2005

A Review Report on “Needs and

System of Water Harvesting in
Nepal”

Prashanta Raut
Department of Soil Science
Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science
B.Sc. Agriculture (7th Semester)
5/17/2005
 May 17, 2005 A REVIEW REPORT ON “NEEDS AND SYSTEM OF WATER HARVESTING IN NEPAL”

1. Introduction to Water Harvesting:

Water Harvesting refers to capturing rain where it falls or capturing the runoff from our own
village or town and taking measures to keep that water clean by not allowing polluting activities
to take place in the catchment.

Rainwater Harvesting refers to the capture, diversion and storage of rainwater for a wide array of
purposes including irrigation and domestic applications. It is common and extremely beneficial
in arid and semi-arid areas as well as places like Nepal with severe temporal variations in
precipitation.

In general, water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater. The rainwater
collected can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the groundwater. Rain is the first
form of water that we know in the hydrological cycle, hence is a primary source of water for us.
Rivers, lakes and groundwater are all secondary sources of water. In present times, we depend
entirely on such secondary sources of water. In the process, we forget that rain is the ultimate
source that feeds all these secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value. Water harvesting
means to understand the value of rain, and to make optimum use of the rainwater at the place
where it falls.

1.1. Water Harvesting subsystems

A rainwater harvesting system comprises the following subsystems. Proper management of all
these subsystems is very important for avoiding losses during collection, conveyance and storage
which ultimately helps in increasing the collection efficiency.

• Catchment area
• Conveyance system
• Filtration
• Storage
• Distribution

1.2. Purpose of Water Harvesting

Water Harvesting actively draws upon traditional management system and knowledge. It uses
simple technology, which can be maintained at the household level. No new organizational
structures are needed for operations and maintenance. Water Harvesting can serve the following
purposes:

• Provide drinking water

• Provide irrigation water
• Increase groundwater recharge
• Reduce storm water discharges, urban floods and overloading of sewage treatment plants

2
 May 17, 2005 A REVIEW REPORT ON “NEEDS AND SYSTEM OF WATER HARVESTING IN NEPAL”

1.3. Advantages of Water Harvesting

Water is a consequential natural resource, both globally and nationally. It supports the livelihood
of mountain farmers. Effective harvesting of excess rain water can be a viable solution to reduce
water shortage on one hand and reduce the surface erosion and downstream sedimentation on the
other hand. Besides this, Rainwater harvesting has the following advantages (CRT, 2000):

• No water source disputes

• Flood and erosion control
• Enhancement of the quality and yield of ground water
• Higher suitability of consumption without purification in comparison to other sources
• Saving of time and labor of rural women for water fetching
• Provision of water for cattle and kitchen gardens even where there is severe water
shortage
• Improvement in health and sanitation by use of safe water
• Upliftment of community by being able to have horticultural and vegetable crops
• Assuaging the stress on piped water supply
• For fire fighting
• Provision of water for biogas plants
• Creation of employment based on agriculture and lowering the need of people to
immigrate for work
• Reducing the dependence on large scale water supply schemes

1.4. Methods of Water Harvesting

Depending on the catchment, available resource, topography and purpose of collected water,
there are several methods of water harvesting. Rainwater is generally of good quality, however
maintaining the quality of stored water remains the main challenge of water harvesting
techniques and methods. Water harvesting can be undertaken through a variety of ways. Some
popular methods of rainwater harvesting are described below:

1.4.1. Capturing runoff from rooftops:

Cisterns, Rain Barrels, Vertical Storage and similar devices have been used for centuries to
capture rainwater from the roofs of buildings, and in many parts of the world these systems serve
as a primary water supply source. The reuse of rainwater for potable needs is not advised without
water treatment. These systems can reduce potable water needs for uses such as irrigation and
fire protection while also reducing rainwater discharges. Storage/reuse techniques range from
small, residential systems such as Rain Barrels that are maintained by the homeowner to
supplement garden needs, to large, “vertical storage” units that can provide other domestic needs.
Storage/reuse techniques are useful in urban areas where there is little physical space to manage
rainwater.

