Diesel Introduction

0020 Introduction
0020
1BF28/JC
Introduction
This book is intended to give the student a deeper knowledge about the functions
of a diesel engine. After going through this book, it will be possible to answer
several questions, and perform some basic calculations. The aim of this book, In-
troduction to the Diesel Engine, is to cover the following main areas:
• Understanding of the working principle of the diesel engine as a thermal
power engine.
• Calculations of various basic parameters of a piston engine using SI units.
• Based on a general understanding of the diesel engine process, the ability to
judge the efficiency of the process using measurable parameters and knowl-
edge of typical disturbances.
• Based on the item above, the ability to take appropriate actions in operation
and maintenance.
• Ability to explain the energy distribution in a running engine under different
conditions.
• Understanding of the behaviour of internal and external forces in an diesel
engine.
• Ability to identify main components of the diesel engine and to decide their
purpose and design features.
• Knowledge of the use of different materials in a diesel engine.
• Understanding of the importance of lubrication and knowledge of the lubrica-
tion points of a diesel engine.
• Knowledge of the purpose of the diesel engine auxiliary systems, flows and
general construction.
• Knowledge of the safe operating area of a diesel engine and methods to protect
and control its functions.
1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 1

Introduction 0020

0020 Fundamental Principle
1. Fundamental Principle
1.1. Thermal power engines
Energy in nature, in one form or another, originates from solar energy. Thermal
power engines change natural energy to such a form that it can be used practical-
ly.
In the internal combustion engine, the combustion takes place inside the engine,
and the gas pressure created inside the cylinder performs the mechanical work
by forcing the piston down. In a steam engine, combustion takes place outside
the engine, in a boiler, and the steam generated is used to move the piston inside
the steam engine.
In the piston engine, the combustion gas pressure is acting on a back and forth
going or rotating piston. The first mentioned is called a stroke piston engine and
the latter a rotation piston engine
.
Fig. 1. Piston diesel engine
Different from the piston engine, the kinetic energy in the gases is used in the gas
turbine and jet engine.
In the diesel engine, the fuel and air are mixed in the cylinder or in a space con-
nected to the cylinder after which the mixture auto-ignites by the high compres-
sion temperature.
The diesel engine is a thermal power engine and, in function, a piston engine.

Fundamental Principle 0020
1.2. Grouping of diesel engines

Diesel engines can, according to function and construction, be divided into the
following groups:
A. Working principle, dependent on strokes needed to complete one working
cycle.
In the 4-stroke engine, the air or air/fuel mixture is sucked in to the cylinder
during the first stroke, the aspirating stroke. This air is compressed during the
second stroke, the compression stroke. During the third stroke, the expansion
stroke, the expansion takes place due to the combustion. At the fourth stroke,
the exhaust stroke, the combustion gases are discharged. The fourth stroke re-
quires two revolutions on the crankshaft to complete the working cycle.
Aspirating stroke Compression stroke
Expansion stroke Exhaust stroke
Fig. 2. Different strokes

In the 2-stroke engine, the cylinder is filled with the air or air/fuel mixture
which will be compressed during the first stroke.Under the second stroke ex-
pansion, discharge and flushing of the cylinder take place.Only two strokes or
one revolution on the crankshaft are required to complete the working cycle.
B. Filling of the cylinder. In a 4-stroke engine, the combustion air is sucked in
by under-pressure created when the piston moves down. This is called a suc-
tion engine or a naturally aspirating engine.
If the combustion air is compressed before entering the cylinder, this is called
a supercharged engine.
C. Construction. Engines may be constructed as one-cylinder engines or
multi-cylinder engines. Only small engines are one cylinder engines. Due to
high vibrations inherent in this design they are seldom seen today. With sev-
eral cylinders in an engine, the vibration level can be reduced and the run-
ning will be smoother.
Engines may also be grouped according to the way the cylinders are arranged,
for instance vertical engines or horizontal engines.
Another arrangement of cylinders is in-line engines versus V-engines. In-line
engines will be longer than the V-engines. V-angles can vary between
45...120°. Most common today is 60 or 90°.
2db3.cgm
Fig. 3. Different ways of construction
D. Function. Single or double acting. In the single acting engine, the combus-
tion takes place on only one side of the piston, where as in the double acting
engine, the combustion takes place on both sides of the piston. One side of
the piston at a time.
E. Cross head engines, where the connecting rod is connected to the piston
rod, and therefore the piston is not transferring any forces to the cylinder
walls.
F. (Single piston engines versus double piston engines.)

2db4.cgm
Fig. 4. Different ways of function
G. Based on the revolutions. Slow speed engines in a range of 85...300 revolu-

tions per minute. Output of these engines are high, normally between 7 and
40 MW. Medium speed engines of the bigger size are in the range of
300...800 revolutions per minute with an output between 1.5 and 18 MW.
Medium speed engines of the smaller size are in the range of 600...1200 rev-
olutions per minute. The output is normally between 0.4 and 7 MW.
High speed engines range between 1200 and 3000 revolutions per minute.
Normally the output is below 500 kW.
1.3. Basic principle of the piston engine

The term stroke (S) is used to describe the distance the piston has to travel in the
cylinder. The piston turning points are called Top Dead Center (TDC) and Bot-
tom Dead Center (BDC). The unit for stroke is (cm, dm or m).
The term swept volume (Vs) represents the volume calculated from the cylinder
diameter and the piston stroke. The unit for this is cm3 for smaller engines and
dm3 or litre for bigger engines.
The formula is:
D2
VS = π ∗ ∗S
4

