine's timing gears or chains. The in- line
pump turns at half the engine speed and is always synchronized to the diesel engine's
piston movement. The fuel is forced through high-pressure lines to the nozzle-and-holder
assemblies from where it is then injected by the nozzles (injectors).
| P a g e 23
We will see a schematic drawing the main parts of the In-line injection pump
Fuel Pump
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Fuel tank
It contains the Fuel that we will pump and use in the injection system. It also has strainer
that is help in removing some of the impurities.
Supply pump
It is from the diaphragm Type (Diaphragm pump) it consist of spring, diaphragm, cam
and cam follower.
It is just used to transfer the Fuel from the fuel tank to pass through the filter and goes in
all the system components
Fuel Filter
It is used in purify the fuel from any impurities or strange particle to not enter the Fuel
pump and make problems.
Fuel Pump
It is the most important part in this System; it is from the type In-line injection pump. It
consists of plunger that takes its move from Cam and it has helical grove at the end of it,
at the end of the pump is the delivery valve that is the gate for the fuel to go through the
fuel line pipe to the injector.
Also there is a rack and pinion that from it the driver can control the quantity that will be
injected.
The fuel pump as we said has two functions: to increase the fuel pressure and to meter the
quantity of fuel that would be injected. The part that is responsible for this is the control
helix plunger
How does it Work?

In-line pump systems have a separate pump plunger for each cylinder of the engine, so a
4 cylinder engine has a four plunger pump; a 6 cylinder engine has a six plunger pump,
etc. The pump is run at half engine crankshaft speed and has a central shaft with four, six,
etc. cam lobes attached. Each plunger is operated by its cam once every two crankshaft
revolutions, coinciding of course with the power stroke of its engine cylinder. Each
plunger also has a spiral groove or helix machined on its side and cut through to the top
of the plunger. When operating, the plunger is pushed up by its cam lobe. At a certain
point the spiral groove will line up with a spill port on the side of the plunger cylinder
and the rest of the fuel is ‘spilled’.
| P a g e 25
Because the groove is a spiral shape, the point in the plunger stroke when it uncovers the
spill port will vary as the plunger is rotated a few degrees either way. This adjusts the
spill point and hence, the volume of its fuel charges to the engine cylinder. Since all of
the engine cylinders receive the same sized fuel charge, all of the plungers are rotated
together.
| P a g e 26
The pump increase the pressure of the fuel to range (50-100 bar) then it goes to the
injector to be injected.
Injector
The fuel injected by the injector in range (200 to 1700 bar) and sometimes it reaches
(2000 and 2500) bar, these large pressure difference across the injector nozzle are
required so that the injected fuel jet will enter the chamber at sufficiently high velocity to
1- Atomize into small sized droplets to enable rapid evaporation
2- Traverse the combustion chamber in the time and fully utilize the air charge
The task of fuel injected
1- To meter the appropriate quantity of fuel at given engine speed.
2- Inject fuel at the appropriate time in the cylinder at the desired rate with high
pressure to ensure good atomization and proper penetration and good fuel air mixture
 If penetration is weak, poor mixing will result

 If penetration is strong, the fuel is impingement with walls
3- To avoid low injection pressure which will result dribbling
Injector cross section
| P a g e 27
1. Leak off port 7. Fuel Gallery 13. Needle Valve

