Junction Diode.

Transistors and
Applications

Energy Bands in Solids

As we see later, the allowed energy levels in a single atom are discrete (separate) and spaced widely apart. In the
solid state, however, as in a crystal, large numbers of atoms are packed closely together, and the electrons are
influenced strongly by the assembly of nuclei. The allowable energy levels then broaden into bands of energy,
Fig. 39.1 (i). The bands contain allowable energy levels very close to each other, as at P. There may also be
forbidden bands of energy, as at Q, which electrons cannot occupy. The lowest available energy band is called
the valence band. The next available energy band is called the conduction band.
In an insulator, the valence band energy levels are completely filled by electrons. The conduction band is
empty and the two bands are separated by a wide energy gap much greater than k Т in magnitude where k is the
Boltzmann constant (p. 223), called the 'forbidden' band, Fig. 39.1 (ii). The electrons in the valence band have
thermal energy of the order k Т but at room temperature they cannot gain sufficient energy from an applied p.d. to
move to higher unoccupied energy levels. So the material is an insulator.

Semiconductors are a class of materials with a narrow forbidden band between the valence and conduction
bands; the energy gap is of the order kT. At О К, all the energy levels in the valence band are occupied and
the material is then an insulator. At normal temperatures, however, the thermal energy of some valence
electrons, of the order kT, is sufficient for them to reach the conduction band, where they may become
conduction electrons. The gap left in the valence band of energies by the movement of an electron is called a
hole. Fig. 39.1 (ii). In semiconductor theory, both holes and conduction electrons play an active part, as we
soon see.
 In metals, however, the valence and conduction bands can overlap, as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 39.2.
The electrons in the overlapping region of energy are conduction electrons. Since there is a large number of
conduction electrons, metals are good conductors.

Semiconductors. Movement of Charge Carriers

Semiconductors are a class of solids with electrical resistivity between that of a conductor and an insulator.
For example, the resistivity of a conductor is of the order 10-8 Ohm m, that of an insulator is 10 4 Ohm m and
higher, and that of a semiconductor is 10 -1 Ohm m. Silicon and germanium are examples of semiconductor
elements widely used in the electronics industry.
Silicon and germanium atoms are tetravalent. They have four electrons in their outermost shell, called
valence electrons. One valence electron is shared with each of four surrounding atoms in a tetrah^dral
arrangement, forming 'covalent bonds' which maintain the crystalline solid structure (p. 133). Figure 39.3 (i) is
a two-dimensional representation of the structure.

At О К, all the valence electrons are firmly bound to the nucleus of their particular atoms.

At room temperature, however, the thermal energy of a vale electron may become greater than the energy
binding to its nucleus. The covalent bond is then broken. The electron leaves the atom, X say, and becomes a
free electron. This leaves X with a vacancy or hole, Fig. 39.3 (ii). Since X now has a net positive charge, an
electron in a neighbouring atom may then be attracted. Thus the hole appears to move to Y.
The hole movement through a semiconductor is random. But if a battery is connected, the valence electrons
are urged to move in one direction and to fill the holes. The holes then drift in the direction of the field. Thus
the holes move as if they were carriers with a positive charge +e, where e is the numerical value of the
charge on an electron, Fig. 39.3 (iii). The current in the semi-conductor is also carried by the free electrons
present. These are equal in number to the holes in a pure semiconductor and drift in the opposite direction
since they are negative charges. The mobility of an electron, its average velocity per unit electric field
intensity, is usually much greater than that of a hole.
In electrolytes (p. 676), the current is also carried by moving negative and positive charges but the carriers
here are ions. It should be noted that, in a pure semiconductor, there are equal numbers of electrons and holes,
the charge carriers. Electron-hole pairs are said to be produced by the movement of an electron from bound
state in an atom to a higher energy level, where it becomes a free electron.
Effect of Temperature Rise
In contrast to a semiconductor, the charge carriers in a metal such as copper are only free electrons. Further,
as the temperature of the metal rises, the amplitude of vibration of the atoms increases and more 'collisions'
with atoms are then made by drifting electrons. Thus, as stated on p. 668, the resistance of a pure metal
increases with temperature rise.
In the case of a semiconductor, however, the increase in thermal energy of the valence electrons due to
temperature rise enables more of them to break the covalent bonds and become free electrons. Thus more
electron-hole pairs are produced which can act as carriers of current. Hence, in contrast to a pure metal, the
electrical resistance of a pure semiconductor decreases with tem-perature rise. This is one way of
distinguishing between a pure metal and a pure semiconductor. Note that the pure or intrinsic semiconductor
always has equal numbers of electrons and holes, whatever its temperature.

