Chapter 1

Mechanics. Oscillations.
1.1
Quantities, Principles and Fundamental Laws in
Classical Mechanics
1.1.1. Notions and Basic Quantities in Classical Mechanics
Mechanics studies the simplest form of motion of the matter, the mechanical moti
on. The mechanical motion is the motion that causes the change in the position o
f the bodies, ones relative to the others or of their parts in space and in time
. Classical Newtonian mechanics studies the motion of the bodies that have much
slower speeds than the speed of the light in vacuum, c=3· 10 m/s. Under classical
mechanics, there is a series of fundamental laws (principles): the law of inerti
a or of the conservation of the impulse, the law of motion of a material point o
r of variation of the impulse, the law of reciprocal actions, the law of superpo
sition of the forces, the law of gravitation. There are other laws besides the f
undamental ones, like those concerning material: the law of elasticity, the law
of friction etc.
8
2
The principle represents a statement suggested by an observation which meets the
condition that all the consequences that result from its acceptance do not cont
radict the observation. The pattern from which the classical mechanics develops
is based on the causality principle and states that, under given initial conditi
ons, a physical process always develops in a particular way. To the same causes
there correspond the same effects. The law represents a mathematical relationshi
p which relates different physical quantities amongst themselves. The main physi
cal quantities presented in this chapter are: speed, acceleration, force, impuls
e, moment of force, angular momentum, kinetic energy, potential energy, mechanic
al work. Kinematics is that part of mechanics that establishes the mathematical
equations describing the motion of the bodies, disregarding the cause of the mot
ion. Dynamics is concerned with the study of the causes that produce the motion
and establishes the mathematical equations that describe the motion. In mechanic
s there is introduced the notion of material point. By material point we underst
and a body of which dimensions can be neglected when its motion is studied. The
motion is studied with respect to a referential system, arbitrarily chosen, as t
here is no absolutely fixed system of reference relating to which all motions ca
n be studied. Hence, the motion and the rest are relative. The reference system
can be inertial or non-inertial. The inertial reference system is the system tha
t has a rectilinear uniform motion or is at relative rest. The non-inertial refe
rence system has an accelerated motion. Under classical mechanics and special re
lativity, the inertial reference systems are considered.
3
To the reference system there is rigidly attached a reference frame. The motion
of a moving body is univocally determined if, each moment, its coordinates are k
nown in relation with the reference system chosen. In mechanics there are especi
ally used: 1) Cartesian coordinate system 2) spherical coordinate system In the
Cartesian coordinate system the position of a point P is given by the Cartesian
coordinates x, y and z (Fig. 1.1). The vector r , that connects the origin with
point P, is called position vector or radius vector.
r
r r r r r = x i + y j + zk
.
(1.1)
z
r z
r k
z
P r j
r r
r Az k
r A
r O i
r x
r y
y
O
r Ax i
r Ay j
y
x
x
Fig. 1.1 In general, any arbitrary vector A can be written:
Fig. 1.2
r r r r A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k ,
(1.2)
where Ax , A y and A z are called the components of vector A
r
(Fig. 1.2).
r According to the components, the length (magnitude) of vector A is:
4
r r 2 A = A ⋅ A = Ax2 + Ay + Az2
(1.3)
r r r i j and k are unit vectors of the coordinate axes. One knows they satisfy
the
relations:
r r r i = j = k = 1; r r r r r r i ⋅ i = j · j = k · k = 1; r r r r r r i ⋅ j = i ⋅k = j ⋅k
= 0
O x
z
θ ϕ
r
P y
In the spherical coordinates system the position of a point P is given by the sp
herical coordinates r, θ, φ (Fig. 1.3).
Fig. 1.3
Let Oxyz be a Cartesian coordinates system against which the motion o a materia
l point P is studied. The motion can be determined i the law o variation with
respect to time o coordinates x, y, z o the point and the initial conditions a
re known:
x = x(t),
vector varies with time:
y = y(t),
z = z(t)
(1.4)
The relations (1.4) are equivalent to the relations indicating how a position
r r r = r (t),
r r r r r (t) = x(t) i + y(t) j + z(t) k .
(1.5)
The relations (1.4) or (1.5) represent the law o motion o the material point.
a) Speed
Consider a material point that moves along a trajectory. At the moment t1 the ma
terial point is in position P1 and at the moment t 2 is in P 2 . We denote Δs – the
length o the curve P 1P 2 . The average speed is de ined by the ratio between t
he space crossed by the moving body and the time needed or crossing the space:
5
Δs v m ≡ Δt .
(1.6)
The average speed gives us a rather vague idea about the motion o the moving bo
dy. In order to increase precision, there needs to be introduced the notion o s
peed at a particular time, also called instantaneous speed. In point P 1 , the p
osition vector is r ( t1 ) whereas in point P 2 , it is r ( t 2 ). Vector Δ r in F
ig. 1.4 represents the di erence between them/ the displacement. Δr is the curve
P 1P 2 . The ratio Δ r / Δt is a collinear vector with curve P 1P 2 and de ines velo
city. Velocity is the rate o displacement. The magnitude o velocity is speed.
I Δt tends towards 0, then P 2 tends towards P 1 and curve P 1P 2 tends towards t
he tangent in
r
r
r
r
P 1 . According to the de inition o the derivative, we have:
r r dr Δr . = lim dt Δt →0 Δt
By de inition, instantaneous velocity vector is:
r r dr v≡ dt
r
(1.7)
d r having the orientation o the tangent line at the curve. Hence, in each poin
t o
trajectory, velocity v has the orientation o the tangent line at the trajectory
and its direction coincides with the direction o material point.
P2 r Δr P1 r r (t1 )
r Δr / Δt
r r (t2 )
P2 P1
r dr / dt
O
Fig. 1.4
6
Like any vector, velocity can be written as ollows:
r r r r v = v xi + v y j + v z k ,
(1.8)
where v x , v y , and v z are the velocity components. From the relations (1.1)
and (1.7) it results:
r v=
r r r d (xi + yj + zk ) dt
=
dx r dy r dz r i+ j+ k dt dt dt
(1.9)
By comparing the previous two relations, it results:
vx =
dx dy , vy = dt dt
, vz =
dz dt
(1.10)
The length (magnitude) o velocity is:
v=
v2 + v2 + v2 . x y z
(1.11)
b) Acceleration
A change in velocity is called an acceleration. Acceleration is de ined as the r
ate o change o velocity o an object with respect to time. Objects are only ac
celerated i a orce is applied to them. The instantaneous acceleration vector i
s de ined by the relation:
r r r d v d 2r = a≡ dt dt 2
In terms o acceleration components, we can write:
(1.12)
r r r r a = axi + a y j + az k .
(1.13)
From the relations (1.8) and (1.12) it results:
7
r d v r d v y r d vz r j+ k . a= xi + dt dt dt
By comparing the previous two relations, we get:
(1.14)
d vy d 2 y d vx d 2x d vz d 2z = 2 , ay = = 2 , az = = 2 ax = dt dt dt dt dt dt
ollowing equation:
(1.15)
We can compute the length (magnitude) o the acceleration vector using the
r 2 2 a = a x + a y + a z2 .
(1.16)










Let τ deno e he angen uni -vec or. Considering v = v τ , we can wri e he rela io
n (1.12) as beside:
r
r
r



As τ is a uni ary vec or, we have:
r




r r dτ r d (vτ ) d v r = a= τ +v . d d d
(1.17)
τ ⋅ τ = 1.






By deriva ion wi h ime, he rela ion becomes:
r r
(1.18)








r r r dτ r r dτ
r dτ τ +τ = 0 ⇉τ = 0. (1.19) d d
d r r
This rela

ion demons

ra es he ve
rs τ and

dτ /
d are
perpendicular. Hence, r dτ /
d
has he orien
a ion of he
normal

line a he rajec

ory:

r r dτ dτ r (1.20) = n, d d r n being he normal uni -vec
or. Consequen ly, rela ion (1.17) becomes:



dτ r r dv r a = τ + v n. d d
reciprocally perpendicular:
(1.21)











This rela ion demons ra es ha he accelera ion vec or has wo componen s,
8












- a
angen ial
componen


a he rajec ory, a , de ermined by he speed varia i
on wi h respec o ime:


a =


dv , d
(1.22)









-
a normal
componen


a he rajec ory, an , de ermined by he speed varia ion w
i h respec o direc ion
an = v


dτ d
.
P
(1.23)
τ
r






Considering

ha poin s P and P´ (Fig. 1.5) are very close o each o her, we can w
ri e :


dα = dτ ds dτ 1 ds v ⇉ = ⋅ = , R d R d R
r r r n τ ′ dτ
P′
τ′
r
τ
=
dα
O








Fig. 1.5 where

R is
he
curve

r dius of he r jec ory in he proximi y of poin
P. Hence, i resul s h  :


dτ r v 2 r r n = v n = n d R

By repl cing (1.24) in (1.21), we ob in:
(1.24)


r d v
r v2 r 
= τ +
n. d R

From his rel  ion i resul s:
(1.25)


 =
nd


dv d
(1.26)
9
v2
n = . R


P r icul r si u  ions
(1.27)







r mo ion, R→ ∞ nd
i resul s n = 0. If he line r mo ion
is lso unifor
1. In line

v =
c nd, ccordingly,  is lso null. 2. In circul r uniform mo ion, v =
m,
c ⇉ a = 0, a = an .
c) Mechanical Work







The physical


quan

i ies can be classified
as follows:



1) s
a e quan
i ies/parame



ers (s a e func
ions)
depend

only
on

he
curren s a e of he
sys em, no on

h
e way in which
he
sys em go o ha
s a e; for example:
kine

ic energy, po en

ial

energy, he in
ernal energy of a hermodynamic


sys

em e c.; 2) process


quan
i ies/process

func ions which depend on

he ype


of he process,


on he

pa h fol
lowed

by he process/ are physical



quan
i ies ha describe

he ransi ion of a
sys em from an equilibrium
s a e o ano her


equilibrium
s a e. As an example,



me
chanical


work
and hea

are process quan i


ies because

hey describe
quan i a ive


ly he
ransi ion
be ween


equilibrium


s a es of hermodynamic


sys ems;

for ins a
nce.

Le X deno


e any
s
a e quan
i y or process quan
i y. The infini
esimal
vari
a ion of a s a e quan

i y is deno


ed by dX because
 i is an exac  differen
 ial.
For a process
 quan i y, deno a ion
 δX is use . Since quantity X epen
 s on
 the pat
h followe , δX is  not an exact ifferential. Consequently, let δL an δQ enote the el
ementary work an the quantity of elementary heat respectively.
10
 
r Consi er thatupon a material point
 there is applie a force F that
etermines the isplacement of a bo y along a trajectory. Generally, -force can
vary
 with respect to time, F = F(t);
 - force irection may not coinci e with th
e irection of the material point isplacement.

r Theelementary work one by force F , that applies
 to the material
 point
 r whe
n it isplaces its application point along the istance r , is efine by the
following relation
 
r The total work one by force F when it isplaces its application point from A
to B,
is:
B

δ L = F ⋅ r
r
r
(1.28)
LA→B
=
A

r r ∫ F ⋅ r .
(1.29)

) Kinetic Energy  
Kinetic energy is that part of the mechanical
 energy etermine by the motion of
a material point, generally of the bo y.

Ec or T enotes kinetic energy. 
Force is equal to the impulse erivative with respect to time:
 
r r p r r , p = mv F= t
We calculate elementary work as follows:
(1.30)
       
r r ⎛ 2⎞ r r r r p r δL = t ⋅ r = p ⋅ t = (m v ) ⋅ v = ⎜ m v ⎟. ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 2 ⎠
(1.31)
 
Kinetic energy is efine by the relation:
11
mv 2 T ≡ Ec ≡ . 2 
by the motion of a material point, generally of the bo y. From the previous two
relations we obtain:
(1.32)

Kinetic
 energy (energy of motion) is that part of the mechanical energy etermin
e

δL = T . 
L A→B = ∫ T = T (B ) − T ( A) =
A B
(1.33)









In he c se of he mo ion be ween A nd B, by in egr  ing rel  ion (1.33), we ge
:
m v2 m v2 B A 2 − 2 ,
L A→B = ΔT
(1.34)
Relation (1.34) is the mathematical expression o the theorem o the kinetic ene
rgy variation. The theorem o the kinetic energy variation shows that the work d
one between two positions A and B is equal to the kinetic energy variation o th
e material point between the two positions.
e) Conservative Forces
The conservative orces are the orces or which the work done between two point
s A and B (Fig. 1.6) does not depend on the path taken by the application point
o the orce, they are path-independent. In a more general sense, a conservative
orce is any orce which may be expressed as a gradient o a scalar potential.
B B r r r r ∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ F ⋅ dr . A ( C2 )
(C1)
A
(C2)
B
Fig. 1.6 (1.35)
A ( C1 )
12
I the working point is displaced along the closed graph A →B→ A, the work done vani
shes.
LA→B→ A = 0 .
(1.36)
Hence, the work done by a conservative orce along a closed graph is zero:
(C )
r r F ⋅ dr = 0 . ∫
(1.37)
By using the Stokes-Ampère theorem, ∫ A ⋅ dr = ∫∫ rotA ⋅ dS , we obtain
(C ) S
r
r
r
r
curl F = 0 . are: gravitational orce, electric orce, elastic orce.
r
(1.38)
The curl o a conservative orce vanishes. Examples o conservative orces The n
on-conservative orces are the orces or which the work done between two points
depends on the path. For example: riction and magnetism.
) Potential Energy
Potential energy is that part o mechanical energy that depends on the system co
n iguration, which is on the position o the particles in a orce ield. Potenti
al
energy depends on the system coordinates. We can speak only o the variation o
the potential energy. For instance, this variation can be turned into kinetic en
ergy or vice versa. As a result, the choice o the point where U = 0, called the
zero-point o the
potential energy or re erence point, is arbitrary. In some cases, the choice o
a
certain zero-point o the potential energy is more convenient. The choice o any
other zero-point o the potential energy gives the same result.
13
The potential energy can be uniquely de ined only or the conservative orces. L
et us consider material point in a conservative orce ield. I the curl o a ve
ctor ield is null, then this vector ield results rom a scalar ield by applyi
ng the
r gradient (rot A = 0
r ⇉ A = grad φ) since rot grad φ = 0, or any φ. r With the conservative orces we obtai
n rot F = 0 .
r F = − gr dU ,








By defini ion, he sc l r func ion from which F resul s is he po en i l energy:
(1.39)
nd we h ve F = − gr d U = − ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k ⎟. ⎝ ⎠ We compute elementary work:
r
⎛ ∂U r
∂U r
∂U r ⎞
   
r r r r r ⎛ ∂U r ∂U r ∂U r ⎞ δL = F ⋅ r = − ⎜ k ⎟ ⋅ x i + y j + z k = j+ i + ⎜ ∂z ⎟ ∂y
z ⎟ = − dU ⎟ ⎝ ⎠
(
)

an we obtain
δL = −dU
(1.40)









If
he pplic  ion poin

of he force is disclosed from A o B, in egr  ing he
rel  ion (1.40) we ge :
B
L A→ B = − ∫ dU = U ( A) − U (B ) .
A
(1.41)












Le poin A be rbi r rily design

 e he zero poin of he
po en i l energy, h 
is we h ve U(A) = 0, Lpoin ref .→B = −U (B ) nd we ge
14
U (B ) = L


B → poin ref
=


poin ref . B
∫
r r F ⋅ dr
(1.42)







The po en i l energy of

m  eri l poin ,
in ny posi ion

B from  conserv 
ive
force field,


is equ l o
he work

done by he forces
of
he
field in order
o di
sclose he m  eri l poin from he considered posi ion o he reference poin .
Ex mples








1) El s ic Po en i l Energy We ke he equilibrium posi ion s reference poin :
U(0) = 0.
U ( x ) = ∫ F dx = −k ∫ x dx = k x , 2 x x
2
0
0
nd
U (x )
= k x 2


2) Elec ric l Po en i l Energy
2
(1.43)








According o Coulomb’s l w, he in er c ion force be ween wo elec ric ch rges Q 
nd q is:
r Qq r F= r 4π ε r3
W tak th rfrnc oint to infinity : U(r = ∞) = 0.
(1.44a)
∞r r Qq ∞ 1 r r Qq r ⋅ dr = U (r ) = ∫ F ⋅ dr = 4π ε ∫ r3 4π ε r r
∞1 r
Qq ∫ r 2 dr = 4π ε r . (1.44b)
15
Considring that th lctric otntial at distanc r from charg Q is givn by
th rlation
V (r ) =
on gts:
Qq , 4π ε r
(1.44c)
U (r ) =
Qq = qV (r ) . 4π ε r
(1.44d)
3) Gravitational Potntial Enrgy According to th univrsal attraction law, th
intraction forc btwn two masss m1 and m2 (Fig. 1.7) is:
m1
r F
r F m 2
Fig. 1.7
r mm r F = K 13 2 r, r
(1.45a)
whr K is th univrsal gravitational constant. Lt ∞ b th rfrnc oint: U(r
=
∞) = 0.
∞r r ∞ U (r ) = ∫ F ⋅ dr = K m1 m2 ∫ 12 dr = − K m1 m2 1 , r r r r
(1.45b)
U (r ) = −
K m1 m2 r
(1.45c)
16
For th bodis in th gravitational fild from Earth, it is convnint to hav z
ro oint of th otntial nrgy at th Earth surfac (Fig. 1.8): U(r = R) = 0.
R r U (h ) = ∫ F ⋅ dr = − K ⋅ m ⋅ M ∫ 1 dr = K ⋅ m ⋅ M 1 − 1 2 R R+h R+h R+h r Rr
(
)
(1.45d)
U (h ) = K ⋅ m ⋅ M ⋅
h . R R+h ⎞ ⎟ ⎠
⎛ ⎜ ⎝
(1.45e)
For low heights we have: h << R, R(R+h) ≅ R²,
m h
U (h ) = K ⋅ m ⋅ M ⋅ h2 . R
At the Earth surface, the gravitational force is:
(1.45f)
R M
Fig. 1.8
M F = K ⋅ mM = m ⋅ g0 ; g0 = K 2 , R2 R
where g 0 is the gravitation acceleration at the Earth surface. Potential energy
becomes:
(1.45g)
U (h) = m · g 0 · h
(1.46)
17
1.1.2 Fundamental Principles of Classical Dynamics
1) The Law of Inertia A material point tends to stay in a rectilinear uniform mo
tion or at relative rest unless acted upon by an (external) force. 2) The Fundam
ental Law of Dynamics In classical mechanics, mass is constant: m = const.
r r r r dp d (m v ) dv r F= = =m = ma , dt dt dt
r r F = ma .
(1.47a)
Statement. If a force F acts upon a body, it applies an acceleration directly
r
proportional to and having the same orientation with

F and inversely proportiona
l with its mass. r r r If F = 0 ⇉ a = 0 ⇉ v = cons .
r




By using he componen s of force F , we ob ain:
r


r r r r r r d 2r
F =
m 2
; F =
Fx i + Fy j + Fz k d d 2 r d 2x r d 2 y r d 2z r
= i + 2 j+ 2 k d d 2 d 2 d
18




r r r d 2x
r d 2 y
r d 2z r Fx i
+ Fy j + Fz k = m( 2
i + 2
j + 2 k ). d d d

r r r Iden ifying
he coefficien s of
i , j , and k i resul s d 2x Fx = m 2 , d
d2y Fy = m 2 , d d 2z Fz = m 2 . d
(1.47b)
(1.48)
(1.49)
(1.50)






The

rela

ions
(1.48), (1.49) and (1.50)
are equa ions
of mo ion.

They demons ra
e ha any
mo ion can be
decomposed


in hree

linear mo ions


by hree perpendicul
ar
direc ions.

The

solu ions

o hese equa ions represen he law of
mo ion of he ma erial poin :


x = x( ),


y = y ( ),


z = z ( ).
(1.51)









By removing ime from rela ions

(1.51) we ob ain
he equa ion

of he rajec
ory.
3)
The Law of Reciprocal

Ac

ions If one body ac s upon

ano her

body
wi h a forc


e, he second one reac s wi h an equal force in magni ude bu opposi e in direc
ion,
called
reac ion.
19





4)

The Law of he
Superposi ion
of Forces


If more forces ac upon a ma erial poi
n , each force ac s independen ly of he o hers.


1.1.3. Laws of Conserva

ion

1) The Law of Conserva ion of Momen um



The ma hema ical expression is



r r dp r r F = ; F = 0 ⇉ p = cons . d
(1.52)








S a emen . An applied force is equal o he ra e of change of momen um.