2. Leak off cap 8. Tapered needle shoulder 14. One of 3 feed holes
3. Injector Spring 9. Nozzle Body 15. Supply Hole
4. Lower spring plate 10. Spray Holes 16. Spindle
5. Clamping Flange 11. Nozzle Tip 17. Inlet Port
6. Nozzle Holder 12. Needle and Nozzle seat 18. Spring cap adjustment nut
No.1 - Leak off Port, a hole to release pressure from the injector if/ when it needs
changing.
No.2 – Leak off cap, a cap which screws on to the top of the keep the spring compressed.
No.3 – Injector Spring, a helical coil compression spring, which is in-between the ‘spring
cap adjustment nut’ (No.18) and the ‘Spindle’ (No.16). It is held in place by both upper
and lower spring plates. The spring’s job is to keep the ‘Needle Valve’ (No.13) closed
until the appropriate fuel pressure is reached, also to close the ‘Needle Valve’ (No.13)
when the fuel pressure drops.
No.4 – Lower Spring Plate, retains the injector spring
No.5 – Clamping Flange, the injector is supported by this flange
No.6 – Nozzle Holder, this is a forged-steel flanged housing which supports various
parts; it is bolted to the engines cylinder head. It has a threaded inlet port to support an
inlet adaptor; a supply hole is drilled to intersect the pressure face junction between the
‘Nozzle Holder’ (No.6) and the ‘Nozzle Body’ (No.9). The upper end has a large
threaded countersunk hole made to support the spring cap adjustment nut.
No.7 – Fuel Gallery, the storage chamber to hold the fuel which has been pumped to the
injector before injection
No.8 – Tapered Needle Shoulder, the tapered needle shoulder is actually tapered so that
the fuel can smoothly and quickly pass by when being injected.
No.9 – Nozzle Body, this supports the ‘Needle Valve’ (No.13), it is cylindrical in shape
and has a centrally bored steel body. The bottom of the centrally blind hole is conically
ground to form the ‘Nozzle Valve Seat’ (No.12).
| P a g e 28
No.10 – Spray holes, these are the holes in the end of the nozzle. These are drilled at
various angles to suit the combustion chamber on a multi-hole type nozzle.
No.11 – Nozzle Tip, The extreme end of the nozzle body containing spray holes.
No.12 – Needle and Nozzle seat, this determines how much fuel flows to the combustion
chamber.
No.13 – Needle Valve, this has two sections of different diameters. The bigger of the two
diameters forms a lapped fit with the ‘Nozzle Body’ (No.9). The smaller diameter has a
large clearance between it and the ‘Nozzle Body’ (No.9), its 60  inclusive angle conical
ground end forms the ‘Needle valve seat’ (No.12).
No.14 – Feed hole, where the fuel is fed from.
No.15 – Supply Hole, the hole that is responsible for taking the fuel from the inlet port to
one of three feed holes.
No.16 – Spindle, the ‘spindle’ relays the spring thrust to the needle valve from the spring,
it is placed in-between the ‘spring-cap adjustment nut’ (No.18) and the countersunk
threaded hole in the ‘Nozzle holder’ (No.6), it forces the ‘Needle Valve‘ (No.13) onto the
nozzle body seat.
No.17 – Inlet Port, the port in which the fuel is fed into one of the three feed holes.
No.18 – Spring Cap Adjustment Nut, to adjust the amount of pressure in which the
injector injects fuel into the combustion chamber or the swirl chamber.
| P a g e 29
th
5 Laboratory
Gas Turbine
| P a g e 30
5th Laboratory
Gas Turbine
Objective
To be familiar with Gas Turbine, studying its parts and know some of Gas Turbine types.
Discussion
 Some of the application that Gas turbine are used
 Comparison between Reciprocating Engine and Gas turbine
Gas Turbine
The gas turbine is a power plant, which produces a great amount of energy for its size and
weight. Gas turbine engines derive their power from burning fuel in a combustion
chamber and using the fast flowing combustion gases to drive a turbine in much the same
way as the high pressure steam drives a steam turbine.
Gas turbine Parts
In gas turbine also we change the chemical energy of the fuel into thermal energy that
give energy of the compressed air then we make it Expands in the turbine so Mainly in
Any Gas Turbine we will need three main Parts:-
 Compressor
 Combustion chamber
 Turbine
| P a g e 31
We will take each part and discuss its operation:-
 Compressor
In compressor we raise the pressure of air, and there are 2 main types of compressors that
used in Gas Turbine: centrifugal compressor and Axial compressor and depend on the
application we choose the type of compressor.
 Combustion chamber
Combustion chamber is placed between compressor and turbine and as the velocity of the
air exit from the compressor is high, so we use diffuser to reduce the velocity and do that
the flame does not stop. It also contains the injector which injects the fuel in the path of
the air.
| P a g e 32
Injection pressure
The fuel is injected continuously in the combustion chamber by using the atomizer at
pressure approximately (50 bar).
Combustion Zones
Combustion chamber consists of three major zones:
1. Primary Zone
2. Intermediate Zone
3. Dilution zone
| P a g e 33
a) Primary Zone
The air enter in these region approximately (15:20%) from the total air and at these time
the combustion in these region start as the mixture is rich with fuel. excess air factor (λ)
≈1
b) Intermediate Zone
The air which enter in these region is approximately (30%) from the total air to complete
the combustion process of the outlet gases from the primary zone. excess air factor (λ) ≈
(2:3)
c) Dilution Zone
The rest of air (50%) from the total air enter these region where late combustion happen
and the air mix with the combustion product to reduce its temperature , because if the
temperature is high it may cause melting the parts of the turbine. excess air factor (λ) ≈
(4:5).
Combustion chamber types