3
 May 17, 2005 A REVIEW REPORT ON “NEEDS AND SYSTEM OF WATER HARVESTING IN NEPAL”

1.4.2. Capturing runoff from local catchments:

Flow of rain water on the fields is checked by building small bunds around the field. The water
thus stored in the field percolates underneath and increases soil moisture. Soil moisture of terrace
fields made along steep mountain slopes can be increased by checking the flow of rain water by
building bunds and can also be stored in the drains dug around the fields. Within fields, methods
like micro catchment, furrow dyking, contour ridges, strip planting, stone bunds etc can be used
to collect rainwater. For irrigation purpose roads and landscape may also act as catchment.
Micro catchment water harvesting is the collection of surface runoff water from specially
modified surfaces having a flow distance of less than 100m. (Boers et al, 1986) It consists of two
components, a catchment area and infiltration basin or cropped area. The collected water is
distributed over cropped area and stored in the soil profile or reservoir tank. To increase the
amount of runoff by increasing soil impermeability, the soil catchment may need some
modifications like land alteration, chemical treatment and soil covers. In external catchment
methods like terrace system and hillside conduit system, runoff is collected from a catchment
area at considerable distance from the receiving area and is transferred by channel flow.

1.4.3. Capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams:

Rainwater can also be stored behind the check dams constructed over the small streams and
drains with the help of soil, stones and wood. Check-dams are small barriers built across the
direction of water flow on shallow rivers and streams for the purpose of water harvesting. The
small dams retain excess water flow during monsoon rains in a small catchment area behind the
structure. Pressure created in the catchment area helps force the impounded water into the
ground. The major environmental benefit is the replenishment of nearby groundwater reserves
and wells. The water entrapped by the dam, surface and subsurface, is primarily intended for use
in irrigation during the monsoon and later during the dry season, but can also be used for
livestock and domestic needs. These dams regulate the water supply and also help in controlling
soil erosion to some extent.

1.4.4. Conserving water through watershed management:

A watershed is an area above a given point that is drained by a stream system. Watershed
management recognizes that the water quality and quantity of our streams, lakes, and estuaries
results from the interaction of upstream features. In mountain watersheds, energy and matter
flow downwards with gravity. This has on- and off-site effects from source to sink, and
watershed management has to account for these flows. The devastating landslide and mass
wasting in the upper watersheds are usually blamed on local people overexploiting natural
resources. But many catastrophes are natural events. The accumulation of sediments in river
channels, intense human pressure on riverbank areas, construction, and excavation of channels
increase the risk of downstream flooding. Watershed management uses a series of landscaping
measures to break the speed of run-off, spread and retain water over larger areas and avoid
unwanted deep drainage. In wet watersheds the objective is to avoid over drainage from gullies
and retain water to improve the reliability of rain-fed farming, whereas in dry watersheds run-off
infiltration and recharge for water supply in the dry season is the prime purpose.

4
 May 17, 2005 A REVIEW REPORT ON “NEEDS AND SYSTEM OF WATER HARVESTING IN NEPAL”

2. Importance of water harvesting

With the increase in the population, the demand for water is also increasing. The quantum of
water available to the country being fixed the increasing demand reduces per capita water
availability. So, the per capita water availability has been on the decline in Nepal. Ground water
sources are increasingly getting depleted or are getting polluted. Bore wells are either silting up,
getting short of water or are drawing polluted water. In places where quality of ground water is
not good, rainwater harvesting can provide lifeline for survival. Harvesting of rainwater can
provide water for regions where other sources are too distant or too costly, or where wells are
impractical because of unfavorable geology or excessive drilling costs (National Academy of
Sciences, 1974). It is possible in areas which receive as little as 50-80 mm of rainfall. So, in rural
as well as the urban context, rainwater harvesting encourages water conservation and self
dependence.