P- and N-type Semiconductors

A pure or intrinsic semiconductor has charge carriers which are thermally generated. These are relatively
few in number. By 'doping' a semiconductor with a tiny amount of impurity such as one part in a million, thus
forming a so-called extrinsic semiconductor, a considerable increase can be made to the number of charge
carriers.
Arsenic atoms, for example, have five electrons in their outermost or valence band. When an atom of arsenic
is added to a germanium crystal, the atom settles in a lattice site with four of its electrons shared with
neighbouring germanium atoms, Fig. 39.4 (i). The fifth electron may thus become free to wander through the
crystal. Since an impurity atom may provide one free electron, an enormous increase occurs in the number of
electron carriers. The impure semiconductor is called an 'n-type semiconductor' or n-semiconductor, where 'n'
represnts the negative charge on an electron. Thus the majority carriers in an n-semiconductor are electrons.
Positive charges or holes are also present in the n-semiconductor.
These are thermally generated, as previously explained, and since they are relatively few they are called the
minority carriers. The impurity (arsenic) atoms are called donors because they donate electrons as carriers.

P-semiconductors are made by adding foreign atoms which are trivalent to pure germanium or silicon.
Examples are boron or indium. In this case the reverse happens to that previously described. Each trivalent
atom at a lattice site attracts an electron from a neighbouring atom, thereby completing the four valence bonds
and forming a hole in the neighbouring atom, Fig. 39.4 (ii). In this way an enormous increase occurs in the
number of holes. Thus in a p-semiconductor, the majority carriers are holes or positive charges. The
minority carriers are electrons, negative charges, which are thermally generated. The impurity atoms are called
acceptors in this case because each 'accepts' an electron when the atom is introduced into the crystal.
Summarising: In a n-semiconductor, conduction is due mainly to negative charges or electrons, with positive
charges (holes) as minority carriers. In a p-semiconductor, conduction is due mainly to positive charges or
holes, with negative charges (electrons) as minority carriers.
P-N Junction
By a special manufacturing process, p- and n-semiconductors can be melted so that a boundary or junction is
formed between them. This junction is extremely thin and of the order 10 -3 mm. It is called a p-n junction, Fig.
39.5 (i).
When a scent bottle is opened, the high concentration of scent molecules in the bottle causes the molecules
to diffuse into the air. In the same way, the high
concentration of holes (positive charges) on one side of a p-n junction, and the high concentration of electrons
on the other side, causes the two carriers to diffuse respectively to the other side of the junction, as shown.
The electrons which move to the p-semiconductor side recombine with holes there. These holes therefore
disappear, and an excess negative charge A appears on this side Fig. 39.5 (ii).
In a similar way, an excess positive charge В builds up in the n-semiconductor when holes diffuse across the
junction. Together with the negative charge A on the p-side, an e.m.f. or p.d. is produced which opposes
more diffusion of charges across the junction. This is called a barrier p.d. and when the flow ceases it has a
magnitude of a few tenths of a volt. The narrow region or layer at the p-n junction which contains the
negative and positive charges is called the depletion layer. The width of the depletion layer is of the order
10-3 mm.
Junction Diode
When a battery B, with an e.m.f. greater than the barrier p.d., is joined with its positive pole to the p-
semiconductor, P, and its negative pole to the n-semi-conductor, N, p-charges (holes) are urged across the p-n
junction from P to N and n-charges (electrons) from N to P, Fig. 39.6 (i). Thus an appreciable current is
obtained. The p-n junction is now said to be forward-biased, and when the applied p.d. is increased, the
current increases.