Stroke to bore ratio is of importance for the size of the engine. The bigger this
ratio is, the higher the engine will be. Output compared to the construction vol-
ume will be small. With small ratios the piston will be very large compared to
the stroke, and the combustion will be poor due to a short piston stroke.
Compression volume (Vcomp)is the cylinder volume above the piston with the
piston in TDC.
The term cylinder volume (Vcyl) is the mathematical sum of swept volume and
compression volume, and the units will be the same.
Vcomp
TDC
Vs
BDC
Fig. 5. Swept- and compression volumes
The term compression ratio (ε) is the ratio between the volume above the piston
before compression starts compared to the volume above the piston in the end of
the compression. The Greek letter ε is named epsilon.
Formula is:
VS + Vcomp
ε=
Vcomp
The term mean piston speed (vp) is a calculated value dependent on the stroke
and the engine revolution, and can be used as a comparison value between dif-
ferent engine types.
The longer the stroke is the higher the mean piston speed is.
The formula is:
n
vp = S ∗
30
where: n is engine speed in revolutions per minute and S is stroke in meter.
Power or the mechanical work is an important factor both for comparing differ-
ent engine types as well as evaluating the efficiency of various installations. The
unit for power is kilowatt (kW).
We also differ between indicated power and effective power. The indicated
power (Pi) is a power where both the effective work as well as the mechanical

losses are included. Effective power (P) is consequently the rest when taking
away the mechanical losses from the indicated power.
Effective power, or output, can be calculated using the following formula:
0.2
P= ∗ Z ∗Vs ∗ n∗ pme
T
where:
T = 2 for 2-stroke engines and 4 for 4-stroke engines.
Z = number of cylinders.
Vs = calculated as earlier described (dm3)
n = the engine revolution (r/sec).
pme = calculated mean effective pressure (bar).
An other way to calculate the output is:
P = 1.31∗ D2 ∗ S ∗ Na ∗ Z ∗ pme
where:
D = piston diameter (m).
S = stroke (m).
Z = number of cylinders.
pme= calculated mean effective pressure (bar).
Na = working cycles per minute (for a four stroke engine,
the engine revolution divided by two).
The pressure in the cylinder varies with the position of the piston. For practical
calculations and comparisons between different engine types, the term mean
pressure, acting on the piston during the working stroke, is used. We differ be-
tween indicated mean effective pressure (pmi) and effective mean pressure
(pme). The relation between these is:
pmi = µ m ∗ pme
where: µm is the mechanical efficiency.

P (bar)
Pi
0
s
Fig. 6. Mean effective pressure

By supercharging, the engine cylinders are fed with compressed air (more air
per volume unit), and thus can burn a greater amount of fuel. As a result, the
mean effective pressure will increase. A higher output requires a stronger design,
which will be more expensive.
Fig. 7. Supercharged engine
The power, or output, is expressed in watt or kilowatt according to the SI-units.

Earlier this was expressed-in either metric horse power (hp) or engine horse
power (HP).
The relation between kw and horse power is:
1kW = 1.36 hp (= 1kJ/se. = 101.97 kpm/sec).
Metric horse power (1)hp = 75 kpm/sec = 0.736 kW.
Eng. horse power (1)HP = 76.04 kpm/sec = 0.746 kW.
Furthermore, when stating the engine output, the revolutions as well as the am-
bient conditions under which the output is available should be mentioned.
1.4. Terminology
A general terminology should be used, and therefore we will go through these
definitions. The first thing to do is to give names to the various sides of an engine.
To do this, we place ourself in the flywheel end of the engine and look out over
the engine. On our left hand, we have a side which is called the operating side,
or in a V-engine, the A-side. The opposite side to this is called the back side, or
in a V-engine, the B-side.
The end where we are standing and where the flywheel is is the driving end or
the flywheel end. Opposite this end is the free end. The underside is called the
bottom and the opposite side is called the top of the engine.

Fig. 8. Different sides of an engine
The direction of rotation can be defined while still standing at the flywheel end.
As said earlier, when looking toward the engine from the flywheel end, the en-
gine can rotate to the right or to the left.
A right hand rotation is called clockwise rotation and left hand rotation is
called counter-clockwise rotation. Furthermore, when standing still at the same
place, we can also decide the rotation of a generator, for instance, if we have to
turn 180°. The generator has to rotate in the opposite direction of the engine, i.e.
in a right hand rotation engine the generator rotates counter clockwise.
Fig. 9. Direction of rotation

Numbering of cylinders and main bearings. The most common today is to

number the cylinders and main bearings from the flywheel end. In other words,
cylinder No 1 as well as main bearing No 1 are situated at the flywheel end.
It must be mentioned that there are still manufacturers numbering the cylinders
and main bearings from the free end.
Furthermore, it is normal to place the turbocharger either in the free end or in the
driving end. For a power plant, the most common is to place the turbocharger in
the free end.
Fig. 10. Marking of main bearings and cylinders


0020 History
2. History
2.1. The development of the internal combustion
engine before the diesel engine
The first useful combustion engine was constructed in Paris 1860 by a man
named Jean Lenoir. The engine was operating on air and petroleum ignited by a
spark. The engine was double acting and the cylinder was cooled by water. In the
beginning of the stroke, the air/fuel mixture was sucked into the cylinder. After
about half of the stroke this mixture was ignited. The opposite side of the piston
discharged exhaust gases from earlier combustion. A peak pressure of 5 bar was
reached during combustion. This gave a mean effective pressure of about 0.4 bar.
Total efficiency was around 4 % which was higher than the steam engines at that
time.
A German man named Nicolus August Otto bought a Lenoir engine and found
out that he could get a higher output by igniting the gases earlier than at half the
stroke as Lenoir did. In the year of 1867, Mr Otto, together with his partner Mr
Eugene Langen, constructed a gas engine having an efficiency of 14%.
Mr Otto then started to develop an engine where the air /gas mixture was com-
pressed before ignition. In the year of 1876 the first 4-stroke engine developed
by Otto was completed. Output from the engine was 2 kW at a speed of 180 r/
min. Mean piston speed was 1.8 m/s and the mean effective pressure 2.5 bar. The
compression pressure for this engine was around 3 bar and the peak pressure was
just above 5 bar. These parameters were high at the time and the engine was
called a high pressure engine. The efficiency was not higher than in the earlier
gas engines. Production of this engine was started by an engine manufacturer
called Deutz. The Otto engine was further developed by Daimler/Mayback and
the engine was equipped with a carburettor. Furthermore, gasoline was used in-
stead of petroleum.
At the same time, another person named Bentz (also from Germany) made tests
on the gas engine. In the year of 1886 he presented his gasoline driven 4-stroke
engine. The piston diameter in this engine was 90 mm, stroke 150 mm. Power
was 0.7 kW at 400 revolutions/min. Specific fuel consumption was 1170 g/kWh
which corresponded to an effective efficiency of about 7 %. Compression pres-
sure was 2.7 bar and the peak pressure was 10 bar. The weight of the engine in-
cluding cooler, carburettor and fuel tank was 108 kg which corresponds to a
power/mass ratio of 150 kg/kW. This was a big step ahead compared with other
stationary engines, having the power/weight ratio of 800 kg/kW.
These three german gentlemen and their inventions started the history of the ve-
hicle and vehicle engines.
The first to successfully develope a combustion engine in the USA was George
Bailey Brayton. In the year of 1876 he demonstrated a 2-stroke engine. This was
a success compared to the Lenoir engine, but not compared to the Otto and Lange
engine due to a lower efficiency.
The first engine to burn poor quality fuel was design by an englishman named
Herbert Akroyd Stuart in 1890. His engine was equipped with a vaporisation