2.1. Rural Context

More and more people all over the world are forced to live with limited and irregular access to
fresh water resources. Nepal is no exception to this, in spite of the average annual rainfall of
nearly 1400mm. In Nepal, water supply by using piped water systems is often unfeasible, both
technically as well economically due to the difficult terrain and scattered settlements. Settlement
of community on ridges and crests make accessibility to water, a problem for the people.
Rainwater harvesting is a viable technological option that has been practiced for centuries in
these communities. Rain Water Harvesting has been very useful in rural settlements where the
pressure head is not sufficient to supply water from the conventional source such as springs and
streams.

Due to longer dry periods and lack of winter rains water is scarce and difficult to obtain. In hilly
areas, people depend on small scale agriculture both as source of income as well as for their own
food production. This is mainly rain fed agriculture and therefore extremely dependent on the
rainy season. Due to the water shortages, food production decreases and people become more
dependent on markets outside their vicinity, which increases the costs of products. The livestock
rearing in the pastures of the hilly areas is a costlier case in terms of unavailability of water
resources. Animals grazing young grasses, fodder crops that may contain 90% of water may need
their demand of water for the whole day but for milking animals for maintenance, animals require 4
to 5 Liters of water per day for each Kg of milk they produce. They produce more milk where they
have good source of water. Cattle and buffalos require 27L of water per day in average feeding
condition.

So, to overcome the scarcity of water in the rural areas with difficult terrain, it is important to
promote rainwater harvesting as a solution for structural water shortage, especially in areas
where other sources of water are technically or economically unfeasible. Currently it is estimated
that over 11000 systems are in use in the hill districts of Nepal. Harvested rainwater can be used in
several ways. If the water quality is controlled, it can be used as drinking water. Other domestic uses
such as cooking, washing and cleaning are also possible. Moreover, rainwater can be used to keep
sanitation facilities clean and hygienic. Beside domestic uses, rainwater can also be used to improve
small scale agriculture and cattle breeding.

5
 May 17, 2005 A REVIEW REPORT ON “NEEDS AND SYSTEM OF WATER HARVESTING IN NEPAL”

2.2. Urban Context

Rainwater harvesting can be tried equally in urban areas. It is a sustainable option to the erratic
water supply from the municipal system. Rainwater harvesting enthusiasts have even built
systems, which has helped them gain independence of the municipal water supply system in
Kathmandu.

A rainwater storage system of 10 cubic meters is sufficient to provide a family with water for
drinking and other small domestic uses for a whole year (based upon 5 liters per person per day).
Although rainwater harvesting storage capacity often seems to be a limiting factor to make
multiple use of rainwater economically and financially feasible, it is found that people tend to
manage the water from the rainwater harvesting system very efficiently.

The following is an illustrative theoretical calculation that highlights the enormous potential for
water harvesting. The same procedure can be applied to get the potential for any plot of land or
rooftop area, using rainfall data for that area.

Consider a building with a flat terrace area of 100 sq m. Assume the average annual rainfall in
the area is approximately 1000 mm. In simple terms, this means that if the terrace floor is
assumed to be impermeable, and all the rain that falls on it is retained without evaporation, then,
in one year, there will be rainwater on the terrace floor to a height of 1000 mm.

1. Area of plot = 100 sq. m.

2. Height of the rainfall = 1 m
3. Volume of rainfall over the plot = Area of plot x height of rainfall = 100 m3
4. Assuming that only 60 per cent of the total rainfall is effectively harvested
5. Volume of water harvested = 60,000 litres (100,000 litres x 0.6)

This volume is about six times the annual drinking water requirement of a 5-member family. The
average daily drinking water requirement per person is 5 litres.

So, rainwater harvesting has tremendous potential and it is up to us to push this technique further
for a sustainable water situation.

The total amount of water that is received in the form of rainfall over an area is called the rainwater endowment of the area. Out
of this, the amount that can be effectively harvested is called the water harvesting potential.

Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Collection efficiency

The collection efficiency accounts for the fact that all the rainwater falling over an area cannot be effectively harvested, because
of evaporation, spillage etc. Factors like runoff coefficient and the first-flush wastage are taken into account when estimating the
collection efficiency.