When the poles of the battery are reversed, only a very small current flows, Fig. 39.6 (ii). In this case the p-n
junction is said to be reverse-biased. This time only the minority carriers, negative charges in the p-
semiconductor and positive charges in the n-semiconductor, are urged across the p-n junction by the battery.
Since the minority carriers are thermally-generated, the magnitude of the reverse current depends only on the
temperature of the semiconductors. It may also be noted that the reverse-bias p.d. increases the width of the
depletion layer, since it urges electrons in the p-semiconductor and holes in the n-semiconductor further away
from the junction.
It can now be seen that the p-n junction acts as a rectifier. It has a low resistance for one direction of p.d. and
a high resistance for the opposite direction, as shown by the characteristic curve in Fig. 39.6 (iii). It is
therefore called a junction diode. The junction diode has advantages over a diode valve; for example, it
needs only a low voltage battery В to function; it does not need time to warm up; it is less bulky, and it is
cheaper to manufacture in large numbers.
Full Wave Rectification. Filter Circuit
In a.c. mains transistor receivers, diodes are used to rectify the alternating mams voltage and to produce steady
or d.c. voltage for the circuit of the receiver.
 Figure 39.7 (i) shows how two diodes, D1 and D2, can produce full-wave rectification. The secondary PQ of
the mains transformer is centre-tapped at T, so that a.c. voltages of opposite polarity are applied
simultaneously to D1 and D2 on one half of the input cycle. Thus in Fig. 39.7 (i), D1 conducts well but D 2
does not. On the other half of the same cycle D 2 conducts well but D 1 does not. The output voltage V
between A and T, with a resistor joined between them, would hence be that shown in Fig. 39.7 (ii). It is a
unidirectional voltage. Further, compared with half-wave rectification discussed on p. 811, it has a smaller
degree of fluctuation and a greater average voltage.
The output voltage У is equivalent to a steady voltage together with varying voltages. In order to filter off
the varying voltages, a filter circuit is used. One form of filter circuit consists of a high inductance L = 50 H
say, in series with a large capacitance С — 200 uF say. To a frequency of 50 Hz, the reactance X L = 2pfL -
2 x 3-14 x 50 x 100 = 31400 Q; the reactance X c - 1/2pfС = l/(2 x 3 .4 x 50 x 2000 x 10-6 ) = 1 .6 Ohm.
Since L and С are in series with V, very little of the varying voltage appears across C; practically the whole
of it appears across L. So the output voltage Vxy across a resistance R shown is a fairly steady or d.c. voltage
—it has only a small 'ripple' of a.c. voltage, Fig. 39.7 (iii).
Figure 39.8 shows a bridge circuit which produces full-wave rectification without the use of a centre-tapped
secondary as in Fig. 39.7 (i). As shown, four diodes are used. On one half of a cycle, when P is +ve relative to
Q, only the diodes DI conduct. On the other half of the same cycle, only the diodes D 2 conduct. The varying
d.c. across А, В is thus similar to that shown in Fig. 39.7 (ii). In this circuit, however, only a 'smoothing'
capacitor С is used. Unlike the circuit in Fig. 39.7 (i), С becomes charged to practically the peak value of the
varying d.c. voltage. The four-diode bridge rectifier thus provides a greater d.c. output voltage than the circuit
in Fig. 39.7 (i).