History 0020
chamber in direct connection to the working cylinder. The purpose of the cham-
ber, which was uncooled, was to vaporise the fuel injected there. During the suc-
tion stroke clean air entered the cylinder, and during the compression stroke air
flowed into the chamber. At preset time, fuel was injected into this hot chamber
where it vaporised and was mixed with the hot air after which auto ignition took
place. The increased pressure, due to the combustion, forced the gases from the
chamber to the working cylinder where the actual working stroke took place.
Since the compression pressure was only 3 bar, the chamber had to be preheated
before starting. Due to the compression pressure, the specific fuel consumption
was as low as 580 g/kWh, which gave an efficiency of 14 %. This hot body
chamber engine is considered the forerunner to the semi diesel engine.
Fig. 11. The Akroyd engine
2.2. The diesel engine
2.2.1. The beginning

A german, Rudolf Diesel, stated that a process where the combustion took place
under a constant pressure should give a lower specific consumption than in all
other known combustion processes at that time, as well as a higher thermal effi-
ciency.
Fig. 12. Mr Rudolf Diesel

0020 History
According to his calculations, his engine should have peak pressures of up to 250
bar. Mr Diesel understood that such high pressures could not be controlled.
Therefore, he also studied another working principle. This process should give
much lower compression pressures, which should also give a much lower effi-
ciency, but would be easier to realize.
Mr Diesel’s engine nr 3 was completed in 1897. This engine is named the “first
diesel engine”.
The engine performance was: Output 13.5 kW at 158 revolution/sec, specific
consumption was as low as 335 g/kWh which gave an efficiency of up to 25 %.
This was by far the most efficient engine at the time.
The diesel engine is the only engine working on the principle of self-igniting the
fuel due to the compression temperature.
In the end of the century, the 2-stroke diesel engine was developed.
2.2.2. Development of the diesel engine

Up to 1920, mostly 4-stroke diesel engines where built. The first engines were
single acting, but due to higher output the engines became double acting.
In 1920, the 2-stroke engine came under development because in double acting
2-stroke engines it was possible to get a higher output than in the 4-stroke en-
gines.
Developments continued when supercharging was accepted in mid 1940 leading
to an increase in the mean effective pressure as well as output. Exhaust gas tur-
bines were developed, and cooling of the air after the turbocharger was taken into
use.
During the last 10...15 years the mean effective pressure has raised from 5...8 bar
during 1940...1950 up to 20...25 bar at present. At the same time, the RPM has
increased to correspond to a mean piston speed, of about 10 m/s.
The world wide production of diesel engines today is within the range of 1kW to
40,000 kW. Diesel engines are developed and manufactured in more than 100
factories around the world. If licenced manufacturers are included, this figure
adds up to more than 200.
More than 5 million high speed engines are produced yearly, with most being un-
der 200kW.
Around 2000 medium speed engines are produced per year, mostly as alternator
sets in ships and as power plant engines. These medium speed engines are also
used as main engines in smaller ships.
Slow speed engines are mainly intended as main engines in large ships. Due to
the low RPM, they can be directly connected to the propeller shaft.

History 0020

0020 Function Principles of the Diesel Engine
3. Function Principles of the Diesel Engine

3.1. Combustion and combustion spaces
3.1.1. Combustion process
The most important factor for optimum combustion is that the fuel is injected at
absolutely the right moment.
Air mixing with the fuel, ignition and combustion in the cylinder is a chemical/
physical process. The amount of air, fuel/air mixture, compression temperature
and the compression pressure are all of equal importance.
Supervising the combustion is important when evaluating the engine condition.
This is normally done by using a maximum pressure indicator.
Theoretically, the released amount of energy in a perfect combustion is equiva-
lent to the net calorific value of the fuel.
To burn 1 kg of fuel, a minimum of about 14 kg of air must be available in the
cylinder. The figure below shows the amount of air/kg fuel as a function of the
net calorific value.
kg air
kg fuel
14,6
Marine diesel oil
14,4
14,2
14,0
13,8
Heavy fuel
13,6
kcal
9800 9900 10000 10100 10200 10300 10400 kg
mJ
41 41,5 42 42,5 43 43,5 kg
Fig. 13. Need of air for combustion
In the modern supercharged engines an air factor of 1.6...2.3 is used. The time
available for the fuel to mix with the air is very short in a diesel engine because
the fuel is injected just before TDC and ends shortly after.
Figure 14 shows a cylinder pressure diagram where fuel injection time is also in-
cluded.

Function Principles of the Diesel Engine 0020
P
bar
4
Pmax
2 Expansion
Compression
Nozzle needle
movement
100ø 75ø 50ø 25ø TDC 25ø 50ø 75ø 100ø

CA
4db16.cgm
Fig. 14. Cylinder pressure diagram
This picture explains:

1. injection delay, is the time it will take for the injection pump to build up a
pressure above the injector opening pressure.
2. ignition delay, is the time from when the fuel is injected until when it will
self ignite. Ignition delay is dependent on the fuel quality, compression tem-
perature, compression pressure and fuel droplet sizes. To achieve a control-
led combustion the ignition delay has to be as short as possible.
3. Combustion under constant volume, is also called the fast pressure rise
step. Due to the ignition delay, fuel will be collected in the cylinder. When
this is fuel ignited, the combustion will proceed quickly and the pressure will
increase rapidly. If the delay is too long, the pressure rise will also be too
fast. This phenomena is called “knocking” and should be avoided. Further-
more, the peak pressure rises as well.
4. Combustion under constant pressure, during this period the final fuel will
be burned. Temperatures and pressures are so high that the fuel droplets
ignite at once.
To achieve a good efficiency, the combustion should end at the fourth step. In
high speed engines, it is difficult to avoid burning during expansion.
To obtain a fast and complete combustion, both the compression temperature as
well as the pressure should be the highest possible.
On the other hand, a high inlet air temperature will lead to a lower air density,
and therefore, a higher thermal load. To avoid this, the inlet air temperature to
the cylinders should be kept low.