6
 May 17, 2005 A REVIEW REPORT ON “NEEDS AND SYSTEM OF WATER HARVESTING IN NEPAL”

3. System of water harvesting in Nepal

About 77% of the total area of 147181 sq. km of Nepal lies in the mountainous region. Only 17%
of the total land is arable and 65% of the cultivated area is rainfed. Nepal’s varied topography
gives it a widely varied climatic condition. It is situated in the sub tropical monsoon climatic
system. The topographical orientation as well as vertical extension of the country creates diverse
spatial and temporal variations in rainfall. The average rainfall of Nepal is
approximately1700mm. The problem in the hills and mountainous region is that excessive rain in
the monsoon causes catastrophic soil erosions whereas water scarcity is faced in the non-
monsoon periods. Throughout Nepal, 80% of the rain falls in the summer period from late June
to September. 3% of the total area of Nepal is covered by water. With about 6000 rivers, the total
annual runoff rate remains 222 billion m3 and water storage potential 88 billion m3 (Shrestha G.,
2001) The hills of Nepal suffer from alternating cycles of excess and scarcity of water shortages
that are acute in the communities dwelling on the mountains. (Thanju, 1998).

Traditionally, people harvested the rain drop directly from rooftops. They collected water and
stored it in tanks built in their courtyards. They collected the rain from open community land and
stored it in artificial wells. They harvested runoff by capturing water from swollen streams, even
from flooded rivers during the monsoon season and stored it in various forms of water bodies.

Community based rainwater harvesting technology has been practiced in its rudimentary form by
communities in water scarce areas of Nepal to survive in adverse situation. Since long, farmers
have developed their own system of collecting rainwater for irrigation. The traditional practices
vary depending upon the topography, soil, specific sites and seasons etc.

Some water harvesting systems practiced by the farmers of rural areas of Nepal are described
below:

3.1. Gully plugging:

This is done by blocking gullies with relatively large earthen bunds or alternatively construction
small concrete overflow weirs in natural drains. The earthen gully plugs cause run-off water to
spread and is only made when there is room to spread water. Bunds are planned to plug existing
gullies and spread the water sideways. Plugging such gullies will avoid water table become too
deep, jeopardizing rain fed rice cultivation. The location of road bunds is very important as they
define the boundaries of the micro watershed and because culverts are the points to which excess
water is removed.

3.2. Field bunds:

Raising field bunds prevents water from gushing into another field but instead fills a field basin
before it neatly topples over to the next field basin. The system of raising field bunds helps to
collect rainwater by increasing the catchment.

7
 May 17, 2005 A REVIEW REPORT ON “NEEDS AND SYSTEM OF WATER HARVESTING IN NEPAL”

3.3. Protection bunds:

Built along rivers and gullies, the protection bunds have two functions; first is to prevent
uncontrolled flooding from the streams and second is to avoid water from gathering in the rivers
and gullies too quickly and in large quantities.

3.4. Rainwater harvesting tanks:

In rural areas of Nepal like Tanahu, Dadeldhura and Baitadi, a jar shaped rainwater harvesting
tank is built to collect rainwater. By volume, it can store 6 cubic meters of water. Rainwater is
collected on the roof and is channeled to the jar via pipe. The rainwater is subjected to two stages
of filtering process before it is collected in the jar, which is made up of ferro (iron) cement. It is
usually used for drinking purposes. This technology is suitable in places where there are no other
options of drinking water. For instance, it is used in high altitude areas (there is low probability
of gravity-flow water access) and places where the source of drinking water (typically a
communal tap or pond) is too far away to fetch water each day. It substantially frees up time for
people to engage in other activities, thus having a sizable impact on agricultural production.

3.5. Soil Covers:

Soil covers, which are waterproof, can be used on porous or unstable soils. Plastic sheets covered
with gravel which protects the underlying layer against wind and radiation, if properly
maintained and constructed, can have a projected life of more than 20 years (National Academy
of Sciences, 1974). Low cost rainfall catchments like metal foils, butyl rubber and plastic sheet
by themselves are easily damaged by wind.