Zener Diode
When the reverse bias or p.d. is increased across a p-n junction, a large increase in current is suddenly obtained
at a voltage Z, Fig. 39.9 (i). This is called the Zener effect, after the discoverer. It is partly due to the high
electric field which exists across the narrow p-n junction at the breakdown or Zener voltage Z, which drags
more electrons from their atoms and thus increases considerably the number of electron-hole pairs.
Ionisation by collision also contributes to the increase in carriers.
 Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators or stabilisers in circuits. In Fig. 39.9 (ii), a suitable diode D is
placed across a circuit L. Although the battery supply В may fluctuate, and produce changes of current in L
and D, if R is suitably chosen, the voltage across D remains practically constant over a reverse current range of
tens of milliamperes at the Zener voltage shown in Fig. 39.9 (i). The voltage across L thus remains stable.
The Transistor
The junction diode is a component which can only rectify. The transistor is a more useful component; it is a
current amplifer. A transistor is made from three layers of p- and n-semiconductors. They are called
respectively the emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C). Figure 39.10 (i) illustrates a p-n-p transistor, with
electrodes connected to the respective three layers. In a n-p-n transistor, the emitter is n-type, the base is p-
type and the collector is n-type, Fig. 39.10 (ii). The base is deliberately made very thin in manufacture. The
transistor is thus a three-terminal device.
Figure 39.10 shows the circuit symbols for p-n-p and n-p-n transistors. The arrows show the directions of
conventional current ( + ve charge or hole movement) between the emitter E and base B, so that electrons
would flow in the opposite direction. In an actual transistor, the collector terminal is displaced more than the
others for recognition or has a dot near it.

Current Flow in Transistors

The transistor may be regarded as two p-n junctions back-to-back. Figure 39.11 (i) shows batteries correctly
connected to a p-n-p transistor. The emitter-base is forward-biased; the collector-base is reverse-biased; and
the base is common. This is called the common-base (C-B) mode of using a transistor. Note carefully the polarities
of the two batteries. The positive pole of the supply voltage X is joined to the emitter E but the negative pole of
the supply voltage Y is joined to the collector C. If batteries are connected the wrong way round to a
transistor the latter may be seriously damaged. In the case of a n-p-n transistor, therefore, the negative pole of one
battery is joined to the emitter and the positive pole of the other is joined to the collector, Fig. 39.11 (ii).
 Consider Fig. 39.11 (i). Here the emitter-base is forward biased by X, so that positive charges or holes flow
across the junction from E to the base B. The base is so thin, however, that the great majority of the holes are
urged across the base to the collector by the battery Y. Thus a current Ic flows in the collector circuit. The
remainder of the holes combine with the electrons in the n-base, and this is balanced by electron flow in the
base circuit, so that a small current IB is obtained here. From Kirchhoff's first law, it follows that, if I E is the
emitter current,
= I C + IB
IE

Typical values for a.f. amplifier transistors are: IE = 1 . 0 mA, I c = 0 . 98 mA, Iв = 0.02 mA.
Although the action of n-p-n transistors are similar in principle to p-n-p transistors, the carriers of the
current in the former case are mainly electrons and in the latter case holes. Electrons are more speedy
carriers than holes (p. 824). Thus n-p-n transistors are used in high-frequency and computer circuits,
where the carriers are required to respond very quickly to signals.

Common-Emitter (C-E) Characteristics

A transistor can be arranged in one of three ways or modes in circuits. Figure 39.11 shows the common-base (C-
B) mode, so-called because the base is common to the input (emitter-base) and output (collector-base) circuits.
Figure 39.12 shows the common-emitter (C-E) mode. A third arrangement is a common-collector (C-C) mode.
As we explain later, the common-emitter provides satisfactory current amplification and is widely used in a.f.
amplifiers.