By increasing the compression ratio, the pressure level in the process will rise,
but will lower the mechanical efficiency due to increased friction. Criteria for
certain compression ratios will be a safe start in cold condition.
3.1.2. The shape of the combustion space
The shape of the combustion space is of importance for an effective mixing of

air and fuel.
Combustion spaces can be divided into two groups.
A. Direct injected combustion spaces:
• flat combustion spaces ( small air rotation)
• chamber combustion space (high air rotation)
Direct injected comb. space
4db17.cgm
Whirl- and fore chamber
Air chamber
Fig. 15. Shape of combustion chamber
B. Split combustion spaces:

• pre chamber
• whirl chamber
• air chamber
Deciding which type of combustion chamber to choose depends on the follow-

ing:
• mean effective. pressure
• low specific fuel consumption
• revolution wanted
• clean combustion and clean exhaust gases
• noise level

Direct injected combustion spaces

Direct injected combustion spaces are the most common in todays medium speed
engines. The most economical solution is the flat combustion space type. Specif-
ic fuel consumption is far below 200g/kWh. In this solution, the injection valve
is placed in the center, above the space, and is always equipped with a multi or-
ifice nozzle. Fuel injection pressures are high, even up to 1500 bars, and the air
factor is up to 2.0 bar or above. The air rotation is relatively small.
The chamber combustion space alternative is not as economical as the flat com-
bustion space, and is normally used for high speed engines.
Advantages with direct injection spaces:
• Heat losses through combustion chamber walls are small with engine effiiency
high and fuel consumption low.
• Due to small heat losses the cold start performance is good.
• Compression ratios are lower than in the indirect combustion chamber ver-
sions, and therefore, the mechanical efficiency is higher.
• Shorter ignition delay which gives a smoother operation.
Disadvantages if any:
• Fuel injection equipment required is more sophisticated and therefore slightly
more expensive.
• Due to the small holes in the injector nozzles, maintenance is required more
often.
Indirect combustion spaces
Indirect combustion spaces are mainly intended for small high speed engines.
There are both advantages and disadvantages with this construction, but since di-
rect injection spaces are mostly used today, we will concentrate on that.

3.2. Working process

The best thermal efficiency is achieved by combustion at constant volume or
when the piston is at the top dead center.
The real engine differs from the ideal process due to losses. To clarify the diesel
engine working process, we have to describe three ideal processes.
These can be seen in the Seiliger diagram below.
C o n s tan t C o n s ta n t
p
bar
3 . v o lu m e
p
bar p re s s u r e
2 . 2
. .3
..41 ..41
Vc Vs
Vc Vs V V
C o m b in e d c o n sta n t
p
b ar v o lu m e a n d p re s s u r e
3 4
..
2 .
..51
Vc Vs
V
Fig. 16. Seiliger diagram
The first process is called constant volume combustion or “Otto” process:

In this process, the combustion of the fuel takes place when the piston is at TDC,
which means constant volume. Before that time, the air/fuel mixture has been
compressed. Point 1 in the figure represents the gas volume in the cylinder at the
point when the compression starts. In this process, the compression takes place
“adiabatically” according to thermodynamic laws from point 1 to point 2. From
point 2 to point 3 the pressure will rise under constant volume. From point 3 to
point 4 the expansion takes place. Prom point 4 to point 1 the combustion gases
are removed from the cylinder. The energy obtained is represented by the area
between point l-2-3-4. Theoretical thermal efficiency of this process is:
1
ηπ = 1 −
ε (κ −1)

The formula shows that the thermal efficiency increases with higher compres-
sion ratio. Theoretical thermal efficiency is the ratio between theoretic work and
energy input. It can also be mentioned that in a piston engine, the mechanical ef-
ficiency will be reduced when the compression ratio rises due to the high peak
pressures. This will increase the friction forces.
The second process to be explained is called constant pressure combustion. The

combustion starts after the compression and continues up to expansion.
The pressure in the cylinder after the compression remains the same through the
whole combustion period, but the volume increases.
Theoretical thermal efficiency in this case is:
κ
1 1 ε1 − 1
ηπ = 1 − ∗ ∗
ε (κ −1) κ ε1 − 1
Where: ε1 is the expansion ratio between V3 and Vcomp.

This factor is unknown and difficult to establish, because it is dependent on the
amount of fuel burned.
The third process to be explained is the combined constant volume and con-
stant pressure process.
During this process the combustion of fuel takes place first under constant vol-
ume and then the rest of the fuel is burned under constant pressure. The peak
pressure under this process will be much higher than under constant pressure.
This theoretical process is the closest to the actual diesel process. Compression
takes place between point 1 and point 2.
The pressure when the piston is in TDC can be calculated from the following for-
mula:
p2 = p1 ∗ ε κ
Where: p2 = the pressure at the end of the compression cycle.

p1= the pressure before the compression starts.
Compression temperature at the same piston position is:
T2 = ε (κ −1) ∗ T1
Where: T2 = the temperature after the compression, and

T1 = the temperature before the compression.
The burning of the fuel is considered to start at point 2. In a real engine, the burn-
ing will start earlier. During the first combustion phase, the pressure in the cyl-
inder will rise to its maximum point which is identical to p5 max. As a result of
this, the temperature will rise to T3.

At the end of the expansion when the piston is in BDC, the pressure and temper-
ature will be
κ
V4
P5 = ∗ p max
V5
(κ −1)
V
T5 = 4 ∗ T4
V5
Discharge of the combustion gases takes place under a constant volume. During
this period a certain amount of energy will be lost.
This energy loss can be calculated by the formula:
Q2 = m ∗ C hm ∗ (T5 − T1 )
Where: Chm is the specific heat value of the gases.

The mechanical energy is the difference between energy obtained from the com-
bustion and the energy lost in the exhaust gases.
P
bar
3
4
V i V
Fig. 17. Losses in the real process
So far the ideal processes have been described. The ideal process is identified
from the following:
• Clean filling of the air (no rests in the cylinder from earlier combustion).
• The combustion is complete.
• Air factor is the same as in the real engine.
• The process is heat insulated.
• No flow losses, no mechanical losses.