3.6. Catchment for domestic purpose:

As catchment, the roofs of houses are mostly used for domestic purposes. For non drinking
purposes, any roofing material can be used whereas special selection of roofing should be done
for drinking purposes, avoiding lead and asbestos. If rainwater is intercepted before it reaches the
ground, it may be collected without considerable contaminants in terms of quantity and quality.
The water will then also be generally appropriate for domestic requirements. As roofing material,
iron roofs are cheap and durable, provided that they are not exposed to salt, which may corrode
them. When used with gutters, they can accumulate water with little maintenance cost. Tile
roofs, too are very durable and need little maintenance. In comparison to corrugated iron roofs,
they make less noise when the rain hits them but a stronger frame support is needed due to more
collective weight. Thatched roofs are less durable than either of these two types of roofs. With
the use of gutters, a little water can be collected from them but collected water is also easily
contaminated, colored and unattractive but plastic sheeting to cover the catchment surface may
improve this. Plastic covers aren’t durable and may hence require frequent replacements. They
are prone to algal growth and may easily be torn.

Gutters, downspouts and pipes comprise the conveyance system. They convey the roof runoff to
the storage system. Gutters are usually made of aluminum or galvanized but for small roof areas,
plastic gutters are good enough to collect rainwater. There should be a slope of at least 1/16th

8
 May 17, 2005 A REVIEW REPORT ON “NEEDS AND SYSTEM OF WATER HARVESTING IN NEPAL”

inch per foot. Downspouts should be so placed that there is one opening available for every 10
square feet of area. Every 50 feet of gutter run should have a downspout. Pipes must be at least 4
inches in diameter, must have a slope of at least ¼ inch per foot, avoiding sharp bends and
incorporating cleanouts where horizontal run exceed 100 m.

For irrigation, pre-filtering should be done to keep out sediment build up. For domestic purposes,
the first wash of water over the roof should be rejected to avoid contamination from dirt, debris,
leaves and other contaminants that accumulate on the roof. First flush devices can be used to
divert the first rain water of the monsoon. First ten minutes of rain should be kept away from the
storage container after it is collected by the catchment. A simple net can be put at the inlet of the
storage too.

Any material can be used to make storage vessels of any size. Cisterns, barrels, tanks or even
drums can be used. These can be recycled or reused containers. In short, any water tight
container of non toxic material is fine. The size should depend on the amount of rainwater and
catchment available as well as the demand of water. Inlets and outlets should be so designed as
to minimize any disturbance to the sediments at the bottom of the tank. A manhole, an air-hole, a
cleanout sump and an overflow pipe should be included. A cover should be placed to block
sunlight for preventing mosquito breeding and algal growth. Tanks require covers to control
evaporation, guard against contamination, maintain child safety, exclude insect vectors, and
impede algal growth.

On a small household level, the collected drain can simply be taken from a tap in the storage.
Otherwise, it has to be distributed by a pressurized system of ½ horsepower pump with a
pressure tank. The outlet line from the storage, in this case, should be buried or be below the
frost line.

4. Conclusion and Recommendations:

Rainwater is one of the best alternative sources of water which will significantly contribute to minimize
the poverty of the marginalized people of Nepalese hilly districts. Besides, the demand of water for their
crops and livestock will be met which will in turn enhance their livelihood by generating income. For the
betterment of the water availability, following could be recommended:

• Development of policy to address rainwater harvesting as a potential technology

• Research on the potentiality of rainwater harvesting to meet the existing demand
• Creating manpower to work as an expert in rainwater harvesting so as o train the villagers all
over the country

In a country like Nepal, which has excessive summer monsoon rain that often goes wasted
through seepage into the ground, rainwater harvesting is not getting the attention that it really
deserves. Some simple practices through crude ways in various households exist but they are
hardly enough to fulfill the intense water shortage faced in the dry seasons. Some organizations
are just beginning to gain momentum towards making water harvesting a popular technology for
rural areas. Research and experience in several cases has proved that if properly implemented,
rainwater harvesting in the monsoon season and its proper storage can comfortably provide an
adequate supply of clean water for the rest of the year.