Figure 39.12 shows a circuit for obtaining the characteristics of a n-p-n transistor in the common-emitter
mode. X and Y may be batteries of 1.5 V and 4.5 V respectively, connected to potentiometers P and Q of 1
kOhm and 5 kOhm. This enables the base-emitter p.d., VBE or VB) and the collector-emitter p.d., УСЕ or Vc to be
varied. The p.d. is measured by high resistance voltmeters, preferably d.c. solid state voltmeter types capable of
measuring p.d. in steps such as 50 mV. The meter for base current, IB, should be a microammeter and for the
collector current, Ic , a milliammeter. Typical results are shown in Fig. 39.13 (i), (ii) and (iii).
 Output characteristic (Ic — Ic, with IB constant). The 'knee' of the curves shown in Fig. 39.13 (i) correspond to
a low p.d. of the order of 0.2 V. For higher p.d. the output current IC varies linearly with Vc for a given base
current. The linear part of the characteristic is used in a.f. amplifier circuits, so that the output voltage
variation is then undistorted.
The output resistance r0 is defined as DVC/DIC, where the changes take place on the straight part of the
characteristic. r0 is an a.c. resistance; it is the effective resistance in the output circuit for an a.c. signal input. It
should be distinguished from the d.c. resistance, VC/IC, which is not required in amplifier circuit analysis.
The small gradient of the straight part of the characteristic shows that r0 is high. For example, suppose DVС
= 2 V and DIC = 0.2 mA = 2 x 10 5 A. Then r0 - 2/(2 x 10-5) = 100000 Ohm. If a varying resistance load is used
in the output or collector circuit, the high value of r0 relative to the load shows that the output current is fairly
constant. So the output voltage is proportional to the load resistance.
Transfer characteristic (I c - IB, Vc constant). The output current Ic varies fairly linearly with the input
current IB, Fig. 39.13 (ii). The current transfer ratio b, or current gain, is defined as the ratio DIс/DIB under
a.c. signal conditions It should be distinguished from the d.c. current gain, IC/IB. From Fig. 39.13 (ii),

Input characteristic (IB — VB, Vc constant). The input resistance ri is defined as the ratio DVВ/DIВ. As the input
characteristic in Fig. 39.13 (iii) is non-linear, then r1 varies. At any point of the curve, ri is equal to the gradient
of the tangent to the curve and is of the order of kilohms.
Current Amplification in C-E Mode
In general, the magnitude of b, DIC/DIB, for the common-emitter circuit is high, from about 20 to 500 for many
transistors. Thus the base current is a sensitive control over the collector current.
We can obtain a rough value for b by assuming that when electrons are emitted from the n-emitter
towards the p-base, a constant fraction a reaches the n-collector where a is typically 0-98 (see p. 829). Thus
Ic = aIЕ. Now from p. 829,

Voltage Amplification and Power Gain

As we have just seen, the transistor in the common-emitter mode is a current amplifier. To change the output
(a.c.) current to a voltage VO, a resistance load R can be used in the collector or output circuit. Figure 39.14
shows also dia-grammatically the base bias necessary for no distortion of V0 (p. 830).

We can illustrate the voltage amplification by supposing that R = 5 kOhm, the input resistance ri = 2 kOhm,
the input (a.c.) voltage is 10 mV or 0.01 V peak value, and the transfer ratio b = 50.
The peak a.c. current Ib flowing in the base circuit is:
Transistor Switch
In addition to its use as a current amplifier, the transistor can be used as a switch in computer circuits.
Millions of switching operations are needed daily in working computers, so swift switches are required. On
this account n-p-n transistors are preferred. Here the charge carriers are mainly electrons, Which have a much
greater speed for a given voltage than holes or p-charges.
The basic circuit is shown in Fig. 39.20 (i). It consists of a n-p-n transistor connected in the common-emitter
mode, with a resistance R in the output or collector circuit. Since this is a n-p-n transistor, the positive pole of
the supply V is connected to the collector С and the negative pole to the emitter E.
CC

A typical output voltage (V0)-input voltage (V1 ) characteristic of the circuit is shown in Fig. 39.20 (ii). At
very low input voltages the output voltage is practically + 6V, the supply voltage V cc for the circuit. At
input voltages of more than a fraction of a volt, however, the output voltage is nearly zero. This is explained
shortly on page 837.