2) The Law of Conserva ion of Angular Momen um







The angular momen um of a par icle wi h respec o a fixed poin , called


r r r r r L = r  p = r  mv . r r For a circular mo ion, r ⊥ p and we have:



origin, is defined by he rela ion:
(1.53a)




L =
m
⋅
v ⋅ r ⋅ sin 90o = m
⋅ v ⋅ r. (1.53b) r r The momen of force ( orque) M , τ wi h re
pec o he
same fixed

poin is
defined by he rela ion:
r r r M =r F.
(1.54)
20







Momen


of force ( orque)* From he above, we derive rela ion (1.53a) wi h respec
o ime:

r r r r r r r r = (r  m v ) =  m v + r  m = v  m v + r  ma = r
r r r dL d r
dv
r
r dr
 F = M , d d d d
and


r r dL . M= d
(1.55)








This
rela ion
is he ma hema


ical

expression


of he

heorem
of he angular


momen um varia ion. The s a emen of he heorem: he momen of force ( orque) i
s











equal


o he varia
ion wi h respec
o ime of he
angular momen
um or
orque is
he ime-deriva ive of angular momen um. From rela ion (1.55) i resul s:


r r M = 0 ⇉ L = cons .
(1.56a)










The s
a emen of
he conserva ion law

of
he angular momen
um: if he
resul


ing
momen

of
force ( orque) vanishes,
hen he angular


momen

um is cons an wi h re
spec o ime. This happens, for ins ance, wi h he mo ion in a






cen

ral force field. In such a field, in any poin , he force is orien a ed alon
g he
21








posi
ion vec or r
, if he

origin

of he coordina e axes is chosen in he cen er
of he field. In his si ua ion we have:
r
r r r r r F = f (r ) r , M = r  f (r ) r = 0.
(1.56b)






Examples
of cen ral force

fields: gravi a ional field, elec ric field crea ed by
an elec ric charge, e c.


3) The Law of Conserva ion of Mechanical Energy




From he rela ions (1.33) and (1.40) one ob ains:

δL = T;
  
δL = – U; T + U = 0;
T + U = const.

(T + U) = 0;
(1.57)

The statement of the law of mechanical energy conservation: on con itionconserv
ative forces act upon a material point, the sum of the kinetic energy an potent
ial energy is constant with respect to time.

The systems upon which only conservative forces act are calle
conservative systems.
 
The systems upon which non-conservative forces can act aswell, are calle issi
pative systems. In this situation, the mechanical energy ecreases in time, turn
ing into other forms of energy, like thermal energy.
Views upon the Conservation Laws

The conservation
 laws
 are a result of the fact that Eucli ian space is homogeneo
us
 an isotropic
 an time is uniform. The free space is homogeneous,
 in other
 wo
r s, it oes not iffer from one point to another. If a figure is isplace , wit
hout rotation, from one place to another,
22
no change in its size or its geometrical propertiesoccurs.  Furthermore, the phy

sical properties
 (inertia, internal forces) of a bo y o not change ifthat bo y
is isplace to another point in space. Therefore, the geometrical an physical
properties are invariant with the space
 isplacement of the object. The space i
s isotropic, that means that all the irections are equivalent. The geometrical
an physical properties of an object o not change if we rotate it in space. Tha
t is to say the geometrical an physical properties are invariable with rotation
. Time is uniform. In other wor s, the laws of motion of any given system apply
in epen ently from the origin of time. For instance, Coulomb’s  law or the gravitat
ional law is the same at any time. The space
 homogeneity etermines the conserva
tion of momentum. The space isotropy
 lea s to the conservation of the angular mo
mentum as the time uniformity lea s to the energy conservation.
23
1.2. Oscillations
1.2.1. Classification

A system is in stable
 equilibrium
 on con ition it has minimum potential energy.
If the system is  isplace from the stable equilibrium position, there applies a
 force that ten s to bring back the system into its initial position. For short
isplacement from the equilibrium position, this force is elastic: F = –kx.
The oscillatory motion is the motion of a bo y, of asystem, from one si e to th
e other of the equilibrium position. A more general efinition  is the following:
The
 oscillatory motions are those motions that repeat perio ically or quasiperi
o ically in time.
 
A harmonic oscillator consists in a system which, when isplace from  its equili
brium position, experiences a restoring force F proportional to the isplacement
x, F = – kx where k is a positive constant, the spring constant. When there is a
single force F acting on the system, the system is calle a
simple harmonic oscillator. The system un ergoes simple harmonicmotion: sinusoi
al oscillations about the equilibrium point, A constant amplitu e is
 
characterizing
  the motion
 an there  is also a constant
 frequency (which oes not
epen on the amplitu e). Amplitu e is maximal isplacement from the equilibriu
m.Frequency represents the number of cycles the system performs per unit time,
an is ν = 1
T
.
I the presece of a frictioal force (dampig) proportioal to the velocity, th
e harmoic oscillator is described as damped. I this case, the frequecy of the
24
oscillatios is smaller tha i the o-damped case. oscillatios is ot costa
t, ad decreases with time.
The amplitude of the
If a exteral time-depedet force is actig o the oscillator, the harmoic os
cillator is described as drive. Examples of oscillatios: pedula (with small a
gles of displacemet), masses coected to sprigs ad acoustical systems, elec
trical harmoic oscillators (a LC circuit, a RLC circuit). I periodic oscillat
io, the values of all physical quatities characteristic of the oscillatio pro
cess repeat at equal time itervals. The miimum time iterval after which this
value repeats is called period, T. Period represets the duratio of a complete
oscillatio or period is the umber of cycles as a result of time (time/cycle) o
r the time it takes the system to complete a oscillatio cycle. Period is also
the iverse of frequecy. The (oscillatio) frequecy, v, is defied by the rela
tio v = 1/T ad represets the umber of the complete oscillatios doe withi
the time uit. I quasi-periodic oscillatios, oly a part of the physical quat
ities get values that repeat at equal time itervals. Accordig to the physical
character of the oscillatio, there are: a) mechaical oscillatios, whe the ki
etic eergy is tured ito potetial eergy ad vice versa, like the oscillatio
s of a pedulum, vibratios of a strig, of a membrae etc.; b) electromagetic
oscillatios, whe electric eergy turs ito magetic eergy ad vice versa, l
ike the oscillatios from a oscillatio circuit c) electromechaical oscillatio
s, whe electric eergy turs ito mechaical eergy or vice versa.
25
1.2.2. No-Damped/Simple Harmoic Oscillatios
This type of motio is geerated i a elastic force field, i the absece of fr
ictio. The object (system) is displaced from its equilibrium positio ad left
free. Let us cosider a mass m, udergoig such type of motio alog axis Ox, a
d the origi of the coordiate system which idetifies with the equilibrium posi
tio. Displacemet of mass m about the equilibrium positio at a give poit is
x . The simple harmoic oscillator has o drivig force, ad o frictio (dampi
g), so the oscillator experieces the elastic force:
F = – k x,
(1.58)
where k is the sprig costat, hece the motio equatio of the material poit.
Accordig to the fudametal law of dyamics, oe has:
r d 2x r d 2 y r d 2z r r F = m a = m( 2 i + 2 j + 2 k ) dt dt dt
As y = 0, z = 0, oe gets:
(1.59)
d 2x F =m 2 . dt
Combiig the relatios (1.58) ad (1.60) oe obtais:
(1.60a)
d 2x d 2x k − k x = 2 ; 2 + x = 0. dt m dt
By th dnotation:
(1.60b)
26
ω02 =
one obtains:
k m
(1.61)
d 2x + ω02 x = 0 . dt 2
(1.62)
E uation (1.62) is the differential e uation of the non-damped/simple harmonic o
scillator. It is a 2nd order homogeneous linear differential e uation. The so ca
lled characteristic e uation is:
r 2 + ω02 = 0 ⇉ r1, 2 = ±iω0 .
The solution to the e uation (1.62) is:
(1.63a)
x = B1e iω t + B2 e − iω t .
0 0
(1.63b)
Using Euler’s formulas e
±i x
= cos x ± i sin x , one gets:
(1.63c)
x = ( B1 + B2 ) cos ω0 t + i ( B1 − B2 ) sin ω0 t .
We denote:
C1 = B1 + B2 C2 = i ( B1 − B2 )
and on has:
x = C 1 cos ω 0 t + C 2 sin ω 0 t
and substitute:
(1.63d)
C1 = A sin ϕ ;
it results:
C2 = A cos ϕ ,
(1.63e)
x = A(sin ϕ cos ω0 t + cos ϕ sin ω0 t )
and
x = A sin(ω0 t + ϕ ) .
(1.63f)
27
This relation represents the la
of the non-damped/simple harmonic oscillatory m
otion. Alternatively,
ith the formula sin α = cos( α – π/2), th rlation (1.63f) can b
 writtn as follows:

x = A cos( ω 0 t + ϕ 1 ) ϕ1 = ϕ −
π
2
,
(1.64)
whr x is th dislacmnt, A is th amlitud that quals th maximum dislac
mnt.
ω0 is the angular fre uency of the solution, as it is determined only
by its characteristics, (measured in radians per second).
ω0 t + ϕ is the phase,
hile
ϕ – iitial phase (at t = 0).
The period T0 is the miimum time durig which the material poit stays i the s
ame positio, has the same speed, i terms of value ad directio (therefore, th
e duratio of a complete oscillatio). We have x(t) = x( t + T0 ), Asi( ω0 t + φ)
= Asin[ ω0 (t + T0 ) + φ], ω0 (t+ T0 ) +φ = ω0 t + φ + 2π, T0 = 2π/ ω0 .
Using relation (1.61) one obtains:
T0 =
2π
ω0
= 2π
m . k
(1.65)
Th frquncy (masurd in hrtz), is givn by:
ν0 =
1 . T0
(1.66)
We determie the speed ad acceleratio of the material poit udergoig harmoi
c oscillatios (oscillatory motio) as follows:
v = vx =
dx = ω0 A cos(ω0 t + ϕ ) , dt
(1.67)
28
a = a x = −ω02 A sin(ω0 t + ϕ ) = −ω02 x .
the displacement.
(1.68)
In simple oscillations, acceleration is proportional and inversely directed to W
e determine kinetic, potential and total energy of the oscillator at any t time
as follo
s:
mv2 1 T= = mω02 A2 cos 2 (ω0 t + ϕ ) , 2 2 k x2 1 U= = mω02 A2 sin 2 (ω0 t + ϕ ) , 2 2
(1.69) (1.70) (1.71)
1 1 E = T + U = mω02 A2 = k A2 . 2 2
The total energy is constant relative to time. Conse uently, the simple harmonic
oscillator is a conservative system.
The Complex Numbers and the Harmonic Oscillation
The displacement of the harmonic oscillatory motion is represented by the comple
x number:
x = Aei (ω t +ϕ ) , x = A[cos(ω0 t + ϕ ) + i sin(ω0 t + ϕ )] .
0
(1.72)
Under these conditions, the follo
ing convention is made: the displacement is gi
ven by the imaginary part of this complex.
29
The Vectorial Representation of the Harmonic Oscillation
Any harmonic oscillation can be graphically
r represented, by a rotating vector A , called phasor
(Fig. 1.9). The maximum displacement is given by the phasor s length and the pha
sor rotates in
y
trigonometric (counterclock
ise) direction at an angular frec uency
O
ωt ϕ
B
r A(t ) r A(0)
x
ω0 . The phasor travels
ith
Fig. 1.9
velocity 2πA / T, which is th maximum sd
of th oscillator. So, th angl it maks with th x axis givs th has angl.
At t = 0, th has φ denotes the angle made by the phasor with axis Ox, while at
any t time, we have
ω0 t + φ. The projection B o the terminal point o the
phasor on axis Ox (as well as the projection on Oy) describes a harmonic oscilla
tion. The vector method (phasor) is mainly used in the study o the two parallel
/orthogonal harmonic oscillations o equal requency.
1.2.3. Particular Case o Simple/non-Damped Harmonic Oscillation. Simple Pendulu
m (Bob Pendulum).
Simple (mathematical) pendulum consists o a weight m attached to a massless ine
lastic wire (rigid rod). Because o an initial push, it will swing back and ort
h under the in luence o gravity over its central point. We assume that the bob
is a point mass and motion occurs in a 2 dimensional plane (Fig. 1.10). The harm
onic oscillations o the pendulum occur or small angular
displacements
about th
e equilibrium


point,

namely

α < 4°
(sm ll ngle pproxim  ion). The mo ion is c used
by he ngen componen of G , G :
r
 30



G = −m g sin α ≅ −m gα ,


he bob c uses  decre se in ngle. We pply he fund men l l w of dyn mics:
(1.74 )





wi h minus bec use he gr vi  ion l force on
l
α

G B Gn


G = m = m


dv . d
(1.74b)
A




Fig. 1.10 We c lcul  e line r cceler  ion  (AB = s):








ds dα
dv
d 2α =l ⇉ a = =l 2
, s = αl
⇉ v = d d d d d 2α G = ml 2 . d
From he wo expressions of G one ge s:
(1.74c) (1.74d)



d
2α d 2α g
− m gα = ml 2 ⇉ 2 + α = 0 . d d l
Le us deno e:
(1.74e)


g d 2α 2 = ω0 ⇉ 2 + ω02α
= 0 . l d



d mped h rmonic oscill  or, (1.62), o he new equ  ion is:
(1.74f)









We ge n equ  ion iden ic l wi h he differen i l equ  ion of he simple/non 



α being repl ced by x. Therefore he solu ion
(1.74g)
α = α 0 sin(ω0 t + ϕ )
and the period is given by:
31
T0 =
2π
ω0
= 2π
l . g
(1.75)
Allications
According to M. Schulr (1923), a ndulum whos riod xactly quals th orbit
al riod of a hyothtical satllit orbiting just abov th surfac of th ar
th (about 84 minuts) will tnd to rmain ointing at th cntr of th arth wh
n its suort is suddnly dislacd. This rrsnts th basic rincil of Sch
ulr tuning that has to b includd in th dsign of any inrtial guidanc syst
m that will b oratd nar th arth, such as in shis and aircraft. Bcaus o
f th valus of th gravitational acclration g in th quation (1.75) th nd
ulum frquncy is diffrnt at diffrnt lacs on arth. If w considr an accu
rat ndulum clock in Glasgow (g = 9.815 63 m/s2) and tak it to Cairo (g = 9.7
93 17 m/s2), w must shortn th ndulum by 0.23%. Doubl ndulum:  in horolo
gy, a doubl ndulum rrsnts a systm of two siml ndulums on a common mo
unting which mov in anti has.  in mathmatics (dynamical systms), a doubl
ndulum is a ndulum that has anothr ndulum attachd to its nd. This syst
m is a siml hysical systm that xhibits rich dynamic bhavior. A st of cou
ld ordinary diffrntial quations dscrib th motion of a doubl ndulum. Al
so, for a valu of nrgy gratr than a crtain on its motion is chaotic. A r
orty of th doubl ndulum is that it undrgos chaotic motion, and shows a s
nsitiv dndnc on initial conditions. Th imag from Fig. 1.11 shows
32
th amount of lasd tim initial conditions *.
bfor th ndulum "flis ovr", as a function of
Fig. 1.11*
1.2.4. Damd Harmonic Oscillations
Th harmonic oscillator is known as damd in th rsnc of a frictional forc
(daming) roortional to th vlocity. Th frquncy of th oscillations is sm
allr than in th non damd cas, and th amlitud of th oscillations is not
constant and dcrass with tim. Damd oscillations ar thos oscillations wit
h rducd amlitud du to th dissiation of nrgy, undr th action of fricti
on forcs. Th friction forc acting uon th oscillator dnds uon th givn
motional conditions. Lt us considr th oscillator moving through fluid. In thi
s cas, at rlativly low sd, th body is subjct to a frictional forc roo
rtional to vlocity, as in th Fig. 1.12:
33
Fig. 1.12 A mass attachd to a sring and a damr. (Th F in th diagram dnot
s an xtrnal forc, which this xaml dos not includ.)*
Fr = −γ v = −γ
where
dx , dt
(1.76)
γ is a positive coefficient that depends on the nature of the fluid and is
called damper constant. The minus sins the fact that the frictional force oppos
es the body displacement and has its direction contrary to velocity. In the case
of strined instruments such as uitar or violin, dampin represents the quieti
n or abrupt silencin of the strins after they have been sounded. The strins

can be modeled as a continuum of infinitesimally small mass sprin damper system
s where the dampin constant is much smaller than the resonant frequency, creati
n damped oscillations. We consider that the displacement about the equilibrium
point is small; consequently, the restorin force is elastic. Accordin to the f
undamental principle of dynamics, one ets:
d 2x dx d 2 x γ dx m 2 +γ + kx = 0⇉ 2 + + ω02 x = 0 dt dt dt m dt
(1.77)
34
and
e denote
γ
m

= 2 δ an ω02 =
  
k ,
here δ is calle amping factor an ω0 is called the m
(undamped) natural fre uency (angular fre uency of the oscillator in the absence
of friction) of the system. Both parameters represent angular fre uencies and h
ave for units of measure radians per second. Using these denotations, the e uati
on becomes:
d 2x dx + 2δ + ω02 x = 0 . 2 dt dt
homogeneous linear differential e uation
ith constant factors. To the e uation
(1.78)
e attach the e uation:
(1.78)
E uation (1.78) is the differential e uation of oscillations. It is a 2nd order
r 2 + 2 δ r + ω02 = 0 .
The solutions to the e uation (1.79) are:
(1.79)
r1, 2 = −δ δ 2 − ω02 .
We distinguish t
o situations. a) If the medium resistance is high, the factor
(1.80)
γ ets a hih value, so that
δ 2 − ω02 > 0 . In this case, solutions r1, 2 are real and the solution to the differe
ntial
e uation (1.78) becomes:
x = A1e −(δ −
2 δ 2 −ω0 ) t
+ A2 e −(δ +
2 δ 2 −ω0 ) t
(1.81)
x
According to relation (1.81), displacement decreases exponentially
ith time. Th
e motion is no longer periodical. The body, no longer in
t
e uilibrium, returns asymptotically to it,
ithout exceeding it.
Fig.1.13
35
In this case, the motion is called aperiodic (Fig. 1.13). The system is said to
be
over-damped. An overdamped door-closer
ill take longer to close the door than a
critically damped door closer. When
  
δ 2 − ω02 = 0 , δ is real an the system is critically ampe . An example of
    
critical amping is the oor-closer of many hinge oors present in public buil
ings. b) If the me ium resistance is low,
δ 2 − ω02 < 0 . In this case, r1, 2 are complex:
(1.82)
r1,2 = −δ i ω02 − δ 2 .
We enote:
ω = ω 02 − δ 2 .
The solution to (1.78) becomes:
(1.83)
x = A1e ( −δ +iω ) t + A2 e ( −δ −iω ) t
and one obtains:
(1.84)
x = e −δ t ( A1e iωt + A2 e − iωt ) .
Using Euler’s formula, one gets:
(1.85)
x = e − δ t [( A1 + A2 ) cos ω t + i ( A1 − A2 ) sin ω t ] .
By substitution:
(1.86)
A1 + A2 = A0 sin ϕ , i ( A1 − A2 ) = A0 cos ϕ .
The displacement becomes:
(1.87)
x = A0 e −δ t (sin ϕ cos ω t + cos ϕ sin ω t )
and one has:
(1.88)
x = A0 e −δ t sin(ω t + ϕ ) .
(1.89)
36
In this case, the system is under-damped. In this case, the system oscillates at
the damped fre uency,
hich is a function of the natural fre uency and the damp
ing factor. Relation (1.89) represents the la
of the damped oscillatory motion.
The amplitude is:
A(t ) = A0 e −δ t .
(1.90)
 
The amplitu e is not constant, but ecreases exponentially (Fig. 1.14). With ω as

the damped fre uency the period T can be defined as the minimum time interval be
t
een t
o successive moves of the oscillator through the e uilibrium point, in t
he same direction:
x
2π = 2 T= ω ω0 − δ 2
2π
t
(1.91)
Fig. 1.14 and th riod of th oscillations is biggr than in th non damd ca
s. Th damd oscillations ar also dtrmind by th following quantitis: i)
Th daming ratio (dcrmnt of daming),

β defined y the relation:
(1.92)
A0e −δ t A(t ) β = ln = ln = ln eδ T = δ T −δ ( t +T ) A(t + T ) A0 e
an one gets:
β = δT . 
The stronger the amping is, the higher
(1.93)
β gets.







ii) Equili
rium time of motion, τ , is he ime rel  ive o which he mpli ude de
cre ses e imes.
37



A( ) A( + τ ) = , e
A0 e
−δ ( t +τ )
A0 e −δ ( t ) = ⇉ e −δ τ = e −1 ⇉ δ τ = 1 e
τ=

l w reg rd o τ s below:
1
δ
.
(1.94)







The smaller τ is, he s ronger he d mping ge s. We c n develop he mo ion


x = A0 e − /τ sin(ω t + ϕ ) .
ii) The uality (performance) factor, Q is defined by the relation:
(1.95)
Q
= ω0τ .
mo ion we h ve:
(1.96)





This rel  ion is v lid for n oscill  or which is no s rongly d mped. In perio
dic
δ ≥ ω0 ⇉ Q = ω0

τ =
In periodic mo ion:
ω0 ≤ 1. δ
(1.97)
δ < ω0 ⇉ Q =
ω0 > 1. δ
(1.98)
  
The higher Q is, the more weakly the motion gets ampe . Accor ing to relation
 (
1.89), oscillations stop afteran infinite time. In reality, when amplitu e beco
mes comparable
 to interatomic istance,
 we cannot speak of an oscillation of the
whole
 bo y with such an amplitu
 e. Thus, actually, the oscillations stop after
a efinite
 time. In
 the ampe oscillations, the energy that
 the oscillator nee
s in or erto be isplace fromthe equilibrium point gra ually turns into therm
al energy ue to friction. The ampe oscillator is a issipative system.
38

Analogy between the mechanical case an the electrical case, series RLC circuit: 
- force F ( N ) – voltage U (V ) ; - spee v (m/s)
 – current intensity I ( A) ; -
isplacement x ( m) – electric charge q (C ) ; - amper constant γ ( k / s ) – resista
nce R (Ω) ;  mass m ( k ) – inductance L ( H ) ;  sprin constant k ( N / m) – inve
rse of capacitance (elastance)
1 C
(1 / F ) ;

1 2π
k m
–
1 2π
1 LC
.