In reality there are more losses. The following list shows the difference between
the ideal process and the real process:
• Combustion is not totally complete, air/fuel mixing is not 100 %, and therefore
some unburned fuel will disappear via the exhaust gases.
• Heat is lost through the combustion chamber walls.
• Discharge of exhaust gases starts before the piston has reached the BDC.
• Leakage through the piston rings.
The indicated work is not the same as the output available at the flywheel. Also
to be included among the losses are the friction forces. Losses in relation to the
fuel energy in the diesel engine can be listed as below:
1. Friction losses.
2. Heat losses through the combustion chamber walls.
3. Uncompleted expansion.
4. Thermal losses via the exhaust gases.
5. Uncompleted combustion.
The above losses are in the range of 50...65 % depending on engine type.
The losses are considerably higher at low loads compared to full load operation.
C
A
D B
s V
Fig. 18. 4-stroke diesel engines pV-diagram
THE PRINCIPLE By compressing the air, the temperature will rise to such a value that the
OF THE DIESEL fuel will auto ignite.
ENGINE IS:

3.3. Efficiencies
In the diesel engine, injected fuel is not completely changed to mechanical ener-
gy, as earlier described. The energy changed to useful work is named as total ef-
ficiency (ηe).
This can be calculated from the formula:
P
ηe = ∗Q
be
where: P = output,
be = specific fuel consumption and
Q = the net calorific value of the fuel.
The total efficiency can also be expressed as part efficiencies. The formula for
this is:
ηe = ηi ∗η m
where: ηi = the indicated efficiency and
ηm = the mechanical efficiency of the engine.
The total efficiency is an important value when comparing different engine types
having efficiencies close to 45 % today.
The indicated output from the engine cannot be fully utilized. There are energy
losses due to friction in pistons, bearings, valve mechanisms, as well as required
power for engine driven pumps. The mechanical efficiency (ηm) can be calcu-
lated by the formula:
Pe
ηm =
Pi
where: Pe = the output at the shaft and

Pi = the indicated output.
The mechanical efficiency depends on several factors such as engine size, engine
revolutions, number of cylinders, compression ratio, peak pressures and engine
driven pumps. In medium speed engines, this mechanical efficiency is around
84...94 %, and in high speed engines about 5 % lower.
3.4. Gas exchange

When combustion remnants are replaced with clean air, it is called gas exchange
(or flushing). The time required for this gas exchange, as well as the method of
gas exchange, is different in the 4-stroke engine compared to the 2-stroke engine.
In the 4-stroke engine, the exchange will take place during 360° whereas in the
2-stroke engine the exchange takes place during 1/3 of this time.
In a 2-stroke engine, the output could theoretically be double compared to a 4-
stroke engine with the same cylinder dimensions, RPM and mean effective pres-
sure.

In practice this is not possible because the effective stroke in the 2-stroke engine
is shorter. Also, the flushing of the cylinder is poor due to the shorter time avail-
able for the gas exchange and also the fact that some clean air is discharged with
the exhaust gases. These are factors which lower the mean effective pressure in
the 2-stroke engine. Furthermore, the 2-stroke engine needs more air than the 4-
stroke engine. Air required is 1.2...2 times more than needed for the 4-stroke en-
gine. Specific air consumption for a 4-stroke supercharged diesel engine is be-
tween 5.5...7.5 kg/kWh, and for a 2-stroke engine 8.0...11.0 kg/kWh. High speed
and medium speed diesel engines today are nearly all 4-stroke engines.
3.4.1. Gas exchange in a 4-stroke engine
The gas exchange in the 4-stroke engine is regulated by mechanically operated

valves. The valves are operated by the camshaft which is driven by the crankshaft
via gear wheels or chains.
Since the gas exchange takes place every second revolution, the camshaft rotates
with half the crankshaft speed. To give the gas exchange enough time to be com-
pleted, the valves have to open before the dead points in the cylinder.
The inlet valves open before TDC and close after BDC. Thus the kinetic energy
of the air can be used. The exhaust valves open to start discharging before BDC
while the exhaust gases are still under pressure. This is called pre-discharge.
When both the inlet valves and exhaust valves are open during the same time in
TDC, it is called valve overlapping and has to be longer in an engine with higher
RPM.
The opening period of the valves are checked by measuring the valve clearances,
which preferably should be performed on a hot engine.
Since inlet valves and exhaust valves are open at the same time in TDC, this will
ensure effective discharge of exhaust gases and cooling of piston top and valves.
Since the inlet valve is closing after BDC the real compression ratio will be less
than the theoretical.
Valve overlapping for 4-stroke diesel engines are around 60...140°. Valve over-
lapping can be seen in figure below.
TDC
40°
TDC
50° 50 40°
°
VE
E
HAUST VALV
VE
VE
HAUST VAL
VAL
VAL
ET
ET
INL
INL
EX
EX
°
50°
40 55
° 10°
BDC BDC
Fig. 19. Valve overlapping

3.4.2. Gas exchange in a 2-stroke engine

Gas exchange in the 2-stroke engine takes place in l/3 of the time compared to
the 4-stroke engine. Air inlet ports are placed in the cylinder liner wall. Exhaust
gas discharge ports are placed in the cylinder liner or in the cylinder head with
valves as in the 4-stroke engine.
3.5. Supercharging
The term supercharging means the method of feeding the engine with pressu-
rized air. With supercharged engines, the amount of air entering the cylinder will
be larger than in the suction engine, and consequently a bigger quantity of fuel
per working period can be burned. Increasing the amount of fuel burned also in-
creases the power output of the engine. There are several different methods of
supercharging an engine.
One type called mechanical supercharging takes the power needed directly
from the crankshaft. This method is seldom used in modern engines. We will
concentrate on a method called turbocharging.
Burning a large amount of fuel with a surplus of pressurized air will increase the
combustion pressure. This calls for a stronger and heavier design, which will in-
crease the cost of the engine.
Supercharging a diesel engine leads to increased mechanical and thermal stress-
es. On the other hand, the advantages are that big that nearly all medium speed
engines of today are supercharged.
Turbocharging is economical. The reason is that the total efficiency is high par-
ticularly because the turbocharger is not using any mechanical power from the
engine, but instead is using the energy in the exhaust gases. Energy which other-
wise would be totally wasted.
Turbocharging is a self-regulating process. The power of the turbine depends of
the engine output because the energy in the exhaust gases follows the injected
fuel quantity. When the exhaust gas flow increases, the turbine on the same shaft
as the compressor starts to rotate faster, and consequently, the charge air pressure
rises. The figure shows the energy in the exhaust gases.