Sine Wave Input. Amplifier Use

Suppose the input Vi, is a sine wave voltage of peak value 6 V. Fig. 39.20 (Hi). For a large part of the + ve half
cycle, Vi will be greater than +0.4 V. So the output voltage V0 will be practically zero along PQ. When Vi is less
than +0.4 V and negative on the - ve half of the cycle, V0 will be practically a constant high voltage RS as
shown. So the output V 0 is roughly a square wave voltage.
To use the transistor as an amplifier, the output voltage V0 must have the same waveform as the input a.c.
voltage Vi.This time the straight inclined line AB of the characteristic in Fig. 39.20 (ii) must be used. So, as
shown, (a) the base bias should correspond to the midpoint M of AB, a bias equal to OX or about 0-2 V, and
(b) the input voltage to be amplified must have a peak value not greater than XB (0-1 V), otherwise the
output waveform is distorted during part of the input cycle.
States of Transistor
We can explain the characteristic curve by noting that, if IC is the collector current flowing for a particular
input voltage, the output voltage V0, or Vce, is less than the supply voltage Vcc by the potential drop across R,
which is ICR. Thus

In general, Ic depends on the base current I C and this is governed by the base-emitter or input voltage Vi.
Suppose V i is very low or practically zero. Then I c is practically zero, and the transistor is said to be
'cutoff'. From above, we can see that the output voltage V is then practically equal to Vcc or high. See Fig.
O

39.20 (ii). Conversely, suppose Vi is high so that the transistor is 'saturated', that is, any further increase in
base current produces no rise in Ic . The p.d. across R is then large and so the output voltage is practically
zero from above. See Fig. 39.20 (ii).
Thus depending on the input voltage, the transistor can switch between two states—cutoff or saturation.
The output, voltage then switches between two levels, +VCC and practically 0. In the special type of
computer circuits known as logic circuits or logic gates, the binary digits '1' and '0' can be represented by +
Vcc and 0 respectively, or by 0 and + Vcc, by this switching of states. It should be noted that the transistor acts
'non-linearly', whereas it acts 'linearly' in amplifiers (p. 830).

Logic Gates
We can now discuss briefly some useful logic gates.
Figure 30.21 (i) shows the circuit for an INVERTER gate. It consists of a transistor in the common-emitter mode
connection, with an appropriate load resistance R and base resistance rA. Suppose the input is a '1', for
example, + Vcc volt. A high base current then flows in rA, and as explained before, the transistor becomes
saturated and the output is '0'. Conversely, if the input is '0' (zero volt), the transistor is cutoff and the output
is + Vcc or T. Thus the output is always the inverse or opposite of the input. This is shown in a so-called
'truth table' in Fig. 39.21 (i), which also contains the symbol for the INVERTER gate.
 Figure 39.21 (ii) shows the circuit for a NOR gate. It is similar to the circuit in Fig. 39.21 (i) except that
two inputs and two base resistors, rA and rB, are provided. If both inputs are '0' or zero volt, the transistor is
cutoff; hence the output is '1' or +VCC volt. If either input or both inputs, A and B, are '1', then, with
appropriate vales for rA and rB, the transistor saturates and the output is'0'.
These results are shown in the truth table in Fig. 39.21 (ii), together with the symbol for this gate. It is
called a NOR gate because the output is Т if neither A nor В is '1'; in all other cases the output is '0'.
Figure 39.22 (i) shows in symbol form an OR gate; it is made of a NOR gate followed by an INVERTER gate, so
that the output S1 of the NOR gate is inverted to produce a final output S2. By writing the inputs A and В in truth
table form as on p. 837, we find that S2 is a '1' if either A or В is a T.
Figure 39.22 (ii) shows in symbol form an AND gate; it consists of two INVERTER gates followed by a NOR gate.
The truth table for S1 S2 and S3 shows that the output S3 is а '1' only if A and В are T.
Figure 39.22 (iii) shows the construction of a-NAND gate. The truth table shows that the output S 3 is '1' if
A and B, individually or together, are not '1'.

Phototransistor
A photodiode is a junction diode sensitive to light. When the diode is reverse-biased, minority carriers flow in
the circuit and constitute a so-called 'dark' current. If the junction of the diode is now illuminated, the light
energy produces more electron-hole pairs, which are then swept across the junction. The increased current which
flows is the light' current.
A phototransistor is a transistor sensitive to light in which the base is usually left disconnected. When light
falls on the emitter side, more electron-hole pairs are produced in the base. This is amplified by transistor
action, and a larger collector current is obtained. In principle the phototransistor is a photodiode plus
amplifier.