Analogy et
een the mechanical case and the electrical case, arallel RLC circui
t:  force F (N ) – voltage U (V ) ;  seed v (m/s) – du dt ;

 dislacement x (m) – voltage U (V ) ;  damer constant γ ( k / s ) – conductance 

mass m (k ) –capacitance C (F ) ;  sprin constant k ( N / m) – susceptance 1 2π k
m – 1 2π 1 LC . 1 L (1 / H ) ; 1 R (Ω ) ;
−1
39
1.2.5 Driven Harmonic Oscillations. Resonance.
In order to prevent the decrease of amplitude, due to enery dissipation, extern
al enery needs to be communicated to the oscillator. This can be achieved if a
periodic external force acts upon the oscillator. In driven oscillations, the fo
llowin forces act upon the oscillator: elastic force Fe , resistance force Fr ,
and a periodic force, Fext = F0 sin(ω t + ϕ ) ,
here
ω is the angular fre uency of the
external force. The oscillations are called driven, but they are also damped. In
the first moments, after the application of the external force, the oscillation
s are not stationary, in other
ords, they do not have a constant amplitude and
pulsation. Mean
hile, the amplitude and pulsation vary according to a complicate
d la
, the oscillations being under transient conditions. In time, the steady-st
ate conditions are reached. We determine the e uation of motion and the la
of m
otion:
Fe + Fr + Fext = ma ,
d 2x dx m 2 +γ + k x = F0 sin(ω t + ϕ ) , dt dt F d 2 x γ dx k + + x = 0 sin(ω t + ϕ ) dt 2
m dt m m
and
e denote
(1.99) (1.100) (1.101)
γ
m

= 2 δ an ω02 =
  
k ,
here δ is calle amping factor an ω0 is called the m

(undamed) natural frequency (angular frequency of the oscillator in the a sence
of
40
friction) of the system. Both arameters reresent
 angular frequencies and have
for units of measure radians er second. We o tain:
F d 2x dx + 2δ + ω02 x = 0 sin(ω t + ϕ ) . dt 2 dt m
(1.102)
This is the differential e uation of the driven harmonic oscillations. It is an
unhomogeneous 2nd order linear differential e uation,
ith constant factors. The
solution to this type of e uation is the sum of the homogeneous e uation soluti
on and a particular solution, like the second member’s, x = xom + x part . The sol
ution to the homogeneous e uation is: xom = A0 e The particular solution is: x =
A sin(ω t + ϕ ) . In time, due to the damping, xom → 0 and, as a result, the solution
to e uation (1.102)
ill be:
−δ t
sin(ω1 t + ϕ ) .
x = x part = x = A sin(ω t + ϕ ) .
(1.103)
Since the moment
e can have such a solution (1.103), the oscillator is under st
eady-state conditions. Under these conditions, the oscillations have a fre uency
e ual to the fre uency of the external force. Considering (1.103) a solution to
the e uation (1.102),
e can determine the constants A and ϕ .
dx = ω A cos(ω t + ϕ ) , dt
d 2x = −ω 2 A sin(ω t + ϕ ) . 2 dt
Introducing (1.103), (1.104) and (1.105) in (1.102) it follo
s:
(1.104) (1.105)
(ω02 − ω 2 ) A sin(ω t + ϕ ) + 2 δ ω A cos(ω t + ϕ ) =
F0 sin(ω t + ϕ ) . m
(1.106)
41
By developing sinus and cosinus and e uating the coefficients of sin ω t and
cos ω t it follo
s:
A(ω02 − ω 2 ) cos ϕ − 2 δ ω A sin ϕ = F0 , m
(1.107) (1.108)
A(ω02 − ω 2 ) sin ϕ + 2 δ ω A cos ϕ = 0 .
From relation (1.108) one gets:
tgϕ =
2δ ω . ω 2 − ω02
(1.109)

From the multilication of (1.107) y cos ϕ and (1.108) by sin ϕ and sum of the ne

relations, one obtains:

A=
We develop cos ϕ :
F0 cos ϕ . m(ω02 − ω 2 )
(1.110)
cos ϕ =
1 1 + tg ϕ
2
=
± (ω 2 − ω02 ) (ω − ω ) + 4 δ ω
2 2 2 0 2 2
.
(1.111)
 
Com ining (1.110) and (1.111) one o tains:
A=
F0 m (ω02 − ω 2 ) 2 + 4δ 2 ω 2
.
(1.112)
According to relations (1.109) and (1.111), the amlitude, A and the initial ha
se,
ϕ of the driven oscillations depend on pulsation ω of the external force.
ωr . The phenomenon of developing
The angular fre uency value/modulus of the external force
ith maximum amplitude
is called angular resonant fre uency
42
a driven oscillation of maximum amplitude
hen
ω = ωr , is called resonance. The
angular resonant fre uency is obtained from the maximum condition:

dA = 0 ⇉ 4ω (ω 2 − ω02 + 2 δ 2 ) = 0 ω

and e get
(1.113)
ωr = ω02 − 2 δ 2 .
relative to resonance:
(1.114)
  
Embe ing (1.114) in (1.112) we etermine the value of the amplitu e
Ar =
F0 2δ m ω − δ
2 0 2
.
(1.115)
  
The amplitu e with regar to resonance is as higher as the amping factor/coeffi
cient,

δ is lower. If the me ium resistance is null, δ = 0, ωr = ω and
A
Ar → ∞ . This situation does not actually
occur, as the medium resistance al
ays interferes. The curves, as a result of th
e grah reresentation of the amlitude relative to the angular frequency of the
external force, are called resonance curves. (Fig. 1.15). An examle of resonan
ce in Fig. 1.16.
δ=0
δ2 < δ1
ωr ωr
1
2
ω0
δ1
ω
Fig. 1.15
43
Fig. 1.16 The Tacoma Narro
s Bridge (sho
n t
isting) in Washington collased se
ctacularly, under moderate
ind, in art
 ecause of resonance*. In hysics, reso
nance is the tendency of a system to a sor more energy hen

 the frequency of it
s oscillations matches the system's natural frequency of vi ration (its resonant
frequency) than it does at other frequencies. Examles of resonance:
 the acoust
ic resonances of musical instruments, the tidal resonance, or ital resonance as
exem lified y some moons of the solar system's gas giants, the resonance of the
  
asilar mem rane in the iological transduction of auditory inut, and resonanc
e in electronic circuits. 1) Acoustic resonances. Strings under tension (lutes,
hars, guitars, ianos) have resonant frequencies
hich are directly connected t
o the mass, length, and tension of the string. The
avelength that corresonds t
o the first resonance on the string is equal to t
ice the length of the string.
For higher resonances corresond
avelengths that are integer divisions of the f
undamental
avelength. 2) Tidal resonance. Tidal resonance (oceanograhy)occurs

hen the time it takes for a large
ave to travel from the mouth of the ay to
the oosite end, then
44
 
reflect and travel ack  to the mouth ofthe ay, equals the time from one high t
ide to the next. 3) Or ital resonance
 a ears in the case of some moons of the s
olar system's gas giants. When t
o odies have eriods  of revolution that are a
simle integer ratio of each other
 a mean
 motion or ital resonance a 
 ears. De e
nding on the conditions, the or it can e either sta ilized or desta ilized. Whe
n the t
o odies move in a synchronized fashion and they never closely aroach

sta ilization occurs. There are four gas giants in our solar system's: Juiter, 
Saturn, Uranus, and Netune (Fig. 1.17). Uranus and Netune 
 are a se arate su cl
 
ass of giant lanets, 'ice giants', or 'Uranian lanets', ecause they are mostl
y comosed of ice, rock and gas, unlike the "traditional" gas giants Juiter or
Saturn. They share the same qualities of the lack of the solid surface; their di
fferences
 stem from the fact that their roortion of hydrogen and helium is lo

er, ecause they are situated at greater distance from the Sun.
Fig. 1.17 From to: Netune, Uranus, Saturn, and Juiter (sizes not to scale)*.
45
  
4) Resonance of
 the asilar mem rane in the iological transduction of auditory
inut. The mem rane is taered and it is stiffer at one end than atthe other. B
ecause of this, there is a sound inut (frequency) that makes to vi rate a arti
cular location of the mem rane more than other locations due to the hysical ro
erty of resonance. Georg von Békésy (Noel Prize) sho
ed in exeriments that high f
 
requencies
 lead to maximum vi rations at the asal end of the cochlear coil (nar

ro mem rane), and lo frequencies 

 determine maximum vi rations at the a ical en
d of the cochlear coil ( ide mem rane). 5) Resonance in electronic circuits. In
an electrical circuit, resonance aears at a articular frequency
hen the indu
ctive reactance equals the caacitive reactance. This determines electrical ener
gy to oscillate et
een the magnetic field of the inductor and the electric fiel
d of the caacitor. An analogy is reresented y the mechanical endulum. At res
onance, the series imedance of the t
o elements is at a minimum and the aralle

l imedance is a maximum. Resonance has alications in tuning and filtering, e
 
cause resonance a ears at a articular frequency for given values of inductance
and caacitance. Resonance can roduce un
anted sustained and transient oscilla
tions in electrical circuits that may cause noise, signal distortion, and damage
to circuit elements.*
46
1.2.6. Mechanical Oscillations
a) T
o Parallel Harmonic Oscillatory Motions of Equal Frequency
Let us consider a material oint undergoing t
o harmonic oscillatory motions of
equal frequency along axis Ox:
x1 = A1 sin(ω t + ϕ1 ) , x2 = A2 sin(ω t + ϕ 2 ) .
The displacement of the resulted motion is given by:
(1.116)
(1.117)
x = x1 + x2 = A1 sin ω t cos ϕ1 + A1 cos ω t sin ϕ1 + + A2 sin ω t cos ϕ 2 + A2 cos ω t sin
= = ( A1 cos ϕ1 + A2 cos ϕ 2 ) sin ω t + + ( A1 sin ϕ1 + A2 sin ϕ 2 ) cos ω t
We denote: . (1.118)
B1 = A1 cos ϕ1 + A2 cos ϕ 2 , B2 = A1 sin ϕ1 + A2 sin ϕ 2 .
One gets:
(1.119)
x = B1 sin ω t + B2 cos ω t .
By substitution:
(1.120)
B1 = A cos ϕ ; B2 = A sin ϕ
and the displacement becomes:
(1.121)
x = A sin(ω t + ϕ ) .
(1.122)
The resulted motion is a harmonic oscillatory motion as
ell. Let us determine a
mplitude A and the initial phase ϕ of the resulted motion:
A cos ϕ = A1 cos ϕ1 + A2 cos ϕ 2 , A sin ϕ = A1 sin ϕ1 + A2 sin ϕ 2 .
By dividing these relations, it follo
s that:
(1.123)
(1.124)
tgϕ =
A1 sin ϕ1 + A2 sin ϕ 2 . A1 cos ϕ1 + A2 cos ϕ 2
(1.125)
S uaring and summing relations (1.123) and (1.124),
e get:
A2 = A12 + A22 + 2 A1 A2 cos(ϕ 2 − ϕ1 ) .
(1.126)
The vector method leads to the same result. The vector representation (Fig. 1.18
) is useful mainly in the composition study of more oscillations, of similar fre
uency and direction. In this case, the polygon rule applies: a vector polygon i
s dra
n; the vector that closes up the polygon outline represents the resulted o
scillation (Fig. 1.19).
y
r A2 r A1
r A
y
r A
r A3
O
ϕ
x
O
ϕ
r A1
r A2
x
Fig. 1.18
Fig. 1.19
48
Particular Cases
1) If
ϕ 2 − ϕ1 = 2 k π , from relation (1.126) it follo
s
A = A1 + A2
(1.127)
The resulted amlitude equals the sum of the comonent amlitudes. The t
o oscil
lations are considered in hase (Fig. 1.20).
x x
t
t
Fig. 1.20 2) If
Fig. 1.21
ϕ 2 − ϕ1 = 2 (k + 1) π , from relation (1.126) one gets:
A = A1 − A2 .
(1.128)
The oscillations, in this case, are in hase oosition (Fig. 1.21). 3) If
ϕ 2 − ϕ1 = 2 (k + 1) π / 2 , from relation (1.126) it results:
A2 = A12 + A22 .
(1.129)
The t
o oscillations are in a square relationshi.


) T o 0rthogonal Harmonic oscillatory Motions of Same Frequency

Let us consider that a material oint simultaneously undergoes t
o harmonic osci
llations, one along Ox, the other along Oy:
x = A sin ω t ,
(1.130) (1.131)
y = B sin(ω t + ϕ ) .
In order to obtain the trajectory e uation,
e leave out the time from the relat
ions.
49
As a result, relation (1.130) becomes:
x x2
 2 sin ω t = ⇉ cos ω t = 1 − sin
 ω t = 1 − 2 A A
Com ining (1.131) and (1.132) one o tains:
(1.132)
y = B sin ω t cos ϕ + B cos ω t sin ϕ ,
x2 x y = B cos ϕ + B 1 − 2 sin ϕ , A A x x2 y − B cos ϕ = B 1 − 2 sin ϕ . A A
By s uaring this relation, one gets: (1.133)
y2 x2 2 x y + 2− cos ϕ = sin 2 ϕ . 2 B A AB
motion (Fig. 1.22).
y D1 D2 x
(1.134)
The trajectory is an ellipse. The consecutive motion is an elliptical periodical
Fig. 1.22
Particular Cases
1) If
ϕ 2 − ϕ1 = 2 k π , from relation (1.134) it follo
s:
50
y2 x2 2
x y
x y + 2−

=0⇉ = . B2 A AB

A B


represen s he firs diagonal from he ampli ude rec angular. 2) If
(1.135)







The consecu ive mo ion is a harmonic oscilla ory mo ion along line D1 ha
ϕ 2 − ϕ1 = 2 (k + 1) π , from relation (1.134) one gets:
x y =− . A B
(1.136)
The consecutive motion is a harmonic oscillatory motion along line D2 . 3) If
ϕ 2 − ϕ1 = 2 (k + 1) π / 2 , from relation (1.134) it results:
y 2 x2 + = 1. B 2 A2
(1.137)
The motion iseriodical on an ellise around an axis. In articular, if A = B ,
the ellise ecomes a circle:
x 2 + y 2 = A2 .
harmonic oscillations, of similar
(1.138)

Recirocally, any circular eriodical motion can e decomosed in t
o cross
ν ad A , havig the phase differece
2 (k + 1) π / 2 .
If the frequencies are different, the consecutive trajectory has a more comlica
ted form. If the frequency ratio is a rational num er,
ν 1 /ν 2 = 1 / 2 ,
1 , 2 ∈ N what we get are closed trajectories, called Lissajous figures.
51
Chapter 2
Waves
2.1 Defiitio. Classificatio. Physical Descriptio of a Wave. Wave Equatio. P
ropagatio of Waves. Eergy of Waves. Wave Itesity.
2.1.1 Defiitio. Classificatio.
A wave represets a disturbace that propagates through space, ofte trasferri
g eergy. A mechaical wave exists i a medium but waves of a electromagetic r
adiatio, ad probably gravitatioal radiatio ca travel through vacuum. Waves
travel ad trasfer eergy from oe poit to aother, without ay of the particl
es of the medium beig displaced permaetly (there is o associated mass trasp
ort) but there are oscillatios aroud fixed positios. Waves are characterized
by crests (highs, maximums) ad troughs (lows, miimums), either perpedicular (
i the case of trasverse waves) or parallel (i the case of logitudial waves)
to wave motio. A wave ca be described by the wave fuctio as:
r Ψ = f ( x, y , z , t ) = ψ ( r , t ) .
(2.1)
r r field H , electric field intensit E ) or a scalar quantit (electrical pote
ntial
difference, pressure).
The wave function can be a vector (a displacement in mechanics, magnetic
52
The wave front is the locus (a line or surface in an electromagnetic wave) of th
e points that have the same phase. We denote:
Ψ ( x, , z , t ) = S = const.
(2.2)
We have plane waves and spherical waves. Characteristic of a plane wave: has a c
onstant-frequenc and the wave fronts (surfaces of constant phase) are infinite
parallel planes normal to the phase velocit vector. The waves that are approxim
atel plane waves in a localized region of space are also called plane waves. Fo
r example, a localized source such as an antenna produces a field that is approx
imatel a plane wave in its far-field region (the region beond approximatel 10
wavelengths from the antenna).
Fig. 1.23 Plane waves* A spherical wave is the wave that has spherical wave fron
t. For example, an antenna produces a field that is approximatel a spherical wa
ve in region less than the far-field region (the near-field region). Spherical w
aves are the wave function given b:
Ψ = Ψ ( x,  , x, t ) = Ψ ( r , t ) ,
where r =
(2.3)
x 2 +  2 + z 2 and:
1 Ψ = F (r − vt ) r
(2.4)
53

Also,
e have surface
ave
hich is a
ave that is guided along the interface e
t
een t
o different media for a mechanical
ave. Examles: the
aves at the surf
ace of
ater and air, ocean surface
aves, or riles in the sand on the interfa
ce of
ater or
ind. Another examle is internal
aves,
aves that are transmitt
ed along the interface of t
o
ater masses of different

densities. Surface

aves
are encountered in seismology. There is an analogy et een surface aves and
a

ter
aves. Surface
aves travel over the Earth's surface. Their velocity is smal
ler than the velocity
 of ody
aves. Their lo
frequency
 determines them to e m

ore likely than ody aves to stimulate resonance in uildings. They are therefo
re the most destructive tye of seismic
ave. There are t
o ty


 es of surface av

es: Rayleigh aves and Love aves. Plane aves are descri ed y Ψ ( x, y, t ) :
r r Ψ = F (r ⋅ k − vt ) , r r r r = xi + y j .
(2.5)

here

(2.6)
 
Circular
aves are descri ed y Ψ ( r , t )
ith r =
x 2 + y 2 and:
(2.7)
Ψ=
1 F (r − vt ) r
Fig. 1.24 Plane
aves and circular
aves*
54

Examles of Waves*: 1. Ocean surface
aves. They reresents ertur ations that 
roagate through
ater (surfing and tsunami). Ocean surface
aves are surface
a
ves
hich  at the surface of an ocean. They are
aves guided along the int

a ear
erface et een ater and air. The
ind transfers

 a art of its energy


into the

ater, the ater gains energy from the ind ecause of the friction et een the
ind
articles have an ellitical motion,
hich is a c
 and the ater. The surface

om ination of longitudinal ( ack and forth) and transverse (u and do
n)
ave mo
tions.
Fig. 1.25 Breaking
aves at La Jolla* Individual "freak
aves" (also "rogue
ave
s", "monster
aves" and "king
aves")
 can occur in the ocean, often as high as 3
0 metres. Such
aves are different y tides and tsunamis. There are three main t
yes of
aves that are identified y surfers: lunging
aves ("dumers"),silli
ng
aves and surging
aves. Their roerties make them more or less suita le for
surfing and resent different dangers.
 2. Electromagnetic radiation: radio
ave

s, micro aves, infrared rays, visi le light, ultraviolet rays, x rays, and gamma

rays. In this case, roagation is ossi le
55

ithout a medium, through vacuum. These electromagnetic

aves travel at 299 792
458 m/s in a vacuum. Inthe case of micro
aves the
avelengths is longer than th
ose of infrared light, ut relatively short for radio
aves. Micro
aves have
av
elengths aroximately in the range of 30 cm (frequency = 1 GHz) to 1 mm (300 GH
z).
Fig. 1.26 Micro
ave image of 3C353 galaxy at 8.4 GHz (36 mm)*. Infrared (IR)rad
iation is electromagnetic radiation of a
avelength longer than that of visi le
light, ut shorter than that of micro
ave radiation. The name

 means " elo red"