Exhaust gases
360°C
Exhaust gas
turbine
Exhaust gases
500°C
400°C
Fig. 20. Energy in exhaust gases
The most important limitation in increasing the mechanical output is called ther-
mal loading. This term describes the amount of heat energy which must be re-
moved. The thermal loading increases in relation to the net mechanical output.
However, as the turbocharger works with big air surpluses, a larger amount of
the excess heat is removed from the engine with the exhaust gases. To achieve
this, the valve over-lapping has to be bigger than in the suction engine.
Another limitation to turbocharging is the peak pressure. High peak pressures
will also lower the mechanical efficiency.
The peak pressure rises in relation to the charge air pressure. The figure below
shows the diesel engine process in a supercharged engine. The peak pressure can
be lowered by decreasing the compression ratio, but lowering this value too
much will cause starting problems due to too low of a compression temperature.
Another way of lowering the peak pressure is by changing the timing, but this
will increase the specific fuel consumption and thus the thermal load. In other
words, the exhaust gas temperature will rise.

P
1. Filling
2. Effective work
3. Exhaust energy
a. Constant pressure energy
2 b. Puls charging energy
3
1
3b
V
3a
Fig. 21. The process in a supercharged diesel engine
Depending on the way of using the exhaust gas energy, a constant pressure sys-
tem or a pulse charging system can be used.
3.5.1. Constant pressure charging
With the constant pressure principle, the turbine works with an almost constant
pressure and the exhaust gases from all the cylinders are lead into a common
pipe, figure 22. This common and rather big pipe is damping the pulses from the
discharging strokes. From this pipe the exhaust gases are flowing to the turbine.
With more cylinders the pressure will be more even. The efficiency is best on a
high and steady load.
Advantages with constant pressure turbocharging are:
• easy construction
• high efficiency at the optimum load part
• high mean effective pressures can be achieved
Disadvantages are:
• big energy losses in exhaust gases
• poor part load performance
• slow load response
• kinetic energy is not used
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Fig. 22. Constant pressure charging

3.5.2. Pulse charging

In the pulse charging system, the kinetic energy (velocity) is used. The energy
arrives to the turbine with a minimum of losses. To achieve this small pipes have
to be used. Small dimensions are used to avoid expansion of the gases. The en-
ergy arriving to the turbine is larger than in the constant pressure system but the
efficiency is lower. When the exhaust gases flow to the turbine housing, they will
start rotating the turbine wheel, and at the same time on the same shaft, the com-
pressor. This compressor takes the air through a filter and further delivers it over-
pressured to the charge air receiver. Due to the losses in the compressor, the air
is heated and normally the air is cooled in an air cooler directly following the
compressor.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 23. Pulse charging
Advantages with pulse charging system are:

• good performance over all loads
• fast load response
• high engine efficiency
Disadvantages are:
• vibrations and pulsations in the charging system.
Turbocharger revolutions for medium speed engines are in the range of 15,000
- 45,000 revolutions per minute.
Compressing the air leads to an increase in the temperature.
When cooling the air the density will increase and thus the mass flow will in-
crease. More fuel can be burned which will increase the output. The figure below
shows the result of air cooling.

Exhaust gases
36O°C Air inlet
25°C
Exhaust gas
turbine Charge air
compressor
Exhaust gases
500°C Pressurized
air 220°C
Cooling water 2.6 bar
Air cooler
Pressurized air
cooled to 50°C
400°C
Fig. 24. Charge air cooling
3.6. Operating properties

Output is, as earlier mentioned, produced in kilowatts (kW), (sometimes in
horsepower, hp, HP).
When giving out the power it should also be stated under which ambient condi-
tions the output is available. It is also important to know under which ambient
conditions the engines are to operate. If the operational conditions are different
from the reference conditions, the engine output has to be de-rated. De-rating is
done to ensure that the thermal loading on the engine under worse conditions will
not rise above the level at reference conditions, and thus lower the operation time
of the engine. Reference conditions are mentioned in ISO3046/I where de-rating
formulas for calculations are also found.
It can also be mentioned that every manufacturer has the right to give out their
own reference conditions which then, of course, should be stated. The IS0 refer-
ence conditions are 298 Kelvin (25°C) for both the ambient temperature and the
coolant temperature to the charge air cooler. When making calculations, absolute
temperatures are to be used i.e. Kelvin.

The reference pressure is 100 kPa. This is the ambient pressure at sea level or ap-
proximately 1 bar. In the IS0 calculations the relative humidity, when talking
about pressure charged engines, is of no importance. However, it has to be con-
sidered reality. Formulas for output calculations have been mentioned earlier.
The engine torque (M) can be calculated by the following formula:
P
M= e
ω
where: ω = the angular velocity and should be calculated as:

ω = 2 ∗π ∗ n
The specific fuel consumption (be) is of importance when the efficiency of var-
ious engine types has to be compared.
This specific consumption should always be measured at the manufactures plant
and then recalculated to the existing site conditions. Formulas for this are as well
included in the IS0 standard, and has proven to be rather close to reality.
This recalculated specific consumption will then serve as a reference value when
calculating the engine efficiency and plant overall efficiency. If the specific heat
value in the fuel used is different from the reference value, the total heat input
has to be corrected. The specific consumption increases when the calorific value
goes down and vice versa.
One way to measure the specific consumption in a power plant is to measure the
difference in the day tank level. Flow or mass-flow meters can also be used but
will be somewhat more expensive.
The engine heat balance is expressing how the fuel, fed to the engine, has been
split up into useful work as well as internal losses due to the combustion in the
cylinder. These internal losses will then be found as outer losses. The best way
to explain a heat balance in an engine is by a Sankey diagram, see figure below.
The internal losses in an engine are thermal losses, thermodynamic losses and
mechanical losses. The first two mentioned are not measurable but of importance
in understanding the diesel engine process.
These internal losses are exhaust gas losses, cooling water losses, radiation loss-
es and energy to operate auxiliaries.
When the fuel is burned, thermal losses arise. The amount of energy depends on
the type of process and compression ratio. The remaining energy is identical to
the theoretical work of the engine.
When taking away the thermodynamic losses, which are to be found mostly in
the cooling water, the remaining energy is the indicated work. The effective
work, or engine output, is this energy reduced with the mechanical losses.
The energy is split up into the following external losses:
• Exhaust gases
• Cooling water
• Mechanical losses
• Radiation.

Fig. 25. Sankey- diagram
3.7. Determining a heat balance for a diesel engine

To be able to make a heat balance for an diesel engine, the fuel input has to be
calculated first.
For this study, work or output is used instead of energy. The difference is that
work is energy used per time unit (kW=kJ/sec). For this the following formulas
are to be used:
Fuel input = B ∗ Q
where:
B = Gross consumption in (kg/s)
Q = Net calorific value in (kJ/ kg).
Formulas for net output have been determined earlier.