Figure 39.23 shows a circuit in which a suitable p-n-p phototransistor is connected in series with a
relay coil D and a d.c. supply voltage. When the phototransistor is illuminated, the increase in collector
current closes the contacts of a magnetic relay. Current then flows in a circuit connected to the relay, and a
bell, for example, may then ring, Fig. 39.23. When the light is switched off, the falling current in the relay coil
produced an induced voltage in the same direction as the battery supply. This would raise the collector voltage
and prevent the switch-off at the contacts. The diode OA81 across the coil acts as a safeguard. As soon as the rising
induced voltage becomes equal to the battery voltage the diode conducts, and prevents any further rise in
collector voltage.
Field Effect Transistor (f.e.t.)
The junction transistor operates by the movement of two types of charge carriers, electrons (negative charges) and
holes (positive charges). Further, the transistor has two p-n junctions. In this section we give a brief account of the
field effect transistor (f.e.t.). As we shall see, this type of transistor uses only one type of charge carrier when
working and has only one p-n junction.
Figure 39.24 (i) shows the basic construction of the early f.e.t. It consists of a bar of n-type silicon (p-silicon
could also be used), with a p.d. VDS applied between one end called the source S and the other end called the
drain D. By diffusion of impurities, a heavily-doped p-region forms a p-n junction with the bar, and the
electrode at this p-region is called the gate G. The symbol for the n-type f.e.t. is shown in Fig. 39.24 (ii). The
arrow is reversed in the p-type f.e.t.
 Principle of f.e.t.
Consider the f.e.t. with batteries connected as shown in Fig. 39.25. The potential of the drain D is +ve relative
to the source S, so the electrons in the n-bar flow from S to D. This current is called the drain current ID.
The battery between the gate G and S makes the potential of G — ve relative to S. Now the n-bar near the p-
junction has a +ve potential relative to S. Thus the p-n junction near the gate is reverse-biased. Consequently, as
shown diagram-matically in Fig. 39.25, a depletion region is obtained at the p-n junction (p. 826). The
width of the depletion region depends on the magnitude of the p.d. VGS when the p.d. VDS is constant. If VGS,
is made more -ve the wider is the depletion region at the p-n junction. This is shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 39.25.
The depletion region, which has no free electrons,
narrows the conducting n-channel in the bar. When
VGS is made more -ve, the current is reduced As it
provides a sensitive control over the drain current,
small changes in gate voltage can produce large
amplification of the current. Thus signals, or a.c.
voltages. can be amplified by the f.e.t. transistor.

F.E.T. Characteristics. F.E.T. Amplifier

Some typical output characteristics (ID - VDS, VGS constant) and input characteristics (id - VGS, VDS constant)
are shown in Fig. 39.26 (i), (ii).
When VGS is kept constant, the drain current ID first increases linearly as the voltage VDS is increased from zero,
since the bar then acts as an ohmic conductor. This corresponds to the line A in Fig. 39.26 (i). When VDS increases
further, the p-n junction at the gate becomes more reverse-biased, since the positive potential of the n-bar at the gate
increases relative to S and hence relative to G. The depletion region then widens, as stated above, and so the current ID
begins to increase at a slower rate. The slow rise of ID with VDS begins at X in Fig. 39.26 (i) and continues along the
straight line B.
When the gate voltage VGS is made more negative, the reverse-bias is increased. The current ID is now decreased.
Figure 39.26 (ii) shows the effect on the input characteristics.
An a.f. amplifier circuit which uses the f.e.t. transistor is shown in Fig. 39.26 (iii). The load resistance is 10 kOhm,
the temperature stabilisation is provided by the 2 kOhm resistance and the necessary bias for an undistorted output is
provided by the 1 MOhm resistor. The 0.1 uF capacitors prevents direct current or voltage reaching the input and
output circuits.