(from the Latin infra, " elo "), red eing the color of visi le light of longest

avelength. Infrared radiation sans three orders of magnitude and has
aveleng

ths et
een aroximately 750 nm and 1 mm.
The visi le sectrum (otical sectrum) is the region of the electromagnetic

sectrum that is visi le to the human eye. Electromagnetic radiation in this ran

ge of avelengths 
 is called visi
 le light or sim ly light. There are no fixed

o
unds to the visi le s ectrum, ecause a ty ical human eye can res ondto avelen
gths from 400 to 700 nm, although
avelengths from 380 to 780 nm can e erceive
d. A light adated eye has its maximum sensitivity at around 555 nm, in the gree
n
56
region of the oticalsectrum. The sectrum does not contain
 all the colorstha
t the human eyes and rain can distinguish, for examle ro
n and ink are a sen
t.
Fig. 1.27 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
 is electromagnetic
 radiation of a
avelengt
h shorter than that of the visi le region, ut longer than that of soft X rays.
There is near UV (380–200 nm
avelength), far or vacuum UV (200–10 nm FUV or VUV), a
nd extreme UV (1–31 nm EUV or XUV). X rays have a
avelength in the range of 10 to
0.1 nanometers, corresonding to frequencies in the range 30 to 3000 PHz. X ray
s are rimarily used for diagnostic medical imaging 
 and crystallogra hy. Because
X rays are a form of ionizing radiation they can e dangerous. Gamma rays (γ) are
electromanetic radiation produced by radioactive decay or other nuclear or sub
atomic processes such as electron positron annihilation. They are bein at an en
ery of 10 keV, a frequency of 2.42 EHz, or a wavelenth of 124 pm, althouh ele
ctromanetic radiation from around 10 keV to several hundred keV is also referre
d to as hard X rays. Gamma rays and X rays of the same enery do not present phy
sical difference. Gamma rays are distinuished from X rays by their oriin. Gamm
a rays are a form of ionizin radiation. 3. Sound is a mechanical wave that prop
aates throuh air, liquid or solids. Its frequency can be detected by the audit
ory system. Similar are seismic waves in earthquakes, S, P and L kinds. 4. Gravi
tational waves, which are fluctuations in the ravitational field predicted by G
eneral Relativity. These waves are nonlinear.
57
2.1.1.1 Transverse and Lonitudinal Waves
Other classification of the waves includes transverse waves and lonitudinal wav
es. This classification is made in function of the position of the vibrations an
d the direction of the propaation of the wave. Transverse waves are the waves w
ith vibrations perpendicular to the direction of the propaation of the wave. So
me examples: waves on a strin, seismic waves and electromanetic waves. Lonitu
dinal waves are the waves with vibrations parallel to the direction of the propa
ation of the wave. Some examples include most sound waves, ripples in water, an
d certain types of waves from earthquakes, where the particle motion is in the d
irection of travel. In seismoloy transverse waves are called S (for “secondary”) wa
ves as they arrive later than the P (“primary”) waves from an earthquake. The absenc
e of transverse waves travelin throuh the earth’s core demonstrates that it is l
iquid. Also, transverse waves are connected to the curl operator and are overne
d by a vector wave equation. The lonitudinal waves are connected to the div ope
rator and are overned by a scalar wave equation. A lonitudinal wave represents
compressions movin throuh a plane. In this case the enery from the wave is t
ransmitted as mechanical enery. An example is a slinky which was pushed forward
and backwards, compressin and extendin it as the motion of the wave was trans
mitted. Opposite, liht is composed of transverse waves (electric
r r component E and manetic component H ).
Examples of combination of transverse and lonitudinal waves are the Ripples on
the surface of a pond. Therefore, the points on the surface follow elliptical pa
ths*.
58
Fi. 1.28* For an object that bobs up and down on a ripple in a pond, the trajec
tory is elliptical because ripples are not simple transverse sinusoidal waves.
2.1.1.2 Physical Description of a Wave
There are a number of standard variables that can be used for describin the wav
es. These standard variables are: amplitude, frequency, wavelenth and period. T
he amplitude of a wave represents the manitude of the maximum disturbance in th
e medium durin one wave cycle. The amplitude is measured in units dependin on
the type of wave. For examples, waves on a strin have an amplitude expressed in
meters, sound waves as pressure (pascals) and electromanetic waves have the am
plitude expressed in units of the electric field (volts/meter). If the amplitude
is constant we have the case of the continuous wave or the amplitude can vary w
ith time and (or) position. The envelope of the wave is the form of the variatio
n of amplitude.
59
Fi. 1.29* The hihest point of a wave is called crest (maximum)and the trouh i
s the lowest point (minimum) of a wave. The distance between two crests or two t
rouhs that are beside each other represents the wavelenth it is usually measur
ed in nanometres. The period of the wave T represents the time needed for one co
mplete cycle for an oscillation of a wave. The frequency ν is the iverse of perio
d or how may periods per uit time (for example oe secod). Frequecy is measu
red i hertz. Also, we have the relatio:
λ . For e ectromagnetic radiation,
ν=
1 . T
(2.8)
If we wat to express mathematically the waves we ca use the agular frequecy
(ω, radians/second)
hich is re ated to the frequency ν by:
ω = 2 πν .
(2.9)
60
2.1.1.3 Travellig Waves
Stadig waves are the waves that remai i oe place. Examples: vibratios o a
violi strig, electromagetic stadig waves. Waves that are i movemet are c
alled travellig waves. They preset a disturbace that varies both with time t
ad distace x . This ca be expressed mathematically as:
Ψ ( x, t ) = A( x, t ) si(ω t − k x + ϕ ) ,
(2.10)

here A( x, t ) is the amplitude envelope of the

ave, k is the
ave number and

ϕ is the phase. The velocity v of this

ave is given by:
v=

here λ is the
ave ength of the
ave. The hase ve ocity of a
ave reresents the
rate at
hich the hase of the
ave roagates in sace. In some cases the has
e ve ocity of e ectromagnetic radiation can exceed the seed of ight in a vacuu
m. No suer umina  information or energy transfer are indicated. The hase ve oc
ity can be different by the grou ve ocity of the
ave. The grou ve ocity rere
sents the rate that changes in am itude (the enve oe of the
ave)
i  roaga
te. A so,
e can
rite in the case
hen the roagation is to
ards the 0 x axis:
ω
k
= λν ,
(2.11)
x x Ψ ( x, t ) = f (t − ) = F ( x − v t) = A sin ω (t − ) . v v
The quantity
(2.11.a)
ω (t − ) reresents an ang e. For Ψ is avai ab e the eriodicity in
2π
x v
time
ith T =
ω
and, a so, the eriodicity in sace
ith
λ = vT . The
exression for Ψ can be
ritten:
61
x t x Ψ ( x, t ) = A sin ω (t − ) = A sin 2 π ( − ) = A sin(ω t − k x) , (2.11.b) T λ v

here:

k=
2π
r is the
ave number and is the abso ute va ue of the
ave vector k r r 2π r ω r k =
kn = n = n. λ v r
ave vector k
e have:

here

λ
=
2π ω = vT v
(2.11.c)
(2.11.d)
In the case of the roagation of the
ave in sace in the direction of the
r r Ψ ( x, t ) = A sin(ω t − k r ) = Im{Aei (ω t −k r ) } ,
(2.11.e)
ϕ = ωt − k r
is the hase of the
ave.
r
(2.11.f)
The grou ve ocity of a
ave is the ve ocity
ith
hich the enve oe of the
ave
roagate through sace. The grou ve ocity is defined by the equation:

vg =
∂ω . ∂k
(2.12.a)
About the grou ve ocity
e can say that is the ve ocity at
hich energy or info
rmation is conveyed a ong a
ave. There is a direct connection bet
een the grou
ve ocity and the disersion. Disersion is the henomenon that causes the sear
ation of a
ave into comonents of varying frequency (
ave ength). If ω is direct 
y roortiona  to k, then the grou ve ocity is exact y equa  to the hase ve oc
ity. In the roagation of signa s through otica  fibers and in the design of s
hort u se asers the "grou ve ocity disersion" is  aying an imortant ro e.
62
2.1.2 Wave Equation
The
ave equation is a artia  differentia  equation. The
ave equation describe
s many tyes of
aves such as the sound
aves, ight
aves and
ater
aves. It i
s imortant in acoustics, e ectromagnetics, and f uid dynamics. A so, the
ave e
quation is an exam e of a hyerbo ic artia  differentia  equation. The
ave eq
uation (sim est form) refers to a sca ar quantity Ψ , the
ave function that sati
sfies:
∂ 2Ψ = v2 ∇2Ψ , ∂t 2
one gets:
(2.12.b)

here v is the roagation seed of the

ave. A so, for the case of r = r ( x, y
, z )
r
r
∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ 1 ∂ 2Ψ − − − = 0. ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 v 2 ∂t 2
(2.12.c)
For exam e, for a sound
ave in air at 20°C the seed is about 343 m/s. The seed
can have a
ide variation, in the case of the vibration of a string deending u
on the inear density of the string and the tension on it. For exam e, for a s
ira  sring it can be as s o
as a meter er second. When
e have disersion, t
he differentia  equations for
aves a o
s the seed of
ave roagation to vary

ith the frequency of the
ave. In this case,
e have to re ace v in (2.12.b )
by the hase ve ocity:
v=
ω
k
.
(2.12.d)
63
2.1.3 Proagation of Waves 2.1.3.1 Proagation through So ids
1) Longitudina  Waves
In so ids, there are t
o kinds of sound
aves, ressure
aves and shear
aves. A
non zero stiffness both for vo umetric and shear deformations is resent in a s
o id. In a so id there are conditions for generating sound
aves
ith different
ve ocities deendent on the deformation mode. We have t
o cases: a) the roagat
ion of ongitudina 
aves (ressure
aves) through a so id rod
hen the ength o
f the so id rod is finite (a bounded so id rod) or
ith thickness much sma er t
han the
ave ength, and b) the roagation of transverse
aves (shear
aves)
he
n the ength of the so id rod is infinite (bound ess) or
ith atera  dimensions
much arger than the
ave ength. a) We consider a so id rod and the ength of t
he so id rod is finite (a bounded so id rod). We denote the cross section of the
rod
ith S , the inear density
ith
ρ and
the modulus of elasticity o  Young's modulus with E . A vib ation in a od is a
wave. Tension is a eaction fo ce applied by a st etched od (o  a simila  objec
t) on the objects which st etch it. The di ection of the fo ce of tension is pa 
allel to the od, towa ds the od. The magnitude of the fo ce of tension has an
inc easing with the amount of st etching. In the case of a small st etching, the
fo ce is given by Hooke's law. The Hooke's law is given by:
64
σ ( x, t ) =
∂Ψ 1 F ( x, t ) = E ε ( x, t ) = E , S ∂x
(2.13)
whr th xtn ion ( train) i  linarly proportional to it  tn il tr , con
tant factor, th modulu  of la ticity E . Al o, on ha :
σ by a
(2.14)
l − l0 1 Δl F ( x, t ) = E = E S l0 l0
and
ε=
l − l0 ∂Ψ . = l0 ∂x
(2.15)
Al o, w can writ for th infinit imal di placmnt dx with dm = r ultant for
c:
ρ S dx the
∂σ dx S . ∂x From th cond law of dynamic  F = m a on gt :
dF =
∂ 2 Ψ ∂σ dF = dm 2 = dx S ∂x ∂t
and
(2.16)
(2.17)
∂ 2 Ψ ∂σ dx S ρ S dx 2 = ∂t ∂x
and it esults:
(2.18)
∂ 2 Ψ ∂σ . ρ 2 = ∂t ∂x
Fo  the od one has:
(2.19)
σ ( x, t ) = E ε ( x, t ) = E
and
∂Ψ ∂x
(2.20)
65
∂2Ψ ∂ 2 Ψ ∂σ ρ 2 = =E ∂x ∂x 2 ∂t
and it follows:
(2.21)
∂ 2Ψ ρ ∂ 2Ψ − = 0. ∂x 2 E ∂t 2
If w compar thi  rlation to th wav quation:
(2.22)
∂ 2Ψ 1 ∂ 2Ψ − = 0, ∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
w obtain th pd of a wav travling (th pd of ound) along a rod:
(2.23)
vl =
E
ρ
.
(2.24)
The speed is di ectly p opo tional to the squa e oot of the modulus of elastici
ty E ove  the linea  density app oximately 5100 m—s-1. b) In the case when the len
gth of the solid od is infinite (boundless) o  with late al dimensions much la 
ge  than the wavelength the Hooke's law is given by:
ρ . Thus in steel the speed of sound is
σ ( x, t ) = E ' ε ( x, t ) =
whr and
E (1 − μ ) ε, (1 + μ )(1 − 2 μ )
(2.25)
μ i  th Poi on’s coefficient and E  ≅ 1,35 E is the  ane
ave modu us
(1 − μ ) i  th Poi on'  ratio. Th pd of th longitudinal wav  i  (1 + μ )(1 − 2 μ )
givn by:
v =
' l
E'
ρ
=
E (1 − μ ) > vl . (1 + μ )(1 − 2 μ ) ρ
(2.26)
The sound velocity is highe  than in the fi st case.
66
2) T ansve se Waves
In the case of the t ansve se waves the esultant fo ce that is acting upon the
dm is pe pendicula  to the di ection of p opagation and we have the connection t
o
the late al shea  given by:
dF =
∂τ dx S . ∂x
(2.27)












She r ppe

rs  he cu ing of he shee iron,  he s ress of he rive . Such
deform  ions re homogeneous. The second l w of dyn mics is:


∂ 2 Ψ ∂τ dm
2 = dx S ∂ ∂x
nd one ge s:
(2.28)
∂ 2 Ψ ∂τ ρ 2 = . ∂t ∂x
F om the Hooke's law it esults:
(2.29)
τ = Gγ = G
∂Ψ , ∂x
(2.30)





where τ = F / S is he she r s ress, G is he she r modulus or modulus of rigidi y
nd
γ is the shear strain. The shear modulus is a quantity used for measurin the
strenth of materials. The shear modulus describes the material s response to sh
earin strains. All of them arise in the eneralized Hooke s law. The shear modu
lus influences the value of the speed of sound and also controls it. One ets:
∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ ρ 2 =G 2 ∂t ∂x
(2.31)
67
and
∂ 2Ψ ρ ∂ 2Ψ − = 0. ∂x 2 G ∂t 2
By comparing to th wav quation on obtain :
(2.32)
vt =
G
ρ
.
(2.33)
We have the connection between the modulus of elasticity E and the shea  modulus
G :
G=
and it follows:
E 2(1 + μ ) E < vl . 2(1 + μ ) ρ
(2.34)
vt =
G
ρ
=
(2.35)
In the case when the length of the st ing (solid od) is infinite (boundless) o 
with late al dimensions much la ge  than the wavelength one gets:
v l' 2(1 − μ ) = > 1. vl 1− 2μ
(2.36)
In i mology tran vr  wav  ar calld S (for “ condary”) wav  a  thy arriv l
atr than th P (“primary”) wav  from an arthquak. Th ab nc of tran vr  wav
 travling through th arth’s core sho
s that it is iquid. Sound
i  trave  s 
o
er in denser materia s, and faster in "sringier" ones. Sound
i  trave  fast
er in a uminium than uranium, and faster in hydrogen than nitrogen because of th
e o
er density of the first materia  of each set. At the same time, sound
i 
trave  faster in a uminium than hydrogen, as the interna  bonds in
68
a uminium are much stronger. Genera y so ids
i  have a higher seed of sound
than iquids or gases.
2.1.3.2 Proagation in a F uid
In f uids there are on y ongitudina 
aves. The on y non zero stiffness is to v
o umetric deformation (a f uid does not sustain shear forces). Hence the seed o
f sound in a f uid is given by:
v=

here

χ adiab , ρ
(2.37)
χ adiab is the adiabati  bulk modulus. The bulk modulus K of a fluid o  solid
χ adiab = −V
∂p , ∂V
is the inve se of the omp essibility: (2.38)
whe e p is p essu e and V is volume. The bulk modulus thus measu es the esponse
in p essu e due to a hange in elative volume, essentially measu ing the subst
an e's esistan e to unifo m omp ession. The speed of sound in wate  is of inte
est fo  mapping the o ean floo . In saltwate , sound t avels at about 1500 m—s-1
and in f eshwate  1435 m—s-1. These speeds va y due to p essu e, depth, tempe atu 
e, salinity and othe  facto s.
2.1.3.3 P opagation in Ideal Gases and in Ai 
In gases the e a e only longitudinal waves. Newton conside ed that the p opagati
on of sounds in gases is an isothe mal one. He conside ed the speed of
69
sound befo e most of the development of the modynamics. He inco ectly used isot
he mal calculations instead of adiabatic. The facto  of esult, which was othe w
ise co ect. The Boyle-Ma iotte’s a
is:
γ does not appear in his
pV = const. ,
ln p + ln V = ln(const.) = 0 , (
and
dp p ) isot = − dV V
(2.39)
χ isot = −V (
given by:
dp ) isot = p , dV
(2.40.a)
the isothe mal bulk modulus is equal to the p essu e of gas. The speed of sound
is
v=
p
ρ
.
(2.40.b)
The expe iments do not onfi m this equation. Lapla e made the onne tion betwee
n theo y and expe iments. He onside ed that the p opagation of sounds in gases
is an adiabati  p o ess. The Poisson law is:
pV γ = const.
γ=
and
Cp CV
=
cp cV
(2.41)
ln p + γ ln V = ln(const.) = 0 , (
dp p ) adiab = −γ , dV V
70
χ adiab = γ p = γ χ isot
and we have the speed of sound in ideal gases and ai  given by:
(2.42)
v=
γp . ρ
m pμ , = V RT
(2.43)
U ing th idal ga  law Clapyron Mndlv:
pV =
m
μ
RT ⇉ ρ =
(2.44)
the speed of sound is identi al to:
v=
γp γ RT . = ρ μ
(2.45)
In th quation abov w hav R (287.05 J—kg-1—K-1 fo  ai ) is the gas constant fo 
ai : the unive sal gas constant R, which units of J—mol-1—K-1, is divided by the mol
a  mass of ai , as is common p actice in ae odynamics, mass,
μ i  th molar
γ is the adiabatic index and T is the absolute temperature in kelvins.
For an ideal as, the speed of sound depends on temperature only, not on the
pressure. We can consider that the air is almost an ideal as. The temperature o
f the air varies with altitude, this cause the followin variations in the speed
of sound usin the standard atmosphere  actual conditions may vary. Given norm
al atmospheric conditions, the temperature, and thus speed of sound, varies with
altitude*.
71
Altitude
Temperature m—s-1 km—h-1 mph
Sea level
15 °C (59 °F)
340 1225
761
11,000 m–20,000 m (C uising altitude of comme cial jets, -57 °C (-70 °F) 295 1062 and
fi st supe sonic flight) 660
29,000 m (Flight of X-43A)
-48 °C (-53 °F) 301 1083
673
In ai  a ange of diffe ent methods exist fo  the measu ement of sound, like the
single-shot timing methods and Kundt's tube.
72
2.1.4 Ene gy of Waves. Wave Intensity.
P opagation of waves means p opagation of ene gy. The pa ticles of the medium os
cillate and we have a p opagation of the state of motion in the medium. Fo  the
longitudinal waves that p opagate in a solid od with the c oss section S , when
the length of the solid od is finite (a bounded solid od) o  with thickness m
uch smalle  than the wavelength, if the fo ce that is acting is F and the displa
cement is Ψ ( x) , the oss se tion has the speed:
v' =
∂Ψ . ∂t
(2.46)
Also, upon the oss se tion is a ting the elasti  fo e Fel = − F . The me hani a
l powe  is:
P=
∂W ∂Ψ . = ( − F ) v' = − F ∂t ∂t
(2.47)
If the elasti  wave (sound) is sinusoidal:
Ψ = A sin(ω t − k x) ,
one has:
(2.48)
v =
∂Ψ = Aω cos(ω t − k x) ∂t
(2.49)
and from the Hooke s a
it fo o
s:
σ=
and
F = Eε S
∂Ψ = − E S Ak co (ω t − k x) . ∂x
(2.50)
F = S Eε = S E
Th mchanical powr i :
(2.51)
73
P=
∂W = E S k ω A2 cos 2 (ω t − k x) . ∂t
(2.52)
With the equations:
v=
and
E
ρ
,
ρ v2 = E
(2.53)
k=
the powe  be omes:
ω
v
,
(2.54)
∂W ω2 2 2 = ρv S A os 2 (ω t − k x) P= ∂t v
and
(2.55)
P=
∂W = ρ v S ω 2 A2 cos 2 (ω t − k x) . ∂t
2
(2.56)
From (2.56) it fo o
s that even the o
er is time deendent it has a 
ays osit
ive va ues because of cos (ω t − k x) that has ositive va ues. The o
er deends on
ω t − k x , so it corresonds to a
ave of energy.
∂W 1 T ∂W P =( dt = ) med = ∫ ∂t T 0 ∂t
T 1 1 2 2 = v S ρ ω A ∫ cos 2 (ω t − k x)dt = v S ρ ω 2 A2 . T 2 0
We have the time medium va ue of the o
er:
(2.57)
For so id rod the roduct v S is the vo ume
here the
aves have roagated er
unit time. We define the quantity:

=
1 ρ ω 2 A2 , 2
(2.58)
74
that is the energy density of
aves or
ave energy density and one has:

= 2 ρπ 2ν 2 A2
ad it follows:
(2.59)
P = vS w .
or regio of space per uit volume.
(2.60)
Eergy desity of waves is the amout of eergy of waves stored i a give syste
m From (2.60) it results that the eergy desity of waves is proportioal to the
square of amplitude, the square of frequecy ad the liear desity. The soud
e ergy desity or soud desity describes the soud field at a give poit as a

soud eergy value. The soud eergy desity describes the time medium value of
the soud eergy per volume uit; it gives iformatio about the soud eergy wh
ich is at a defied place of room. The soud eergy desity is give i J/m3. Fo
r souds i air we have w = 2,5 ⋅ 10
−5
J / m3 .
The wave intensity, I , is defined as the wave powe  P pe  unit a ea:
I=
1 1 P = ρ vω 2 A2 . S 2


(2.61)
Because the maximum of seed is v max = ω A one gets:
I=
1 2 ρ v v 'max . 2
(2.62)
F om (2.62) it esults that the wave intensity is p opo tional to the wave ene g
y density and the wave velo ity. Fo  sounds in ai  we have
I = 2,5 ⋅ 10 −5 J / m 3 ⋅ 340 m / s = 8,5 ⋅ 10 −3 W / m 2 .
75
Some Appli ations of the Waves*: The te ms of wave powe  efe s to the ene gy of
o ean su fa e waves and the aptu e of that ene gy to do useful wo k  this in 
ludes ele t i ity gene ation, desalination, and the pumping of wate  (into ese 
voi s). Wave powe  an be onside ed a fo m of enewable ene gy and it is diffe 
ent than the diu nal flux of tidal powe  and the steady gy e of o ean u ents.
La ge waves a e mo e powe ful and the wave powe  is dete mined by wave height, w
ave speed, wavelength, and wate  density. Wave size is dete mined by wind speed
and fet h and by the depth and topog aphy of the seafloo . Fo  a given wind spee
d the e is a p a ti al limit ove  whi h time o  distan e will not p odu e la ge 
waves. This limit is alled a "fully developed sea." Wave motion is highest at
the su fa e and in eases exponentially with depth. Wave ene gy is also p esent
as p essu e waves in deepe  wate . Fo  a set of waves the potential ene gy is p 
opo tional to wave height squa ed times wave pe iod (the time between wave est
s). Be ause longe  pe iod waves have elatively longe  wavelengths they move fas
te . The potential ene gy is equal to the kineti  ene gy. Wave powe  is exp esse
d in kilowatts pe  mete .
76
Fig. 1.30 Pelamis ma hine pointing into the waves: it attenuates the waves, gath
e ing mo e ene gy than its na ow p ofile suggests* The Pelamis Wave Ene gy Conv
e te  ep esents an eme ging te hnology that will use the motion of o ean waves
fo  p odu ing ele t i ity. The fi st "wave fa m" was planned fo  2006 off the o
ast of Po tugal. The wave fa ms used 3 Pelamis P 750 ma hines, ea h of them bein
g apable of p odu ing 750 kilowatts, and ea h fa m p odu ing 2.25 megawatts.
77
2.2 Wave Inte fe en e
Inte fe en e is a phenomenon that onsists in the supe position of two o  mo e w
aves esulting in a new wave patte n. In o de  to have inte fe en e of waves the
se must be o elated o  ohe ent with ea h othe , eithe  be ause they have the
same sou e o  be ause they have the same o  nea ly the same f equen y. Two non 
mono h omati  waves a e ohe ent with ea h othe  if they both have the same wave
length (the same f equen y) and the same phase diffe en es at ea h of the onsti
tuent wavelengths. Many waves do not obey to these onditions, so it is ne essa 
y to make them ohe ent with ea h othe  fo  having inte fe en e. Impo tant is th
e p in iple of supe position of waves: the esultant displa ement at a point is
equal to the sum of the displa ements of diffe ent waves at that point. The e a 
e two impo tant ases of inte fe en e: onst u tive inte fe en e and dest u tive
inte fe en e. Const u tive inte fe en e: supe position of two ests belonging
to diffe ent waves at the same point with the in easing of the esultant wave a
mplitude. Dest u tive inte fe en e: supe position of two ests belonging to dif
fe ent waves at the same point with the de easing of the esultant wave amplitu
de.
78
Fig. 1.31 Inte fe en e of two i ula  waves* Examples of inte fe en e: inte fe 
en e of sounds, inte fe en e of su fa e waves on the wate , inte fe en e of g av
itational waves, and inte fe en e of light. Examples of inte fe en es of light:

light f om any sou e an be used to obtain inte fe en e patte ns, Thomas oung'


s double slit expe iment, and Newton’s rings that can be roduced ith sun ight. A
bout the
hite ight,
e notice that it is not so suitab e for roducing c ear i
nterference atterns, because is a mix of co ours, that each has different saci
ng of the interference fringes. An exam e of ight c ose to monochromatic is th
e sodium ight. This is more suitab e for obtaining interference atterns. The 
aser ight exhibits the same roerty, and is a most erfect y monochromatic. In
the case of the interference of t
o
aves, the resu ting
aveform deends on th
e frequency (or
ave ength) am itude and re ative hase of the t
o
aves. If
e
have t
o
aves of the same am itude A and
ave ength the resu tant
aveform
i
 have am itude bet
een 0 and 2 A . The first case corresonds to t
o
aves th
at are in hase, and the second case describes t
o
aves that are out
79
of hase. In the figure be o
are resented t
o
aves in hase and t
o
aves 180°
out of hase.
Fig. 1.32 T
o
aves in hase and t
o
aves 180° out of hase* If these t
o
aves a
re in hase, and have the am itudes A1 and A2 , then their troughs and eaks i
ne u and the resu tant
ave has the am itude
A = A1 + A2 . This is an exam e of constructive interference.
If the t
o
aves are 180° out of hase, then one
ave s crests
i  coincide
ith
another
ave s troughs, and they
i  tend to cance  out each other. The resu ta
nt am itude is A = A1 − A2 . For equa  am itudes A1 = A2 the resu tant am itude

i  be zero. This is an exam e of destructive interference.
*

Thomas oung s doub e s it exeriment (Fig. 1.33) is based on the
henomenon of interference, the case of t
o beams of ight
hich are coherent
i
th each and roduce an interference attern (the beams of ight have the same
a
ve ength range and both come from the same source). T
o or more sources can rod
uce interference
hen there is a fixed hase re ation bet
een them, but in the c
ase of this exeriment the interference generated is the same as
ith a sing e s
ource.
80
The ight diffracted through t
o s its roduces fringes on a screen. These fring
es resent ight and dark regions that corresond to constructive and destructiv
e interference. The exeriment can be rea ized
ith a beam of e ectrons or atoms
, and in this case simi ar interference atterns can be obtained; this is an evi
dence of the "
ave artic e dua ity" redicted by quantum hysics. A so, a doub 
e s it exeriment can be erformed
ith
ater
aves in a ri e tank; for the ex
 anation of the interference there is no need of quantum mechanics. The henome
non is quantum mechanica  on y
hen quantum artic es  such as atoms, e ectrons
, or hotons  manifest as
aves. The condition for obtaining an interference a
ttern in a doub e s it exeriment concerns the difference in ath ength bet
een
t
o aths that ight can take to reach a zone of constructive interference on t
he vie
ing screen. This difference has to be equa  to the
ave ength of the igh
t, or a mu ti e of this
ave ength.
Fig. 1.33*
 
81 In oung s origina  exeriment, Sun ight asses first through a sing e s it,
and then through t
o thin vertica  s its in other
ise so id barriers, and the in
terference attern is vie
ed on a rear screen. When either s it is covered, a si
ng e eak can be observed on the screen, and is caused by the ight assing thro
ugh the other s it. For both s its oen simu taneous y, a attern of ight and d
ark fringes is observed. This attern of fringes contains constructive interfere
nce and destructive interference. The brighter sots are connected to constructi
ve interference,
here t
o eaks in the ight
ave coincide as they reach the sc
reen. The darker sots are connected to destructive interference that occurs
he
re a eak and a trough occur together. In the figure be o

e have intensity re
resented versus osition.
Fig. 1.34 Interference* One has:
λ
s

here :

=
x D
(2.63)
λ is the
ave ength of the ight ,
s is the searation of the s its, x is the distance bet
een the bands of ight (
fringe distance),
D is the distance from the s its to the screen.
82
  
The interference fringes observed in oung  s doub es it ex eriment have sha es
that are straight ines. In the origina  oung s ex eriment instead of s its are
used t
o inho es, and hyerbo ic fringes are observed. In the case
hen the t

o sources are  aced on a ine erendicu ar to the screen, the shae of the int
erference fringes is circu ar as the individua  aths trave ed by ight from th
e t
o sources are a 
ays equa  for a given fringe. This can be obtained by  aci
ng a mirror ara e  to a screen at a distance and using a source of ight that
is  aced just above the mirror.
2.2.1 Theoretica  Demonstration of Interference
We consider
aves
hich are corre ated or coherent
ith each other, either becau
se they come from the same source or because they have the same or near y the sa
me frequency. The condition of coherence for t
o non monochromatic
aves is res
ected on y if they both have exact y the same range of
ave engths (the same fre
quency) and the same hase differences at each of the constituent
ave engths. W
e have t
o sinusoida 
aves as in the figure be o
described by:
Ψ1 = Ψ2 =
A1 t r sin 2 π ( − 1 ), r1 T λ A2 t r sin 2 π ( − 2 ). r2 T λ
(2.64)
We consider that the initia  hases vanish. The oint M is far a
ay from the sou
rces S1 and S 2 (Fig. 1.35) and the
aves have the same of roagation.
83
Ψ2
r2 M
Ψ1
r1
Fig. 4
Fig. 1.35
We denote a1 =
A1 A and a2 = 2 and
e make the aroximation r1 r2 r2 − r1 t r +r sin 2 π ( − 1 2 ) .
T 2λ
a1 ≅ a2 = a and
e obtain for the resu tant
ave:
Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ2 = 2 a cos π
The equation
λ
(2.65)
r1 + r2 = const.
(2.66)
reresents the ocus of equa  hase oints (equi hase surface)
hich is the equ
ation of a fami y of e isoids revo ving around the ine S1S 2 having the t
o f
ocuses in the oints
here the sources S1 and S 2 are  aced. The surface given
by the equation:
r2 − r1 = const. r2 − r1
(2.67)
is the  ace of the sace oints
hich have the resu tant am itude
2 a cos π
λ
constant.
84
This re ation is the equation of a fami y of revo ving hyerbo oids around the a
xis S1S 2 having the t
o focuses in the oints
here the sources S1 and S 2 are
 aced. The resu ting am itude corresonds to a maximum
hen the dis acement i
s a mu ti e of
ave engths or an even mu ti e of ha f 
ave engths:
r2 − r1 = 2 m

ith ( m = 0,1,2,...) .

λ
2
= mλ ,
(2.68)
The resu ting am itude corresonds to a minimum
hen the dis acement is a mu t
i e of
ave engths or an odd mu ti e of ha f 
ave engths:
r2 − r1 = (2 m + 1) , 2

ith ( m = 0,1,2,...) .

λ
(2.69)
The interference henomenon (
aves
hich are corre ated or coherent
ith each ot
her) is easy to observe in the case of the surface
aves made by
ater
hen t
o
sma  stones are thro
n simu taneous y at a certain distance one from other. Oth
er exam es of interference are the cases of the
ater
aves emitted by the tis
of t
o e astic b ades that touch the
ater surface at the same time, the sound

aves emitted by t
o diffusers contro ed by the same sound osci ator or ight
emitted by the currents of the margins of t
o s its that are ighted by a inear
oint ike source.

2.2.2 Do er Effect

The Do er effect, discovered by Christian Andreas Do er, and is observed
he
n the source of
aves is moving
ith resect to an observer. The
85
Do er effect consists in an aarent change in frequency or
ave ength of a
a
ve that is erceived by an observer moving re ative to the source of the
aves.
In the case of sound
aves that roagate in a
ave medium the ve ocity of the o
bserver and the source are considered re ative to the medium in
hich the
aves
roagate. The tota  Do er effect is the resu t of either motion of the source
or motion of the observer. The study of these effects can be rea ized searate 
y. For ight or gravity (
aves
hich do not require a medium for roagation) in
secia  re ativity on y the re ative difference in ve ocity bet
een the observe
r and the source is needed for the study of the effect. The frequency of the sou
nds emitted by the source does not actua y change. For ointing out the Do er
effect
e consider an ana ogy. A ba  is thro
n every second in an observer s d
irection. The ve ocity of the ba s is constant. If the thro
er is stationary, t
he observer
i  receive one ba  every second. In the case
hen the thro
er is
moving to
ards the observer, he
i  receive ba s more frequent y because the b
a s
i  be ess saced out. This is a so avai ab e if the thro
er is moving a

ay from the observer. The

ave ength
i  be affected, and a consequence is that
the erceived frequency is a so affected. A ications of Do er Effect*: 1) T
he Do er effect for e ectromagnetic
aves such as ight has a ications in as
tronomy, and is connected to either a redshift or b ueshift. In hysics and astr
onomy, Redshift reresents an observed increase in the
ave ength (decrease in t
he frequency) of e ectromagnetic radiation that is received by a detector comar
ed to that emitted by the source. In the case of visib e ight the ongest
ave 
ength is for res, so co ors exeriencing redshift shift to
ards the red art of
the e ectromagnetic sectrum. The henomenon a so occurs at non otica 
86

ave engths ( onger 

ave ength radiation "redshifts" a
ay from red). In the case
of shorter
ave engths the corresonding shift is ca ed b ueshift. It has been
used for the eva uation of the seed (radia  ve ocity) at
hich stars and ga ax
ies are aroaching to, or receding from us. This is used to detect a sing e sta
r is, in fact, a c ose binary (a binary star system consists of t
o stars both o
rbiting around their center of mass) and even to measure the seed of rotation o
f stars and ga axies.
Fig. 1.36 A binary star system consisting of a b ack ho e,
ith an accretion dis
c around it, and a main sequence star* An accretion disk is a structure that is
formed by materia  fa ing into a gravitationa  source. Accretion disks are hen
omenon in astrohysics; active ga actic nuc ei, roto anetary discs, and gamma
ray bursts. The Do er effect for ight is used in astronomy because the sectr
a of stars are not continuous. This im ies the existence of absortion ines at

e  defined frequencies that are corre ated
ith the energies required to exci
te e ectrons in various e ements from one eve  to another. A characteristic of
the Do er effect is that the absortion ines are not a 
ays at the frequencie
s obtained from the
87
sectrum of a stationary ight source. B ue ight has a o
er
ave ength than re
d ight, and the sectra  ines from an aroaching astronomica  ight source sh
o
a b ueshift and those of receding sources sho
a redshift. 2) Another a ica
tion of the Do er effect in astronomy is temerature measurement for a gas
hi
ch is emitting a sectra  ine The therma  motion of the gas, determines that ea
ch emitter can be s ight y red or b ue shifted, and the net effect is a broadeni
ng of the ine. The ine shae is ca ed a Do er rofi e and its
idth is ro
ortiona  to the square root of the temerature of the gas. This a o
s the use o
f the Do er broadened ine for measuring the temerature of the emitting gas.
3) The Do er effect can be used in some forms of radar to measure the ve ocity
of detected objects. A radar beam is fired at a moving target (a car) as it rec
edes from the radar source. For being ref ected by the car and re detected near
the source each
ave has to trave  further to reach the car. There
i  be an in
creasing of the ga bet
een each
ave, and this
i  im y an increasing of the

ave ength. The radar beam is fired at a moving car that aroaches, and in this
case the successive
ave trave s a decreased distance, and this determines the
decreasing of the
ave ength. The car s ve ocity can be determined
ith the Do
er effect. 4) The aser Do er ve ocimeter (LDV), and Acoustic Do er Ve ocim
eter (ADV) are used to measure ve ocities in a f uid f o
. The LDV and ADV emit
a ight or acoustic beam, and a o
the eva uation of the Do er shift in
ave 
engths of ref ections from artic es moving
ith the f o
. This technique is use
d for f o
measurements, at high recision and high frequency.
88
2.3 Sounds
2.3.1 Sound Intensity
The sound reresents the roagation of the vibrationa  mechanica  energy throug
h matter in a form of a
ave. Hearing is ossib e bet
een frequencies about 20 H
z and 20000 Hz,
ith the uer imit genera y decreasing
ith age, in the case
of humans. The roagation of mechanica  vibrations takes  ace through gases, 
iquids, so ids, and  asmas. Through so ids the roagation is made as both ike
ongitudina  and transverse
aves (shear
aves) and through gases, iquids and
 asma as ongitudina 
aves (comression
aves). The sound intensity, I , (acou
stic intensity) is defined as the sound o
er P er unit area S . The SI units a
re W/m2. The sound intensity (of a  ane rogressive
ave) is given by:
I=
1 P. S
P . 4π r 2
(2.70)
For a sherica  sound source, the intensity as a function of distance r is:
I=
(2.71)
From (2.62) and (2.70) it resu ts that the sound intensity is roortiona  to th
e
ave energy density and the
ave ve ocity. For sounds in air
e have
I = 2,5 ⋅ 10 −5 J / m 3 ⋅ 340 m / s = 8,5 ⋅ 10 −3 W / m 2 .
The am itude of sound intensity decreases in the free fie d (direct fie d)
ith
1 r2
of the distance of a oint source. Sound intensity eve  or acoustic intensity 
eve  is
89
a ogarithmic measure of the sound intensity in comarison to the reference eve
 of 0 dB (decibe s).