EXHAUST AIR
TEX TA
TC
T
P
T
T
P
4db29.cgm
FUEL OIL LOAD
Fig. 26. Diesel process
Power to be cooled away by the cooling water can be calculated by the following
formula:
Pcool. = m ∗ c ∗ ∆T
where:
m = the massflow of water (kg/s)
c = thermal conductivity for water, (4.18 kJ/kgK)

∆T = temperature rise (K).
The output in the exhaust gases are to be calculated by the following formula:
Pexh. = m ∗ c ∗ ∆T

where:
m = massflow for exhaust gases in (kg/s)
c = thermal conductivi ty for the gases (kJ/kgK)

∆T = temperature difference of gases (K).
The mass flow in the exhaust gases is the sum of air consumption and specific
fuel consumption.
Thermal conductivity for exhaust gases is 1.045 kJ/kgK.
The temperature difference is the exhaust gas temperature after the turbocharger
minus the ambient temperature.
By adding the outputs for net power, cooling and exhaust gases the sum will be
around 96 %. The rest up to 100 % is called radiation. The heat balance of a typ-
ical diesel engine is seen in the figure below.
Charge Exhaust Jacket Lube oil

air cooler gases cooler cooler
12,5% 29,5% 9, % 5%
Comb. air
to the eng.
El. power
40,5%
Radiation losses 2 %
Alt. Losses 1,5 %
Fuel 100%
Fig. 27. Energy balance


0020 Mechanics of the Piston Engine
4. Mechanics of the Piston Engine

4.1. Mass forces
On the main moving components in a piston engine (crank mechanism), the gas
forces, forces of the up and down moving parts and the centrifugal forces from
the rotation, are acting. The gas forces are the dominating forces at lower revo-
lutions while the mass forces are the dominating forces at higher revolutions. The
centrifugal force, which is acting on the main bearings, from the moving parts in
the crank mechanism can be calculated by the following formula:
Fp = m p ∗ r ∗ ω 2
where:
Fp = the centrifugal force
mp = the rotating masses
ω (omega) = the angular velocity (2 * π * n)
n = the engine revolutions
r = the crank radius (S/2)
The piston, the piston rings, the piston gudgeon pin and the upper part of the con-
necting rod are the up and down moving masses.
TDD
BDC
ω
α
mp
5db31.cgm
Fig. 28. Centrifugal force

Mechanics of the Piston Engine 0020
Up and down moving mass forces (acceleration forces) can be calculated from
the following formula:
Fe = me ∗ r ∗ ω 2 ∗ (cosα + λ cos 2α )
where:
Fe = the up and down moving mass forces
me = the up and down moving masses
λ = the connecting rod ratio r/l
α = the phase angle.
Fp
Fn
s l
ω
5db32.cgm
r
Fn
Fr Fr
mr
Fig. 29. Moving mass forces
In the above formula, the first part is called the mass forces
of the first order and the formula is:
F| = me ∗ r ∗ ω 2 ∗ cosα
The second part in the formula is called the mass forces of the
second order and the formula is:
F|| = me ∗ r ∗ ω 2 ∗ λ ∗ cos 2α
Up and down going mass forces are vibrating in the direction of the cylinder liner
centre line.
The frequency of the first order forces are the same as the engine revolutions
while the frequency of the second order forces are double the engine revolutions,
as seen in figure.

At the piston TDC, the up and down moving forces are acting against the gas
forces.
F
N
F =F + F
2
e I II
me r
me r
FI F II
0 180 360
= 0.25
Fig. 30. Second order forces
4.1.1. Gas forces and irregularity

When the combustion gases expand it causes a rotating movement on the crank
mechanism. Due to combustion gases, the crank mechanism is giving a side
force acting on the piston. This force is moving via the cylinder liner and engine
block down to the fastening points of the engine. The crank mechanism caused
torque is as big as the external coupling (tilting moment) of the engine. Figure 31
shows the forces acting on the engine due to the piston force.
Formula for the torque:
M v = Ft ∗ r
where: Ft = the tangential force.

Formula for tilting moment:
M r = Fn ∗ S or Fr ∗ b
where: Fn = the side force acting on the piston, and

Fr = the tilting force.
In a 4-stroke engine the torque is changing a lot during one working period (two
crank shaft revolutions). The tangential force is both positive and negative,
where the positive forces are rotating the shaft and the negative forces are acting
against the rotary motion. In multi cylinder engines the torque is the sum of the
various cylinder torques. Firing order should be kept as equal as possible to min-
imise the variation in the torque.

Fn
β
Fp Fcs
α Fl
Fn Ft
Fcs
Fp Fcs
Fig. 31. Gas forces
To equalise the torque in an engine, rotating masses are added to the crank shaft.
This is called a flywheel. A bigger flywheel will give a more even running. Iner-
tia is calculated by the following formula:
J = W ω 2 ∗λ
where:
ω = angular velocity,
W = the irregularity energy
λ = the degree of regularity.
Engines with less cylinders need bigger flywheels than several cylinder engines
to achieve the same running regularity. Degree of regularity shall be around 300
for generator sets when 50 is acceptable for a mill.
4.2. Balancing of shafts

Rotating masses in a diesel engine have to be both statically and dynamically in
balance. Statically in balance means that the shaft is still in any position.
A shaft is not dynamically in balance due to the rotary motion of centrifugal forc-
es that arise causing variable torque.

Forces of the first order can be balanced with counterweights on the shaft as seen
in figure below.
Counter weight Counter weight
Fig. 32. Counterweights on a crankshaft
Forces of the second order cannot be balanced with counterweights on the shaft
but have to be balanced by eccentric balancing shafts rotating double the shaft
speed and in the opposite direction of each other. Normally 4-cylinder engines
need these type of eccentric balancing shafts which are placed in the engine oil
sump and driven by a gear from the shaft.
3 2
4 1
2 3
1 4
1 4
Gear wheel
2 3
5db36.cgm
Eccentric shaft Gear wheel Eccentric shaft
Fig. 33. Balancing shaft

4.3. Firing order

When choosing firing order the aim is to get the gas forces to act on the shaft as
equal as possible. If the firing order is chosen well, the torsional vibration level
and the bearing load will be low. On the other hand, the best firing order from a
torsional vibration point of view might cause increasing bearing loads, and there-
fore, compromises have to be made.
4.4. Torsional vibrations

Torsional vibrations are defined as a sequence of periodical variations due to
torque in a shaft system. In a piston engine this includes, besides the shaft, other
rotating and up and down moving parts. If the frequency of these torsional vibra-
tions are the same as the shaft frequency or any order of resonance, the critical
revolution is reached. This will increase the bending moment and, in the worst
case, to such a level that the shaft will break. Torsional vibrations will cause vi-
brations in the engine block and the bearings are loaded with high frequency vi-
brations. Torsional vibrations have a negative affect on the transmission.