There are three common types for the combustion chamber
1. Annular type
2. Cannular type
| P a g e 34
3. Silo type
 Turbine
It receives the hot air from the combustion chamber, where the air expands and here we
have the power as the rotor of the turbine rotates with the effect of moving air where we
guide it with guide vanes.
Types of Gas turbine

There are many classifications for gas turbine depends on the basis we will compare on it.
So we will take some of these specifications and see some different types of turbine.
 According to circuit
| P a g e 35
There are two types

a) open circuit (loop)
b) closed circuit (loop)
Our choice to one of the above circuit will depend on the medium we use, if we use cheap
medium (like air) it will not be efficient to reticulate it. But if we use expensive medium
(like Ar or He) it is not efficient to lose it in the atmospheric so we use heat exchanger to heat
it and after expansion we use heat exchanger to cold it. Also in heat exchanger we may use
nuclear reactor so in closed loop we cannot make the medium go out of circuit for safety
operation.
 According to turbine shaft
There are many types of these specification but we will focus on two types:
a) Single shaft turbine
b) Double shaft turbine
| P a g e 36
In single shaft turbine the shaft is coupling between compressor and turbine , so the
power from the turbine is used to operate the compressor and to give us power
In double shaft turbine there are two shafts: one between the high pressure turbine and
compressor and these only to operate the compressor, and the other shaft between the low
pressure turbine and the load where it gives us the power.
Application on Gas Turbine
 power station
Where we use the power from the output shaft to generate electricity, but mostly it is
used with steam turbine in Combined Cycle
 Jet Engine
Where the power from the shaft is used to operate propeller as in helicopter, or to make
the exhaust gas expand through nozzle to give us thrust force
| P a g e 37
Automotive gas turbine

We can use gas turbine to operate a car but we use a gear box to reduce the high velocity
(30000:50000 RPM). Usually used in racing cars.
| P a g e 38

Combustion Lab I

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Combustion Laboratory I

Prof. Dr: M.M El-Kassaby

Engine: it is a machine that with it we can take power

Combustion: so we will take this power by burning

So in the car there are 3 important systems: -

A. Four stroke engine

Internal combustion piston engine

 Engine operating cycle

B. Two stroke engine

 Engine operating cycle

Electro-Mechanical Ignition (conventional system)

Ignition system parts:-

Schematic for Ignition system

To solve this problem we use Contact Breaker

With contact breaker without contact breaker

The contact breaker

1. Prevent contact breaker points from sparking and pitting.

Cam and rotor are located on distributor shaft

Distributor shaft cam shaft speed

Why we need to make the spark on its time?

5. The spark plug

There are many types of injection pumps such as

 In-line injection pump

In-line injection pump

How does it Work?

1- Atomize into small sized droplets to enable rapid evaporation

The task of fuel injected

1- To meter the appropriate quantity of fuel at given engine speed.

 If penetration is weak, poor mixing will result

3- To avoid low injection pressure which will result dribbling

Injector cross section

1. Leak off port 7. Fuel Gallery 13. Needle Valve

No.4 – Lower Spring Plate, retains the injector spring

No.5 – Clamping Flange, the injector is supported by this flange

No.14 – Feed hole, where the fuel is fed from.

Gas turbine Parts

We will take each part and discuss its operation:-

Combustion chamber consists of three major zones:

Combustion chamber types

Types of Gas turbine

There are two types

b) closed circuit (loop)

 According to turbine shaft

Application on Gas Turbine

Automotive gas turbine

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