L = 10 g

here I 0 = 10
−12
I (dB ) , I0
(2.72)
W / m 2 (at ν = 1 kHz ) is the referece itesity. Also, we ca I ( B) , I0 I ( N
p ) , I0
write for the soud itesity leve:l
L = lg
with B from Bell or
(2.73)
L = l
with Np from Neper.
(2.74)
Soud itesity is differet from soud pressure. Hearig is sesitive to soud
pressure which is coected to soud itesity. Soud pressure is the local pres
sure deviatio from the average pressure determied by a soud wave. Measuremet
s of soud pressure ca be made usig a microphoe i air ad a hydrophoe i wa
ter. The SI uit for soud pressure is the pascal (symbol: Pa). A microphoe is
a acoustic to electric trasducer that coverts soud ito a electrical sigal
. Microphoes are used i may applicatios: telephoes, tape recorders, hearig
aids, motio picture productio, live ad recorded audio egieerig, i radio
a d televisio broadcastig ad i computers for recordig voice, VoIP (Voice ov

er Iteret Protocol) ad umerous other computer applicatios. A hydrophoe is
a soud-to-electricity trasducer for use i water or other liquids, ad represe
ts the aalogous to a microphoe for air. Hydrophoes are a importat part of
the SONAR (SOud Navigatio Ad Ragig) that is a techique based o the use of
soud propagatio uder water to
90
avigate or to detect other vessels system. Also, geologists ad geophysicists u
se the hydrophoes for detectig seismic eergy. They are combied to form strea
mers that are towed by seismic vessels or deployed i a borehole (is a deep ad
arrow shaft i the groud used for abstractio of fluid or gas reserves below t
he earth's surface. I the case whe the fluid reserve is uder pressure (oil or
gas) the little extra machiery is required. For water is used a special subme
rsible pump to pump water up the risig mai. Soud pressure level (SPL) is give
 by:

L = 10 lg
−5
2
I p (dB ) = 20 lg s (dB ) , I0 ps 0
(2.75)
whe e ps 0 ≅ 2 ⋅ 10 N / m is the efe en e sound p essu e whi h o esponds to
I 0 = 10 −12 W / m 2 . This exp ession is used fo  sound p essu e when dealing wit
h
hea ing, as the pe eived loudness of a sound is onne ted oughly loga ithmi al
ly to its sound p essu e. The Webe –Fe hne  law yields the elationship between th
e physi al magnitudes of stimuli and the pe eived intensity of the stimuli. The
Webe – Fe hne  law is given by:
S − S 0 = k lg
I , I0
(2.76)
whe e k ep esents a onstant fa to  that an be dete mined expe imentally, S is
the stimulus at the instant and S 0 is the th eshold of stimulus below whi h it
is not pe eived at all. When making measu ements in ai  (and othe  gases), SPL
is almost always exp essed in de ibels ompa ed to a efe en e sound p essu e o
f 20 µPa (mi opas als), whi h is usually onside ed the th eshold of human hea in
g
91
( oughly the sound of a mosquito flying 3 met es away). Most measu ements of aud
io equipment an be made elative to this level. In othe  media (unde wate ) a 
efe en e level of 1 µPa is used. About the th eshold of human hea ing, it is the s
ound p essu e level SPL of 20 µPa (mi opas als) = 2  10−5 pas al (Pa). This low th e
shold of amplitude (st ength o  sound p essu e level) has a dependen e on f eque
n y. See the f equen y u ve in the figu e bellow
Fig. 1.37 Th esholds of hea ing fo  male (M) and female (W) subje ts between the
ages of 20 and 60* The absolute th eshold of hea ing (ATH) ep esents the minim
um amplitude of a pu e tone that an be hea d by the ave age ea  with no mal hea
ing in a noiseless envi onment.
92
The th eshold of pain is the SPL beyond whi h sound be omes unbea able fo  a hum
an listene . This th eshold has a dependen e on f equen y. We give some values f
o  the th eshold of pain.
Th eshold of pain
SPL
sound p essu e
120 dBSPL
20 Pa
130 dBSPL
63 Pa
134 dBSPL
100 Pa
137.5 dBSPL 150 Pa
140 dBSPL
200 Pa
The th eshold of hea ing is f equen y dependent, and has a minimum (indi ating t
he ea 's maximum sensitivity) at f equen ies between 1 kHz and 5 kHz. The lowest
u ve amongst the set of equal loudness ontou s ep esents the absolute th esh
old of hea ing, and the highest u ve ep esents the th eshold of pain. Togethe 
with masking u ves the ATH is used in psy hoa ousti  audio omp ession fo  eva
luating whi h spe t al omponents a e inaudible and may thus
93
be igno ed in the oding p o ess. The pa t of an audio spe t um whi h has an amp
litude (level o  st ength) below the ATH may be emoved f om an audio signal wit
hout hanging the signal. Be ause of the age (the human ea  be omes mo e insensi
tive to sound) the ATH u ve ises and p esents the g eatest hanges o u ing a
t f equen ies highe  than 2 kHz.
Fig. 1.38 The Flet he Munson equal loudness ontou s. The lowest of the u ves
is the ATH* Some examples of sound p essu e levels a e given in the table
94
situation
sound p essu e level dBSPL
th eshold of pain
130
hea ing damage du ing sho t te m effe t
f om 120
jet, 100 m distant
110–140
ja k hamme , 1 m distant / dis otheque
app ox. 100
hea ing damage du ing long te m effe t
app ox. 90
majo  oad, 10 m distant
80–90
passenge  a , 10 m distant
60–80
TVset at home level, 1 m distant
app ox. 60
no mal talking, 1 m distant
40–60
ve y alm oom
20–30
leaves noise, alm b eathing
10
95
2.3.2 Ult asounds
Ult asound is sound with a f equen y g eate  than the uppe  limit of human hea i
ng, with a limit at app oximately 20 kilohe tz (20,000 he tz). Ult asounds also
ep esent p opagation of a ousti  ene gy in the fo m of waves. Some animals a e
able to hea  ult asound (dogs, dolphins, bats, and mi e) be ause they have an up
pe  limit that is g eate  than that of the human ea . Child en an hea  some hig
hpit hed sounds that olde  adults a e not able to hea  be ause in humans the upp
e  limit pit h of hea ing gets lowe  with the in easing of age. The middle ea 
that a ts as a low pass filte  is esponsible of the f equen y limit. In the as
e when ult asound is oupled di e tly into the skull bone and ea hes the o hle
a and don’t ass through the midd e ear, it is ossib e to hear sounds
ith freque
ncies u to about 200 kHz. This effect (u trasonic hearing)
as first discovered
by divers exosed to a high frequency (50 kHz) sonar signa . A ications of u 
trasounds: 1) U trasounds are used in medica  u trasonograhy (sonograhy) that
is an u trasound based diagnostic imaging technique. Sonograhy is used to visua
ize musc es and interna  organs, and to study their size, structure and any at
ho ogica  esions. During regnancy obstetric sonograhy is used for monitorizin
g the baby. U trasound a so has theraeutic a ications: 2) U trasounds are use
d for treating benign and ma ignant tumors and other disorders, via a rocess ca
ed Focused U trasound Surgery (FUS) or HIFU, High Intensity Focused U trasound
. Lo
er frequencies than medica  diagnostic u trasound (from 250 kHz to 2000 kHz
) are used cou ed
ith significant y higher time averaged intensities. The trea
tment is often guided by MRI, as in Magnetic Resonance guided Focused U trasound
.
96
3) For c eaning the teeth in denta  hygiene or generate oca  heating in bio ogi
ca  tissue (hysica  theray and cancer treatment) can be used more o
erfu  u t
rasound sources. 4) Focused u trasound sources are suitab e for cataract treatme
nt by hacoemu sification. 5) Lo
intensity u trasounds are used for roducing s
timu ation of bonegro
th and to disrut the b ood brain barrier for drug de iver
y. 6) U trasound assisted iectomy UAL or iosuction is based on the use of u 
trasound. 7) U trasounds have a so industria  a ications they are used in indu
stry for ocating f a
s in materia s. Most common are u trasounds
ith frequenci
es of 2 to 10 MHz but for secia  uroses other frequencies can be used. It is
ossib e to insect most of the meta s,  astics and aerosace comosites. 8) U 
trasonic c eaners are based on u trasounds of frequencies from 20 40 kHz and use
d for je
e ery, enses and other otica  arts,
atches, denta  instruments, su
rgica  instruments and industria  arts. 9) Some sorts of u trasound a o
the d
isintegration of bio ogica  ce s inc uding bacteria. This is used in bio ogica 
science and in ki ing bacteria in se
age (subset of
aste
ater that is contami
nated
ith faeces or urine, but is often used to mean any
aste
ater). Se
age i
nc udes domestic, municia , or industria  iquid
aste roducts disosed of, us
ua y via a ie or se
er or simi ar structure. 11) U trasounds have a ication
s in sonar systems to determine the deth of the
ater in a  ace, to find fishs
, to ocate submarines, and to detect the resence of SCUBA divers. 10) U trasou
nds are used in u trasonic intrusion detection system.
97
Chater 3. F uids
3.1.1 F uids Proerties.
F uid statics (hydrostatics) is the science of f uids at rest. F uids exhibit th
e roerties of not resisting deformation and the abi ity to f o
. These roert
ies are connected to their inabi ity to suort a shear stress in static equi ib
rium. In a f uid stress is a function of rate of strain. Pasca  s a
is a conse
quence of this behavior and oints out the ro e of ressure in characterizing a
f uid s state. F uid hydrodynamics studies the f uids in motion. F uids can be c
haracterized as:  ne
tonian f uid is the f uid that exhibits roerties of f o

ing ike
ater, its shear stress is inear y roortiona  to the ve ocity gradie
nt in the direction erendicu ar to the  ane of shear. The constant of roort
iona ity is the viscosity.  non ne
tonian f uid is a f uid that resents a chan
ge in the viscosity
ith the a ied strain rate. Because of this a non Ne
tonia
n f uids does not have a
e defined viscosity. Buoyancy is an u
ard force that
acts on an object immersed in a f uid (a iquid or a gas), a o
ing it to f oat
or at east to aear ighter. Buoyancy is imortant for many vehic es such as
boats, shis, ba oons, and airshis. Buoyancy rovides an u
ard force on the b
ody. According to Ne
ton s first a
of motion, if the u
ard forces (inc uding
the buoyancy) ba ance the
98
do
n
ard forces (inc uding the
eight) the object
i  either remain at rest or
remain in motion at a constant rate. Other
ise, it
i  acce erate u
ards or do

n
ards. In the case
hen an object s comressibi ity has a va ue ess than that
of the surrounding f uid, the object is in stab e equi ibrium and
i  remain a
t rest. If its comressibi ity is greater, its equi ibrium is unstab e, and the
object
i  rise and exand on the s ightest u
ard erturbation or fa  and com
ress on the s ightest do
n
ard erturbation. The condition needed for an object
to f oat is to be ab e to dis ace enough
ater equa  to its
eight. The a
of
buoyancy given by Archimede, a so ca ed Archimede’s a
is: the buoyant force is
equa  to the
eight of the dis aced f uid. The
eight of the dis aced f uid i
s direct y roortiona  to the vo ume of the dis aced f uid. In the case of mor
e objects
ith equa  masses, the greater buoyancy corresonds to the object
ith
greater vo ume. An homogeneous f uid is described by its density that is define
d as ratio bet
een mass m and vo ume V ,
ρ=
m (kg / m 3 ) . Fo  a non homogeneous V
fluid the equation above des ibes only the ave age density. It is ne essa y to
define the density of a given point, in an infinitesimal volume dV with the mass
dm .
We
get
ρ=


dm dV
.
Gene ally,
the
density
is
given
by
ρ = ρ ( x, y, z , y ) = ρ (  , t ) . The fun tion ρ (  , t ) des ibes a density field w
hi h
is a s ala  field. The highest density known is ea hed in neut on sta  matte .
We give some values of densities of va ious substan es:

99
Substan e Density in kg—m-3
Tin Titanium Diamond Basalt
7310 4507 3500 3000
I idium Osmium Platinum Gold Tungsten U anium Me cu y
22650 22610 21450 19300 19250 19050 13580
G anite
2700
Aluminium G aphite
2700 2200
Palladium Lead Silve  Coppe  I on Steel
Ice Polyethylene Gasoline
12023 11340 10490 8960 7870 7850 917 910 730
Seawate  Wate  Ice Ethyl alcohol
Magnesium
PVC
1740 1300
1025 1000 917 790
Liquid Hyd ogen 68
Ae ogel
3
The fo ces that act upon a fluid a e inte nal fo ces and exte nal fo ces. Exte n
al fo ces can be su face fo ces (f om an exte nal body) o  volume fo ces (act up
on the whole volume of the fluid: the action of the g avitational field upon a f
luid, the action of the elect omagnetic field upon a fluid). Inte nal fo ces a e
fo ces that
100
appea  because of the inte action between the infinitesimal volumes of the fluid
. Also, they can be su face fo ces and volume fo ces. A liquid is one of the fou
 main phases of matte . It is a fluid with a shape dete mined by the containe 
it fills. Unde  conditions of constant tempe atu e and p essu e its volume is fi
xed. The p essu e exe ted by the liquids on the sides of a containe  is t ansmit
ted undiminished in all di ections and inc eases with depth. The fluid mechanics
has two pa ts, fluid dynamics and fluid statics depending on whethe  the fluid
is in motion o  not.
3.1.2 Fluids P essu e.
P essu e p is the fo ce pe  unit a ea that acts on a su face in a di ection pe p
endicula  to that su face. It is given by:
p=
F , S
(3.1)
whe e F is the no mal fo ce and S is the a ea of the su face. This equation is a
vailable when the fo ce is the same in eve y point of the fluid. When the fo ce
has diffe ent values in diffe ent points of the fluid the p essu e is given by:
p=
dF , dS
(3.2)
whe e dF is also the no mal fo ce and the su face can be ep esented by a vecto 

   dS = n dS , whe e n
is the unit (su face no mal) vecto  of the o thogonal
di ection to dS .
  p = p ( x, y, z , t ) = p (  , t ) . The function p (  , t ) desc ibes a p e
ssu e field which
is a scala  field.
If the p essu e has diffe ent values in diffe ent points of the fluid we have
101
If the fluid is moving we need a velocity fields to desc ibe it. The velocity of
the fluid is given by v = v( x, y, z , y ) = v(  , t ) . The function v(  , t
) desc ibes a velocity field which is a vecto  field. The unit fo  p essu e in S
I is pascal Pa , Pa = N / m . Othe  unit fo 
2



 
 

p essu e
is
the
standa d
atmosphe e
atm
which
is
given
by,
1atm = 1.01325 ⋅ 105 Pa = 1.01325 ⋅ 105 N / m 2 . In the table bellow we p esent
the p essu e units*.
P essu e Units
Technical Pascal (Pa) Ba  (ba ) atmosphe e Atmosphe e (at) (atm) To  (mmHg)
Pound pe  squa e inch (psi)
1 Pa
≡1 N/m²
10−5
10.197 10−6 9.8692 10−6 7.5006 10−3 145.04 10−6
1 ba  100 000
≡ 106 dyn/ m²
1.0197
0.98692
750.06
14.504
1 at 98 066.5
0.980665
≡ 1 kgf/ m²
0.96784
735.56
14.223
1 atm 101 325
1.01325
1.0332
≡ 101 325 Pa
760
14.696
102
1 To 
133.322 1.3332 10−3 1.3595 10−3 1.3158 10−3 ≡ 1 mmHg 19.337 10−3
1 psi 6 894.76 68.948 10−3 70.307 10−3 68.046 10−3
51.715
≡ 1 lbf/in²
P essu e is measu ed by its ability to displa e a olumn of liquid in a manomete
, and often exp essed as a depth of a pa ti ula  fluid. The most used hoi es a
e me u y (Hg) and wate . Wate  has the p ope ties of no toxi ity and eadily a
vailability, and me u y's density gives the possibility to use a sho te  olumn
(a smalle  manomete ) to measu e a given p essu e.
3.1.3 Fluid Stati s. Hyd ostati  P essu e.
Fluid p essu e is the p essu e on an obje t subme ged in a fluid, su h as wate .
The on ept of fluid p essu e is asso iated to the dis ove ies of Blaise Pas al
and Daniel Be noulli. The fundamental law of the fluid stati s (in the ase whe
n upon the fluid a e a ting only g avitational fo es) is given by:
 1 g = ∇ ,
ρ
(3.3)
is f , the fundamental law of the fluid stati s be omes:

If upon the fluid also a t othe  exte nal volume fo es and the esultant fo e
 1 f = ∇ .
ρ
(3.4)
103
This is a diffe ential equation with fi st o de  pa tial de ivatives and if we i
nteg ate it we obtain the p essu e field p = p ( x, y, z ) . The solution is om
pletely known if the e a e given the bounda y ondition fo  the fluid and the la
ws of dependen e on
 position fo  f and ρ .

The hyd ostati  p essu e is an impo tant appli ation of the fundamental law of t
he fluid stati s fo  an in omp essible fluid. Fo  g = g (0,0,− g ) f om the fundam
ental law of the fluid stati s (3.3) it follows:




∂p ∂p ∂p = 0, = 0, = − ρ g . ∂x ∂y ∂z
oo dinate and one has:

(3.5)
The p essu e does not depend on the oo dinates x and y and is a fun tion on z
dp = − ρ g dz .
(3.6)
In the ase whe e the fluid is at est, the fo e a ting on the obje t is the sh
ee  weight of the fluid above, up to the wate 's su fa e su h as f om a wate  to
we . The esulting hyd ostati  p essu e (stati  p essu e) is isot opi : the p es
su e a ts in all di e tions equally, a o ding to Pas al's law:
p = ρ gh,
whe e value 9.8 m/s2 ) and
(3.7)
ρ is the density of the fluid, g is the a ele ation due to g avity (p a ti al
h
is the height of the fluid olumn
( p2 = p, p1 = 0, h = z 2 − z1 ). Pas al's law on gives the fluid p essu e at me h
ani al equilib ium. Also, a o ding to the Pas al's law we have the diffe en e o
f p essu e between two diffe ent heights h1 and h2 given by:
Δp = p2 − p1 = ρ g (h1 − h2 ) ,
(3.8)
whe e h1 and h2 a e elevations. The elevation of a geog aphi  lo ation is given
by its height above a fixed efe en e point that is in many ases the mean sea l
evel. If
104
we have a fluid in a e epta le and h1 and h2 a e the depths of two points A and
B the equation (3.8) gives the diffe en e of hyd ostati  p essu e between these
two points. The hyd ostati  p essu e does not depend on the shape of e epta le,
only depends on the depth. Also, f om (3.8) it follows:
p2 = p1 + ρ g (h1 − h2 ) .
(g avitational field) we have F = −∇U and (3.4) becomes:
(3.9)
If the externa  vo ume force fie d
hich acts uon the f uid is a conservative f
ie d
r
r r F 1 U f = = − ∇U = −∇( ) = −∇V , m m m
(3.10)

here V = U / m is the otentia  of the externa  fie d. From (3.4) and (3.10)
e
obtain:
1
ρ
and one gets:
p ∇ + ∇ V = ∇ ( + V ) = 0
ρ
(3.11)
p
ρ
+ V = onst.
(3.12)
F om (3.12) it esults that the su fa es of the same p essu e a e also su fa es
of the same potential (equipotential su fa es). In the ase f om above the equip
otential su fa es a e ho izontal planes. Appli ations of Hyd ostati  P essu e* 
The p essu e unde  wate  in eases with depth, and this is well known to s uba
dive s. At a depth of 10 m unde  wate , p essu e has a double value than the atm
osphe i  p essu e at sea level, and in eases by 100 kPa fo  eve y ext a 10 m of
depth.
105
 Any hange in p essu e applied at any given point on a onfined and in omp ess
ible fluid is t ansmitted undiminished th oughout the fluid.  Atmosphe i  p ess
u e has a de easing with height, and this was fi st ve ified on the Puy de Dôme a
nd the Saint Ja ques Towe  in Pa is by Blaise Pas al. As the atmosphe e be omes
lighte  with height, the atmosphe i  p essu e has an exponentially dependen e on
height. This is exp essed with the ba omet i  fo mula.  A tesian wells, wate 
towe s, dams.  Pas al's ba el expe iment: in this expe iment the main pa t was
a long and na ow ve ti al pipe onne ted to the ontent of a la ge ba el. Put
ting wate  into the pipe (even in small quantity), the height of the fluid withi
n the pipe will sha ply in ease, and the b eak of the ba el an be indu ed. 
Pas al's p in iple unde lies the Hyd auli  p ess.
3.1.4 Fluid Dynami s.
Fluid dynami s studies fluids (liquids and gases) that a e in motion. Also, flui
d dynami s yields a mathemati al st u tu e that emb a es empi i al and semi empi
i al laws, de ived f om flow measu ement, used to solve p a ti al p oblems. The
solution of a fluid dynami s p oblem typi ally involves a y on al ulations f
o  va ious p ope ties of the fluid, su h as velo ity, p essu e, density, and tem
pe atu e, as fun tions of spa e and time. The fluid flow an be omp essible flo
w and in omp essible flow. In the ase of the omp essible flow the density of t
he flow annot be assumed to be onstant. The in omp essible flow des ibes a fl
uid flow in whi h hanges in the fluid density have little effe t on the va iabl
es of inte est, su h as the lift ( onsists of the
106
sum of all the fluid dynami  fo es on a body pe pendi ula  to the di e tion of
the exte nal flow app oa hing that body) on a wing.
3.1.4.1 The Continuity Equation
The volumet i  flow ate o  volume flow ate is given by:
QV =
The mass flow ate is given by:
dV (m3 / s) . dt
(3.13)
Qm =
dm (kg / s ) . dt
dV = ρ QV . dt
(3.14)
The onne tion between (3.13) and (3.14) is:
Qm = ρ
(3.15)
One of the fundamental equations of fluids flow is the ontinuity equation whi h
exp esses the law of onse vation of matte . We onside  a fluid in motion, wit
h volume V and the losed su fa e S a ound it. The mass of fluid in this volume
is:
m = ∫ ρ dV ,
(V )
(3.16)
with
ρ = ρ (  , t ) the density of the fluid. F om (3.16) one has:
∂m ∂ ∂ρ = − ∫ ρ dV = − ∫ dV . ∂t ∂t (V ) (V ) ∂t
(3.17)