9
 May 17, 2005 A REVIEW REPORT ON “NEEDS AND SYSTEM OF WATER HARVESTING IN NEPAL”

Bibliography:

Shrestha, G. 2001. Water Harvesting in Nepal as an Appropriate Technology: The Gobal and
Local Perspective on the Realities and Potential for Sustainable Rural Community Livelihood.

Centre for Rural Technology, 1999. The Proceedings of the National Workshop on Local Water
Harvesting Systems (LWHS) for Mountain Households. Nepal.

CIRDAP, 1997. Rural Water Supply in Asia. Centre for Integrated Rural Development for Asia
and the Pacific, India.

Dubbeldam, F., 1979. Ferro-cement Water Tank: Test Tank and General Information. Local
Development Department, community Water Supply, Pokhara, Nepal.

Nepal-Denmark Watershed Management Project, 1997. Extension Leaflet on Integrated

Watershed Management. Nepal.

Pacey, A. and Cullis, A, 1986. Rainwater Harvesting: Collection of Rainfall and Runoff in Rural
Areas. Intermediate Technology Publications. UK.

State of the Environment Report of Nepal, 2000. HMG Ministry of Population and Environment,
Nepal.

UNEP, 1983. Rain and Stormwater Harvesting in Rural Areas: A Report by United Nations
Environment Program. Tycooly International Publishing Limited, Dublin.

Krishna H. 2003. An overview of rainwater harvesting systems and guidelines in the United
States. Proceedings of the First American Rainwater Harvesting Conference; 2003 Aug 21-23;
Austin (TX).

Gould J, Nissen-Petersen E. 1999. Rainwater catchment systems for domestic rain: design
construction and implementation. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Lye D. 2002. Health risks associated with consumption of untreated water from household roof
catchment systems. Journal of the American Water Resources.

Radlet J, Radlet P. 2004. Rainwater harvesting design and installation workshop. Boerne (TX):
Save the Rain.

National Academy of Sciences. 1974. More water for arid lands. Washington (DC): National
Academy of Sciences.

Picture Source: www.newsmandu.com

10
 May 17, 2005 A REVIEW REPORT ON “NEEDS AND SYSTEM OF WATER HARVESTING IN NEPAL”

Appendix 1

Dublin Principles

Concerted action is needed to reverse the present trends of overconsumption, pollution, and
rising threats from drought and floods. The Conference Report sets out recommendations for
action at local, national and international levels, based on four guiding principles.

Principle No. 1
Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the
environment since water sustains life; effective management of water resources demands a
holistic approach, linking social and economic development with protection of natural
ecosystems. Effective management links land and water uses across the whole of a catchment
area or groundwater aquifer.

Principle No. 2
Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving
users, planners and policy-makers at all levels.
The participatory approach involves raising awareness of the importance of water among
policy-makers and the general public. It means that decisions are taken at the lowest appropriate
level, with full public consultation and involvement of users in the planning and implementation
of water projects.

Principle No. 3
Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water.
This pivotal role of women as providers and users of water and guardians of the living
environment has seldom been reflected in institutional arrangements for the development and
management of water resources. Acceptance and implementation of this principle requires
positive policies to address women’s specific needs and to equip and empower women to
participate at all levels in water resources programs, including decision-making and
implementation, in ways defined by them.

Principle No. 4
Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic
good. Within this principle, it is vital to recognize first the basic right of all human beings to
have access to clean water and sanitation at an affordable price. Past failure to recognize the
economic value of water has led to wasteful and environmentally damaging uses of the resource.
Managing water as an economic good is an important way of achieving efficient and equitable
use, and of encouraging conservation and protection of water resources.

11
 May 17, 2005 A REVIEW REPORT ON “NEEDS AND SYSTEM OF WATER HARVESTING IN NEPAL”

Appendix 2

Pictures to demonstrate water harvesting system in Nepal (Source: www.newsmandu.com)

A typical rainwater harvesting system practiced in Western Nepal

Catchment for domestic purpose – A dummy demonstration

12