  On the othe  hand we have the volume m = ρ v dS o , gene ally, m = ρ v ⋅ dS .
The va iation of the mass of the fluid in time unit f om the whole losed su fa 
e S is given by:
107
∂m   = ∫ ρ v ⋅ dS . ∂t ( S )
F om (3.17) and (3.18) one obtains:
(3.18)
− ∫
∂ρ   dV = ∫ ρ v ⋅ dS . (V ) ∂t (S ) ∂ρ  dV = ∫ ∇ ⋅ ( ρ v) dV (V ) ∂t (V ) ∂ρ  + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ
. ∂t
(3.19)
Using the Stokes theo em one gets:
− ∫
and
(3.20)
(V )
∫ (
(3.21)
F om (3.21) it follows: (3.22)
This is the ontinuity equation. If the fluid is in omp essible ( ρ = onst. ) the
g adient of the density of an in omp essible flow is ze o and the pa tial de iv
ative of density with espe t to time is ze o and (3.22) be omes:

 ∇ ⋅ v = 0.
r r j = ρv
(3.23)
The ve to 
(3.24)
is the density ve to  of the mass flux. An in omp essible flow an be des ibed
by using a velo ity field whi h is solenoidal. A solenoidal field, has a ze o di
ve gen e, and also has a non ze o u l ( otational omponent). If an in omp essi
ble flow also has a u l of ze o, so that it is also i otational, then the velo
ity field is a tually Lapla ian (Lapla ian ve to 
108
field is a ve to  field whi h is both i otational and in omp essible). If the f
ield is denoted as v , then it is des ibed by the following diffe ential equati
ons:


 ∇ v = 0
(3.25) (3.26)
and A ications*
r ∇ ⋅ v = 0.
The most common f o
meter is the magnetic f o
meter. A magnetic fie d is a i
ed to the metering tube. A otentia  difference roortiona  to the f o
ve ocit
y erendicu ar to the f ux ines aeared. The hysica  rinci e at
ork is e 
ectromagnetic induction. For the magnetic f o
meter a conducting f uid is neede
d (
ater that contains ions) and an e ectrica  insu ating ie surface (a rubber
ined stee  tube). A so, there are u trasonic f o
meters.
3.1.4.2 Bernou i’s Equation
In f uid f o
, an increase in ve ocity occurs simu taneous y
ith decrease in r
essure. This is Bernou i s rinci e. This rinci e is a sim ification of Ber
nou i s equation
hich states that the sum of a  forms of energy in a f uid th
at f o
s a ong an enc osed ath, a stream ine has the same va ue at any t
o oin
ts in that ath. Bernou i s rinci e can be used to ana yze the Venturi effect
(is a secia  case of Bernou i s rinci e) in the case of f uid or air f o
t
hrough a tube or ie that has a constriction in it. In the restriction the f ui
d is seeding u. A so, is reducing its ressure and roducing a artia  vacuum
via the Bernou i effect. This is used in carburetors and e se
here. In a carbur
etor, air is assed through a Venturi tube for increasing its seed and decreasi
ng its ressure. The o
ressure
109
air is routed over a tube eading to a fue  bo
. The o
ressure sucks the fue
 into the airf o
, and in this
ay the combined fue  and air is sent to the eng
ine. The decreasing of ressure is roortiona  to the rate of air f o
squared.
We estab ish Bernou i s equation. Uon an infinitesima  vo ume acts the vo ume
force dG = dm g and it fo o
s:
r
r
r r dv 1 r r We have g = g (0,0,− g ) and
ith Eu er’s equation = − ∇ + f
e dt ρ
obtain the omponents:
  dG  f = = g. dm

(3.27)
dv x 1 ∂p =− , dt ρ ∂x
dv y dt
=−
1 ∂p , ρ ∂y
dv z 1 ∂p = −g − . dt ρ ∂z
(3.28)
We multiply the fi st equation (3.28) by dx , the se ond by dy and the thi d by
dz , we make the sum and one gets:
dv x
o
1 ∂p ∂p ∂p dx dy dz + dv y + dv z = − ( dx + dy + dz ) − g dz , (3.29) ∂y ∂z dt dt dt ρ ∂x
v x dv x + v y dv y + v z dv z = −
We have fo  the speed
ρ
dp − g dz .
v2 = v2 + v2 + v2 x y z
(3.30) and
d(v 2 ) = 2( v x dv x + v y dv y + v z dv z ) and (3.30) be omes: 1 1 d(v 2 ) = −
dp − g dz . 2 ρ
Also, one obtains: (3.31)
110
1 d( v 2 ) + ρ g z + p = 0 . 2
in a unifo m g avitational field that is given by:
(3.32)
F om (3.32) it follows the Be noulli's law fo  an ideal, in omp essible flow
1 2 ρ v + ρ g z + p = onst. 2
In (3.33) p is the stati  p essu e, is the hyd ostati  p essu e. In the ase of
two a bit a y oss se tions one obtains:
(3.33)
1 2 ρ v is the dynami  p essu e and ρ g z 2
1 2 1 ρ v1 + ρ g z1 + p1 = ρ v 2 + ρ g z2 + p2 , 2 2 2
z1 = h1 and z 2 = h2 .
(3.34.a)
whe e v1 is the speed at the S1 su fa e and v 2 is the speed at the S 2 su fa e
and
Fig. 1.39 Be noulli’s a
*
111
For v 2 << v1 one gets: (3.34.b) and the seed is given by:
v = 2 g ( z1 − z 2 ) .
(Torrice i a
).
(3.34.b)
The f uid has the same ve ocity as it fa s do
n free from a height z1 − z 2 The B
ernou i equation for incomressib e f uids can be derived a ying the a
of c
onservation of energy in t
o sections a ong a stream ine,
ithout taking into ac
count the viscosity, comressibi ity, and therma  effects.
3.1.5 Viscosity. Laminar F o
. Navier Stokes Equations. Transort Phenomena. Tur
bu ence. A ications.
3.1.5.1 Viscosity. Laminar F o
.
In a f uid there are interactions bet
een the infinitesima  vo umes or bet
een t
he f uid and the vesse . In these cases aear frictiona  forces bet
een the ay
ers of f uids or bet
een the f uid and vesse . Viscosity is a measure of the res
istance of a f uid to deform under shear stress. It can be associated to thickne
ss, or resistance to ouring. Viscosity describes a f uid s interna  resistance
to f o
. It is a measure of f uid friction. Exam es:
ater is thin, because it
has a o
er viscosity,
hi e vegetab e oi  is thick because it has a higher visc
osity. A  rea  f uids (excet suerf uids) resents a resistance to shear stres
s. The idea  f uid is the f uid that has no resistance to shear stress.
112
Some of the rea  f uids are suerf uids. The hase of matter characterized by th
e com ete absence of viscosity is ca ed suerf uidity. P aced in a c osed oo
, a suerf uid can f o
end ess y
ithout friction. In 1937 Pyotr Leonidovich Ka
itsa, John F. A en, and Don Misener discovered the suerf uidity. The study of
suerf uidity is ca ed quantum hydrodynamics. Lev Landau created the henomeno
ogica  theory of suerf uidity in he ium 4, and Niko ay Bogo iubov first sugges
ted sim e microscoica  theory. When a
ind is b o
ing over the surface of the
ocean a shear stress is a ied to the f uid. The f uid f o
s, and continues to
f o

hi e the stress is a ied. When the stress is removed, in genera , the f 
o
decays due to interna  dissiation of energy. A so, the thicker is the f uid,
the greater is its resistance to shear stress and the more raid the decay of i
ts f o
. In rea ity,
hen a f uid f o
s, the ayers move at different ve ocities
(there is not a sing e va ue for the ve ocity). The ayers act one uon the oth
er. The f uid s viscosity (thickness) arises from the shear stress bet
een the 
ayers that u timate y oose any a ied force. In the figures be o

e have t

o cases of aminar shear. The aminar f o

is the f o
for
hich the ayers of f
uid are ara e  one to other.

Fig. 1.40
113
Laminar shear of f uid bet
een t
o  ates. Friction bet
een the f uid and the mo
ving boundaries causes the f uid to shear. The force required for this action is
a measure of the f uid s viscosity.*
Fig. 1.41 Laminar shear, the non inear gradient, is a resu t of the geometry th
e f uid is f o
ing through (a ie)* The viscosity is characterized
 by the coeff
icient of viscosity η , viscosity, or dynamic viscosity. T e coefficient of viscos
ity

η depends on t e fluid and
  
temperature. For liquids, t e dynamic viscosity
  decreases wit t e increasing of
temperature and for gases increases
 wit t e increasing
  of temperature. T e dyn
amic viscosity is implied in t e expression of t e s ear stress
 and of t e frict
ional force. For straig t, parallel and uniform flow, t e s ear stress,
τ,








be ween l yers
is propor

ion l o he veloci


y gr dien , ∂v / ∂y , (
∂u / ∂y
in he figu
re bove), in he direc ion perpendicul r o he l yers. We h ve for he rel  iv
e
114





mo ion of he l yers he she r s ress τ = η
dv . Many fluids, water and most gases dy
  
(Newtonian fluids), satisfy Newton's criterion (t e relations
 ip between s ear s
tress
 and velocity gradient is of simple linearity).For t e Non-Newtonian fluid
s t ereis a more complicated relations
 ip between s ear
 stress and velocity gra
dient t an simple linearity. For t e Newtonian fluids t e frictional force is gi
ven by:
Fr = −η
dv S, dy
(3.35)
  
w ere S is t e common area of two adjacent layers. In SI p ysical unit of dynami
c viscosity η is t e pascal-second (Pa—s), which is identical to 1 kg—m-1—s-1. Fo  gases
viscosity is due p incipally to the molecula  diffusion that t anspo ts momentu
m between laye s of flow. F om the kinetic theo y of gases we have that viscosit
y is independent of p essu e and inc eases as tempe atu e inc eases. Fo  liquids
it is known that the additional fo ces between molecules become impo tant. This
implies the existence of an additional cont ibution to the shea  st ess though
the exact mechanics of this a e still cont ove sial. Thus, in liquids viscosity
does not depend on p essu e (except at ve y high p essu e) and tends to fall as
tempe atu e inc eases (fo  example, wate  viscosity goes f om 1.79 cP to 0.28 cP
in the tempe atu e ange f om 0°C to 100°C). The values of dynamic viscosities of l
iquids a e typically seve al o de s of magnitude highe  than the value of dynami
c viscosities of gases. Some dynamic viscosities of Newtonian fluids a e given i
n the table below, fo  gases and liquids.*
115
gases (at 0 °C)
viscosity (Pa—s)
hyd ogen 8.4  10-6
ai 
17.4  10-6
xenon
21.2  10-6
and liquids (at 25 °C)
viscosity (Pa—s)
ethanol
a
1.074  10-3
acetone
a
0.306  10-3
methanol
a
0.544  10-3
p opanol
a
1.945  10-3
benzene
a
0.604  10-3
116
wate 
a
0.890  10-3
nit obenzene
a
1.863  10-3
me cu y
a
1.526  10-3
sulfu ic acid
a
24.2  10-3
glyce ol
a
934  10-3
olive oil
81  10-3
casto  oil
0.985
molten polyme s 103
pitch
1011
glass
1040
The viscomete  o  viscosimete  is used fo  measu e the viscosity, typically at 2
5°C (standa d state). Fo  some fluids, it is a constant ove  a wide ange of shea 
ates. The viscomete  is also used to measu e the flow pa amete s of a fluid. T
he
117
classical method of measu ing due to Stokes, consisted of measu ing the time fo 
a fluid to flow th ough a capilla y tube. The glass tube viscomete  was efined
by Cannon, Ubbelohde and othe s and is the best method fo  the standa d dete mi
nation of the viscosity of wate . The viscosity of wate  at 25 deg ees Celsius i
s 0.890 mPa—s o  1.002 mPa—s at 20 deg ees Celsius. The equi ed fo ce fo  otating
a disk o  bob in a fluid at a known speed can be measu ed with the B ookfield-ty
pe viscomete . The function of othe  viscomete  types is based on the use of bub
bles, balls o  othe  objects. Rheomete s o  plastomete s a e the viscomete s tha
t can measu e fluids that have high viscosity o  molten polyme s. Vib ational vi
scomete s date back to the 1950s Bendix inst ument, which is of a class which op
e ates by measu ing the damping of an oscillating elect omechanical esonato  im
me sed in a fluid whose viscosity is to be dete mined. The esonato  gene ally o
scillates in to sion o  t ansve sely. A highe  value of the viscosity dete mines
a la ge  damping imposed on the esonato . The esonato 's damping may be measu
ed using one of the methods: 1. Measu ing the powe  input that is needed fo  ke
eping the oscillato  vib ating at constant amplitude. A highe  value of the visc
osity dete mines a g eate  value of the powe  that is needed to maintain the amp
litude of oscillation. 2. Evaluating the decay time of the oscillation once the
excitation is switched off. A highe  value of the viscosity implies a faste  sig
nal decays. 3. The f equency of the esonato  can be measu ed as a function of p
hase angle between excitation and esponse wavefo ms. The f equency change fo  a
given phase changes inc eases fo  a highe  value of the viscosity
118
3.1.5.2 Navie -Stokes Equations.
Fo  ideal fluids the motion is desc ibed by the Eule  equation
  dv 1 = − ∇ + f . In the case of the f uids
hich has viscosity
e have to add i
n dt ρ
the Eule  equation a te m that o esponds to the inte nal f i tional fo es (vi
s ous fo es) between the laye s of fluid. The Navie  Stokes equations gove n th
e fluid hyd odynami s. We give the Navie Stokes equations whi h a e a set of eq
uations that des ibe the motion of fluid substan es su h as liquids and gases.
These equations establish that hanges in momentum (a ele ation) of fluid pa ti
les a e the p odu t of hanges in p essu e and dissipative vis ous fo es (simi
la  to f i tion) a ting inside the fluid. These vis ous fo es a e due to the mo
le ula  inte a tions and ont ol the sti kiness (vis osity) of a fluid. The Navi
e Stokes equations ep esent the dynami al statement of the balan e of fo es a
ting at any given egion of the fluid. Some appli ations of the Navie  Stokes e
quations a e: modeling of the weathe , o ean u ents, wate  flow in a pipe, mot
ion of sta s inside a galaxy, flow a ound an ai foil (wing). Also, they play an
impo tant ole in the design of ai aft and a s, the study of blood flow, the
design of powe  stations, the analysis of the effe ts of pollution, et . The Nav
ie Stokes equations a e diffe ential equations whi h des ibe the motion of a f
luid. The Navie Stokes equations fo  the ideal fluid with ze o vis osity establ
ish that a ele ation (the ate of hange of velo ity) is p opo tional to the de
ivative of inte nal p essu e. The flow is assumed to be diffe entiable and ont
inuous, allowing the onse vation laws to be exp essed as pa tial diffe ential e
quations. In the ase of in omp essible flow ( onstant density), the va iables t
o be solved fo  a e the velo ity omponents and the p essu e.
119
Fo 
the
motion
of
the
fluid
against
the
Ox
axis
and
with
dm = ρ dV = ρ S dz one has: (dF  ) x 1 (dF  ) x 1 ∂2vx ( f  )x = = =− η 2 . ρ S dz ρ ∂z dm
(3.36)
If we have a velo ity g adient against an a bit a y di e tion it one gets:
∂2vx ∂2vx ∂2vx 1 ( f  )x = − η ( 2 + + 2 ) ≡ − η ∇ 2 v x . (3.37) ∂y 2 ∂z ρ ∂x ρ
Fo  the omponents ( f  ) y and ( f  ) z of the f i tional fo e it follows:
( f ) y = − η (
1
∂2vy ∂x
2
ρ
+
∂2vy ∂y
2
+
∂2vy ∂z
2
1 ) ≡ − η∇2vy
ρ
(3.38)
and
1 ∂ 2vz ∂ 2vz ∂ 2vz ( f  ) z = − η ( 2 + 2 + 2 ) ≡ − η∇2vz . ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x ρ 1
We an w ite the last th ee equations using ve to s and one gets:
(3.39)
 1 1   f  = − η ∇ 2 v ≡ − η Δv .

ρ
ρ
(3.40)
The equation of motion fo  a fluid with vis osity is given by:
  1 dv 1  = − ∇ + f + η Δv . dt ρ ρ
Also, one has:
(3.41)

  ∂v  1   + ( v ⋅ ∇)v = − (∇ − η Δv) + . ∂t ρ

We an w ite (3.42.a) as it follows:
(3.42.a)
 ∂v     ρ ( + v ⋅ ∇v) = −∇ + η Δv + , ∂t
(3.42.b)
120
where:
r ∂v r r - ρ ( + v ⋅ ∇v) reresents the inertia; ∂t  − ∇ is the ressure gradient; r  η
he viscosity (viscous stresses in the luid) and the viscosity is
represented by the vector Laplacian o the velocity ield; - represents the e
ect due to other orces. Equation (3.41) and (3.42.a) are the Navier-Stokes equ
ations. Together with the continuity equation determines the velocity ield v(r
, t ) and the pressure ield
r
r r
r p (r , t ) o a luid or suitable boundary conditions. In the case o compres
sible
low the density becomes another unknown o the system, and can be determined su
pplementing the system with an equation o state. An equation o state usually i
nvolves the temperature o the luid, so that the equation or conservation o e
nergy must also be solved, coupled with the previous ones. These equations are n
on-linear, and analytical solutions in closed orm are known only or cases with
very simple boundary conditions.
3.1.6 Turbulence
Turbulence is the time dependent chaotic behavior that appears in many cases in
luid lows. In luid dynamics, potential low or irrotational low (o incompre
ssible luids) is steady low de ined by the equations:
r ∇ v = 0
and
(3.43)
121
r ∇ ⋅ v = 0.
divergence that equa s to vo ume conservation. A so, one gets:
(3.44)
First equation means zero rotation and second equation im ies zero
r v = ∇Φ ,
(3.45)
where Φ is the potential. The potential flow has many applications in aircraft des
ign. The equations above imply ∇ Φ = 0 , or Laplace's equation, holds. Solutions of
Laplace's equation are called harmonic functions. These equations, the Navier-St
okes equations and the Euler equations, can be used to calculate solutions to ma
ny practical flow situations. It is obviously that the potential flow does not c
ontain all the characteristics of flows that are encountered in real situations.
If the flow is potential this implies the exclusionof turbulence, which is com
monly encountered in nature. The opinion of Richard eynman is that potential fl
ow is so unphysical that the only fluid to obey the assumptions was dry water. A
lso, potential flow it is not properly to describe the behaviour of flows that i
nclude a boundary layer. The boundary layer is that layer of fluid in the immedi
ate vicinity of a bounding surface. In the atmosphere the boundary layer is the
air layer near the ground that is affected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum
(in transfer ring with the Earth surface). The part of the flow that is close t
o the wing represents the boundary layer for an aircraft wing. In the field regi
on in which all changes occur in the flow pattern it appears the Boundary layer
effect. The boundary layer is able to modify surrounding non viscous flow. Also,
the boundary layer is due to viscous forces. The simple potential flows (elemen
tal flows) such as the free vortex and the point source have analytical solution
s. These solutions can be superposed and in
2
122
this way can be created more complex flows. These flows satisfy a number of boun
dary conditions. Any streamline can be replaced by a solid boundary with no chan
ge in the flow field, and this is because of the absence of boundary layer effec
ts. This technique is used in many aerodynamic design approaches. In fluid mecha
nics there are two limiting vortex cases. These are the free (irrotational) vort
ex, and the forced (rotational) vortex. In the free (irrotational) vortex the ta
ngential velocity v varies inversely as the distance r from the centre of rotati
on. In this case the angular momentum is constant. This implies that the vortici
ty is zero everywhere except for a singularity at the centre-line. The tangentia
l velocity is given by:
v=
where Γ is the vortex strength.
Γ , 2π r
(3.46)
In the forced vortex the f uid rotates as a so id body
ith no shear. We can rea
ized the forced vortex by  acing a dish of f uid on a rotating turntab e. The
tangentia  ve ocity is given by:
v = ωr ,

here vortex.

(3.47)
ω is the angu ar ve ocity and r is the radia  distance from the center of the
Vortices aear in turbu ent f o
. Any circu ar or rotary f o
that ossesses
vorticity reresents a vortex. The vorticity is a vector and is given by the cir
cu ation er unit area at a oint in the f o
fie d. The movement of a f uid is
vortica  if the f uid moves around in a circ e, or in a he ix, or if it tends to
sin around some axis. Such motion can a so be ca ed so enoida . Vorticity is
given by:
123

here v is the f uid ve ocity. It can be a so exressed by the circu ation er u
nit area at a oint in a f uid f o
fie d. It is a vector that has the direction
a ong the axis of the f uid s rotation. Turbu ence or turbu ent f o
is a f o

regime characterized by chaotic roerty changes. There are raid variation of 

ressure and ve ocity in sace and time. We can c assify the f uid f o
s in amin
ar and turbu ent f o
s
ith the Reyno ds number. The Reyno ds number is given by
:
r
ω = ∇  v,
r
r
(3.48)
Re =
ρ vL , μ
(3.49)
and i  qual to th ratio of inrtial forc 
ρ v to vis ous fo es
μ
L
. It i 
dimn ionl . Th tran ition btwn laminar and turbulnt flow i  indicatd by
a critical Rynold  numbr R crt . For circular pip flow, a Rynold  numbr a
bov about 2300 will b turbulnt. For laminar flow w hav low Rynold  numbr 
, and th vi cou  forc  ar dominant. It i  charactrizd by mooth, con tant f
luid motion. For turbulnt flow w hav high Rynold  numbr  and i  dominatd b
y inrtial forc , producing random ddi , vortic  and othr flow fluctuation 
. Som charactri tic  of th turbulnt flow ar:  thr ar not tramlin  an
d th vlocity fild v i  not a continu function of any point;
r
r ∂v ≠ 0 , which man  that thr  th turbulnt flow i  not tationary and w hav
∂t
ar rapid variation of vlocity in pac and tim;
124
 th frictional (vi cou ) forc i  not proportional to th vlocity v , but i 
proportional to v , whr n > 1 .
n
Exampl  of vortx:  vortx cratd by th pa ag of an aircraft wing;  th 
piraling motion of air or liquid around a cntr of rotation;  circular currnt
of watr of conflicting tid  form vortx hap ;  th atmo phric phnomnon
of a whirlwind (tak  th form of a hlix, column, or piral) or a tornado (dv
lop from vr thundr torm , u ually pawnd from quall lin  (organizd lin
 of thundr torm ) and upr cll thundr torm  (a vr thundr torm), though
thy omtim  happn a  a r ult of a hurrican);  vortx u ually formd a  w
atr go  down a drain, a  in a ink or a toilt. Thi  occur  in watr a  th r
volving ma  form  a whirlpool (a larg, wirling body of watr producd by oca
n tid ). Thi  whirlpool i  cau d by watr flowing out of a mall opning in th
 bottom of a ba in or r rvoir. Thi  wirling flow tructur within a rgion o
f fluid flow opn  downward from th watr urfac.
Fig. 1.42 Vortx cratd by th pa ag of an aircraft wing, rvald by colour
d mok*
125
Multipl vortic  appar in th ca  of trongr tornado , th tornado contain 
vral vortic  that rotat  around and in id of and part of th main vortx.
Al o, th  trongr tornado  hav many column  of violntly pinning air that
rotat around a common cntr. A atllit tornado i  a wak tornado which ia a
ccompanying a larg, trong tornado, many tim  it nd  in no mor than a minut
.
Fig. 1.43 Union City, Oklahoma tornado (1973)* A tropical cyclon rpr nt  a 
torm y tm that i  charactrizd by a clo d circulation around a cntr of low
pr ur. Th tropical cyclon i  gnratd by th hat tran frrd by th air
that ri   and condn  . Tropical cyclon  ar calld tropical dpr ion, trop
ical torm, hurrican and typhoon, thi  cla ification bing in trong connctio
n with thir trngth and location.
126
Fig. 1.44 Cyclon Catarina, a rar South Atlantic tropical cyclon viwd from t
h Intrnational Spac Station on March 26, 2004* A whirlpool con i t  of a larg
, wirling body of watr that i  gnratd by ocan tid .

Fig. 1.45 Salt traumn a trong tidal currnt locatd om 30 km a t of th cit
y of Bodø, Norway* Othr xampl  of vortx ar:
127
 th acclration of th lctric fluid in a particular dirction crat  a po 
itiv vortx of magntic fluid. A  a r ult, a corr ponding ngativ vortx of
lctric fluid i  gnratd around it;  a ring of mok in th air  Polar vort
x that rpr nt  a pr i tnt, larg cal cyclon ncountrd nar th Earth'
 pol , in th middl and uppr tropo phr and th trato phr;  Sun pot tha
t i  a dark rgion on th Sun'  urfac (photo phr) that i  charactrizd by a
lowr tmpratur than it  urrounding , and ha  an intn  magntic activity;
 th accrtion di k of a black hol or othr ma iv gravitational ourc;  Sp
iral galaxy that i  a typ of galaxy in th Hubbl qunc which i  charactriz
d by a thin, rotating di k. Our galaxy, th Milky Way i  of thi  typ.
128
Sminar 1
1.1 Cart ian Coordinat . Dot Product, Cro  Product and Vctor (Diffrntial)
Oprator .
Th rfrnc y tm can b inrtial or non inrtial. Th inrtial rfrnc y 
tm i  th y tm that ha  a rctilinar uniform motion or i  at rlativ r t.
Th non inrtial rfrnc y tm ha  an acclratd motion. Undr cla ical mc
hanic  and pcial rlativity, th inrtial rfrnc y tm  ar con idrd. To
th rfrnc y tm thr i  rigidly attachd a rfrnc fram. Th motion of
a moving body i  univocally dtrmind if, ach momnt, it  coordinat  ar kno
wn in rlation with th rfrnc y tm cho n. In mchanic  thr ar  pcial
ly u d: 3) Cart ian coordinat y tm 4) phrical coordinat y tm In th Ca
rt ian coordinat y tm th po ition of a point P i  givn by th Cart ian co
ordinat  x, y and z (Fig. 1.46). Th vctor r , that connct  th origin with p
oint P, i  calld po ition vctor or radiu  vctor.
z
r
r r r r r = x i + y j + zk .
(1.1)
z
r z
r k
r r r j
P
r O i
r x
r y
r Az k
y O
r A
r Ay j
r Ax i
x
y
x
Fig. 1.46
Fig. 1.47
129
In gnral, any arbitrary vctor A can b writtn:
r r r r A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k ,
(1.2)
whr Ax , A y and A z ar calld th componnt  of vctor A (Fig. 1.47).
r
r According to th componnt , th lngth (magnitud) of vctor A i : r r 2 A =
A ⋅ A = Ax2 + Ay + Az2 , (1.3) r r r and i , j and k ar unit vctor  of th coord
inat ax . On know  thy ati fy
th rlation :
r r r r r r r r r i = j = k = 1 ; i ⋅ i = j · j = k · k = 1; r r r r r r i ⋅ j = i ⋅k = j ⋅
= 0
In the spherical coordinates system the position of a point P is given by the sp
herical coordinates r, θ, φ. Let us consider two vectors A and B . We de ine the dot
(scalar) product:
r
r






r r A ⋅ B
= A B cos α ,
(1.4) r r where α is
he ngle be ween he wo vec ors A nd B
. In C r esi n coordin 
es r r r r r r r r wi h A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k nd B =
Bx i + B y j + Bz k we ge : r r r r r r r r A ⋅ B = ( Ax i + Ay j + Az k ) ⋅ ( Bx i
+ B y j + Bz k ) =
= Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az

Bz



Also, we define for he vec ors A nd B he cross produc :
(1.5. )
r
r
r r r r C = A  B = n A B sin α ,
(1.5.b)
130





r r r where n
is n uni vec
or norm
l (perpendicul r) o bo h A nd B .
The
cro
ss r r produc is defined s he vec or which is norm l (perpendicul r) o bo h
A
nd B







wi
h  m gni

ude equ l o he re  of he p r llelogr m hey sp n. I h s he le
ng h (m gni ude)
C = A B sin α
(1.5.c)











An e sy w y o compu e
he

direc ion of he
resul n
vec or
is he
"righ h nd
rule."

One simply poin
s he forefinger


in he direc ion of he firs
oper 
nd
n
d
he middle finger
in
he direc

ion of he

second oper nd.

Then,
he resul n
vec or is coming ou of he humb. In C r esi n coordin  es one ge s:
r i r r A  B = Ax Bx
Exercise 1:
r j Ay By
r k Az . Bz
(1.6)
r r r r r r r r 1) A = 5i − 4 j + 2k nd B = −2i + 3 j + k , r r r r r r r r 2) C =
4i − 4 j
− 2k
nd
D = 7i +
j − 3k





nd
compu e
he do produc 
nd he cross
produc in
hese wo c ses. A vec or o
per
 or is
 ype of differen

i l
oper  or used in vec or c lculus. Now, we defi
ne he vec or (differen i l) oper  ors: del ∇ (nab a), gradient, divergence, cur 
and La acian.
Let us consider the airs of vectors:
131
1) De  ∇ (nab a) In vector ca cu us, de  is a vector differentia  oerator rerese
nted by the nab a symbo . In Cartesian coordinates is defined as:
∂ r ∂ r ∂ r j+ k. ∇= i + ∂x ∂y ∂z
With de 
e define the gradient, divergence, cur  and La acian. 2) Gradient Let
(1.7)
ϕ be a scalar function and
e get the gradient of ϕ in Cartesian
coordinates:
∂ϕ r ∂ϕ r ∂ϕ r grad ϕ = ∇ϕ = i+ j+ k. (1.8) ∂x ∂y ∂z r The vector field A = grad ϕ is calle
rl-free) field. Example, r the static field E = − g adV , whe e V is the ele t i 
potential V ( x, y, z ) . Also,
the g avitational field is an example of su h a field: g avity g adients, see in
the figu e below.
Fig. 1.48*
132
    Let us onside  the ve to  A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k (Ca tesian oo dinates
) and  we define the dive gen e of A :   ∂ Ax ∂ Ay ∂ Az + + div A = ∇ ⋅ A = . (1.9) ∂x ∂
r The vector fie d that satisfies ∇ ⋅ A = 0 is a so enoida  fie d. Exam e: r induct
ion B (magnetic fie d). A so, the ve ocity fie d of an incomressib e f uid
f o
is so enoida .
Divergence Theorem (Green Gauss Ostrogradski Theorem):
3) Divergence
r r r ∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ AdV = ∫∫ A ⋅ dS
V S
(1.10)
The divergence theorem states that the f ux of a vector fie d on a surface is eq
ua  to the tri e integra  of the divergence on the region inside the surface.
Exercise 2:
Suose
e
ish to eva uate the f ux of the vector A , ∫∫ A ⋅ n dS
here S is the unit
shere defined by x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 and A = 2 xi + y j + z k is the vector fie d
. 4) Cur  In vector ca cu us, cur  is a vector oerator that sho
s a vector fie 
d’s rate of rotation: the direction of the axis of rotation and the magnitude of t
he rotation. Let us consider the vector A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k (Cartesian coordi
nates) and
r
r r r
r
S
r
2
2
r
r
r
r
r
r r
e define the cur  of A (de  cross A ) as:
133
r r r i j k r r ∂ ∂ ∂ . (1.11) cur  A = ∇  A = ∂x ∂y ∂z Ax Ay Az r The vector fie d that s
ies ∇  A = 0 is an irrotationa  fie d. Exam e: r static fie d E . In f uid mechani
cs, an irrotationa  fie d is ractica y synonymous

ith a ame ar fie d. The adjective "irrotationa " im ies that irrotationa  f 
uid f o
(
hose ve ocity fie d is irrotationa ) has no rotationa  comonent: the
f uid does not move in circu ar or he ica  motions; it does not form vortices.
Oosite: vortex or he ices, see figures be o
.
Fig. 1.49*
Stokes Amère Theorem:
Fig. 1.50*
(C )
r r r ∫ A ⋅ d  = ∫∫ rot A ⋅ dS
S
(1.12)

hich re ates the surface integra  of the cur  of a vector fie d over a surface
S in Euc idean 3 sace to the ine integra  of the vector fie d over its boundar
y.
134
5) La acian The La ace oerator is a second order differentia  oerator, defin
ed as the divergence of the gradient:
Δ = ∇2 = ∇ ⋅ ∇ .
(1.13)
The La acian is the sum of a  the unmixed second artia  derivatives. In the t
hree dimensiona  sace the La acian is common y
ritten as
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 Δ = ∇ = ∇ ⋅∇ = 2 + 2 + 2 . ∂x ∂y ∂z
2
(1.13)
Exercise 3:
Let us consider the sca ar functions: 1) ϕ = 2 x y + 4 y − 3 sin( z ) , 2) ϕ = 4 x y z
− 5 y z + 7 x y z
2 ' 2
and ompute the g adient in the both ases.
Exe ise 4:
Let us onside  the pai s of ve to s:
        2 1) A = 5 x i − 4 y j + 2 z k and B = 2 y i + 3 x y z j + y z k ,
        2 2) C = − x z i − 4 x y z j + 2 x y k and D = xi + 2 x z j − 3 x y z
k
and ompute the dive gen e and the u l.
135
Semina  2
1. D aw the spa e, speed and a ele ation g aphs afte  2 se onds f om the beginn
ing of the motion of a mate ial point, whose a ele ation is given by the atio
a = k t , whe e k = 0.1 m/s3, onside ing that at the initial moment, the speed
is ze o, and the spa e is 5 m . 2. Dete mine the speed and spa e of a mate ial p
oint whose a ele ation depends on the speed a o ding to the law a = − k v , know
ing that when t = 0 , v = v 0
2
and s = s0 . 3. Conside  a motion defined by the pa amet i  equations
1 x = 3 et + , 4
y = 4 e t − 1 . Dete mine t aje to y of the mate ial, its speed and a ele ation.
 4. A onstant fo e F is a ting upon a body with mass m . The motion is along
axis x and the oeffi ient of f i tion is
   v 0 . Dete mine the equation of motion if v 0 is pa allel to F .
5) On a body with
μ . At th initial momnt, th vlocity i 
m = 1 kg , act  th forc with an in tantanou  valu of r r r r 2 2 2 2 F = 2 y
i + 3 x j − ( x + y ) k ( N ) . At th initial momnt, th body i  in r r th po 
ition M ( 2,3,0) and it  vlocity i  v 0 = 3 j + k ( m /  ) . Whn t = 0 , r d
trmin: a) th F0 forc acting on th body; b) th acclration of th body r a
0 ; c) kintic Ec 0 nrgy; d) rat of chang of th kintic nrgy.
givn by U ( x) = − A x , if it  nrgy i  zro.
4
6) Dtrmin th quation of motion of a matrial point that i  moving in th fi
ld

7) Two pring  with la tic con tant  k1 and k 2 ar ri  connctd and hav a
136
fixd xtrmity. At th fr xtrmity thr i  a body hanging. Dtrmin th p
ring ’ E 1 / E  2 energies ratio.
137
Seminar 3
1) A materia  oint describes t
o norma  motions, given by equations
x = 10 cos 3 t cm and y = 10 sin 3 t cm. Lets determine trajectory, seed
and acce eration. 2) The arametric equations of a motion of a materia  oint ar
e given by
g (1 − cos k t ) . k2 dis acement if at t = 0 , s = 0 . x = a cos k t , y =
Lets
determine
trajectory
and
3) Kno
ing the seeds v1 = 3 cm/s and v 2 = 5 cm/s
hich corresond to the dis 
acements x1 = 6 cm and x2 = 4 cm, et determine: a) maximum of dis acement (am
itude) and eriod of the harmonic osci ations, b) maximum of acce eration. 4)
A body of mass m = 150 g is connected to a sring
ith constant sring
k = 50 N/m and describes damed osci ations. After n = 15 osci ations
the am itude decreases and becomes A0 / 2,71 . Lets determine: a) daming ratio

β , ) eriod T , c) daming factor δ .
    
5) A bob pen ulum escribes ampe oscillations with the amping ratio
  
β = 0,04 . After 50 s, the energy of the o endulum decreased and
ecomes E1 / 7,39 . Let determine the length of the
ire (endulum). 6) For the
damed oscillations
ith
β = 0,15 lets determine the ratio
v(t + T ) / v(t ) and the ratio a (t + T ) / a (t ) .
138
Seminar
 4
1) A ody of mass m = 150 g is connected to a sring
ith constant sring

k = 50 N/m and descri es dam
ed oscillations. After n = 15 oscillations

the am litude decreases and ecomes A0 / 2,71 . Lets determine: a) daming ratio
 
β , ) eriod T , c) daming factor δ .
    
2) A bob pen ulum escribes ampe oscillations with the amping ratio
  
β = 0,04 . After 50 s, the energy of the o endulum
decreased and
endulum). 3) We have
ecomes E1 / 7,39 . Lets determine the length of the ire
  (
t
o harmonic oscillations on the same direction descri ed y the equations x1 =
0.01 sin(
2π 2π π π t + ) m and x2 = 0.05 sin( t + ) m. Let 3 6 3 3

determine the equation of the com ined motion. 4) Lets determine the resultant
 m
otion of a material oint that is undergoing t
o orthogonal motions given y: a)
x = 3 sin(
π
t + ) ; y = 2 sin t 6 2 6 3π ) ; y = 6 sin 2 π t 2
π
π

) x = 6 sin( 2 π t + c) x = 3 sin(π t +
π
) ; y = 4 sin(π t + ) . 6 6
π

5) Lets determine the trajectory
 of a mo il that is undergoing t
o orthogonal ha
rmonic oscillations given y x = sin(
π
t + ) and y = 2 cos t . 2 2 4
π
π
139
Seminar
 5
1) A ody is hanging on a sring and has the eriod 2 s . Uon it are acting a s
inusoidal force
ith amlitude F = 0.1 N and a frictional force roortional to
velocity. Kno
ing that at the resonance of seeds the amlitude of oscillations
is
A0 = 5 cm , lets determine the damer constant γ .
2) A body of mass m = 250  is underoin damped oscillations with the dampin f
actor
δ = 0.785 s −1 and the pe iod of the simple ha moni  os illations is
T0 =
2 s . The body is unde going d iven os illations when an exte nal fo e 3
F = 0.1 sin 2π t ( N ) is acting uon it. Lets
rite the a
of motion for the dri
ven
osci ations. 3) A source  aced in an e astic medium emits  ane
aves
y = 0.25 sin 100 π t (mm) . The
ave ength of the ongitudina 
aves is
λ = 10 m . Lets determine:
a) the time that a oint  aced at the distance x1 = 8 m far from the source nee
ded to begins to osci ate and the hase difference bet
een the osci ation of t
his oint and source b) the distance bet
een t
o oints
hich have the hase dif
ference c) the hase difference bet
een t
o oints
hich are  aced at other 4)
The am itude of a sim e harmonic osci ation is A = 10 cm , the frequency is
π
6
one from the
λ
2
ν = 4 Hz ad the velocity is v = 100 m / s . Lets determie the displacemet, the
140
velocity ad acceleratio of poits placed at the distace x = 75 m far from the
source at the momet t = 1 s after the begiig of the motio.
141
Semiar 6
1. A strig AB with legth l = 9 m is fixed to the B extremity. The B extremity
oscillates trasversely with amplitude A = 5 cm ad frequecy
ν = 10 Hz . The
wave velocity is v = 4,3 m / s . Lets determie the law of oscillatios of a poi
t M if the displacemet MB is x = 93,75 cm ad the positios of the troughs (mi
imum). 2. I a steel rod propagate logitudial waves. The diameter of the rod
is
d = 4 mm , amplitude of oscillatios A = 0,1 mm ad frequecy ν = 10 Hz . Let
determie: a) equatio
 
 of the wave b) wave eergy desity c) average flux of ee

rgy We k ow the ou g’s modu us
E = 2 ⋅ 1011 N / m 2 and inear density
ρ = 7,8 ⋅ 103 kg / m3 .
3. Dis ussions about the equation of the wave, wave ene gy density and ave age f
lux of ene gy.
142
Semina  7
1. In a vessel whi h ontains me u y is putted a ve ti al tube with oss se ti
on
S = 10 m 2 . The tube has a piston with mass m = 2 kg . Initially, the piston i
s at
the same level with the me u y ontained in the vessel. The piston is displa ed
above at h = 0,2 m . Lets dete mine: a) the fo e that a ts upon the piston whe
n the height of the me u y in the tube is
h = 0,2 m . The linea  density is ρ = 13580 kg/m 3 .
b) the me hani al wo k done when the piston have been displa ed at h = 0,2 m 2.
A sy inge has the oss se tion of the piston S1 = 1,2 m and the oss se tion
of the needle S 2 = 0,8 mm . The piston is displa ed with l = 6 m . In the sy i
nge he e is a liquid with linea  density
2 2
ρ = 1,4 ⋅ 103 kg / m3 . Upon the piston
a ts the onstant fo e F = 47,258 mN . Lets dete mine the equi ed time fo  put
ting out the liquid f om the sy inge. 3. Dis ussion about the fundamental law of
hyd odynami s, hyd ostati  p essu e and Be noulli’s equation.
143
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144
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