0020 Main components
5. Main components
5.1. Engine block
The design of the engine block depends on the size, way of cooling and the ma-
terial. Today it is common that the whole engine block is made in one piece. In
medium speed engines and bigger engines, there are crankcase doors for each
cylinder which intended for inspection and maintenance. In more modern en-
gines the main bearing caps are tightened in the engine block. Side screws are
used for avoiding movement between machined surfaces. In some engines the
crankshaft is placed in the bed plate, which at the same time serves as an oil
sump. Slow speed engines are made of several pieces due to the size. The mate-
rial in the engine block is cast iron. The specific with the engine block is that sev-
eral types of forces are affecting at the same time, such as bending moment,
torque and inertia forces. The main requirement for an engine block is rigidity.
The engine block also serves as a frame for necessary auxiliary equipment such
as injection pumps, lubrication pumps and water pumps.
Fig. 34. Engine block
5.2. Cylinder liner

The cylinder liners are casted directly in the engine block in small engines only.
The most common is to make them separate. Advantages of this method are:
• easy to change when worn out
• can be made of more suitable material.
In medium speed and bigger engines the cylinder liner is assembled in such a
way that the cooling water is touching the backside of the liner. In such a case
the liner is metal to metal sealed in the upper part. It is kept in place by the cyl-
inder head holding down screws, and sealed by O-rings in the lower part to avoid

Main components 0020
water from entering the crank case. These O-rings must be made of special ma-
terial, because on one side they are in contact with water and on the other side in
contact with oil. A good material is nitrile rubber. If the thermal loads are high,
an alternative is viton rubber.
The cylinder liner is normally made of special cast iron. This type of material is
best in case of a piston seizure.
The roughness of the liner surface is of great importance. If it is too smooth the
oil film will disappear. Maximum profile depth should be around 4...8µm. This
slight roughness of the surface lowering the mechanical wear of the liner wall as
well as lowers the lubrication oil consumption. To achieve this roughness the lin-
er should be honed, preferably every time the piston rings are changed, and oth-
erwise during inspections if the surface seems to be shiny. Angles of honing
marks can be seen in the figure below.
30-
6db38.cgm
Fig. 35. Honing marks
Wearing of cylinder liner walls and piston rings, which are in contact with the
wall, takes place due to the following reasons:
A. Mechanical wearing, takes place mainly in the upper part of the liner.
When the piston is close to TDC in the beginning of the working stroke, the
pressure and temperature from the combustion reaches maximum values.
Gas pressure forces the top piston ring against the liner wall and at the same
time the high temperature lowers the oil viscosity. At this point the piston
speed is very low. As a result of these events, the oil film cannot keep the
ring from touching the wall. In the same way, overheating of an engine will
affect the oil film in the cylinder liner.
B. Particles, which enters the liner have a grinding effect. These particles can
be dust entering via the inlet air, indicating that the air filtration is insuffi-
cient, or they can originate from the fuel. Wear due to particles is biggest half
way down on the liner and can be seen over the whole stroke.
C. Chemical wearing, originates from the water that comes when burning fuel
containing hydrogen, and also comes from impurities in the fuel such as sul-

0020 Main components
phur. The later can be avoided by keeping the right temperature in the cool-
ing circuit. Normally the wear is larger at the top of the liner and becomes
less downwards. If the wear appears only in a short area around the TDC,
where the cooling is also effective, it can be chemical wearing.
5.3. Cylinder head

The cylinder head closes the upper part of the cylinder liner forming the combus-
tion chamber. In a 4-stroke engine, the injection valve is placed in the cylinder
head, as well as inlet and exhaust valve(s) and rocker arms. Furthermore in me-
dium speed engines there is a starting valve, a safety valve (piston diameter 240
mm) and an indicator valve.
Peak pressures and temperatures are affecting the head which has to stand high
thermal and mechanical stresses. A great amount of heat is passing through the
cylinder head in the cooling water. The cylinder head has to be strong and rigid
in order to avoid deformations.
Figure 36 shows a typical cylinder head in a turbocharged 4-stroke diesel engine.
In todays highly supercharged diesel engines, the cylinder head is built with an
intermediate bottom, a relatively low, thin and well cooled lower part, and due
to the exhaust channels, a cooled upper part also.
With a thick lower part, the thermal stresses will be biggest in this area. An ef-
fective and equal cooling of the lower part is needed to avoid uneven thermal ex-
pansion.
Fig. 36. Cylinder head
Cylinder heads are normally casted from cast iron of various qualities. The cyl-
inder head is fastened to the engine block by screws. If the screws are tightened

Main components 0020
by torque they should be tightened in at least two steps and in a special order giv-
en by the manufacturers. In some engines the screws are tightened hydraulically.
In such a case all screws are tightened at the same time and in one step. Screws
used in this case are tension screws. If cylinder head screws are over-tightened
they should be changed. If cylinder head screws are to be changed, they must be
of the correct material, otherwise the friction coefficient changes.
The purpose of the cylinder head sealing is to seal between cylinder head and cyl-
inder liner. A general requirement for the sealing is that they should withstand
deformations. In the long run the problem will be to seal against the gases. It is
therefore advisable to change this sealing every time a cylinder head is removed
for inspection.

0020 Main components (Moving)
6. Main components (Moving)

6.1. Piston
The main purposes of the piston are to transfer the gas energy to the crankshaft,
to transfer heat and to seal against combustion gases. Furthermore, the upper part
of the piston is forming a part of the combustion chamber. With the shape of the
upper part of the piston the air/fuel mixing can be improved. The piston rings
prevent lubrication oil to enter the combustion space. The piston stands against
side forces caused from the crankshaft. Main requirements for a piston is high
wear resistance and seizure prevention, with a minimum of deformations in the
material. The piston is often named as the most important part in an engine.
When designing a piston, stresses from gas and mass forces have to be consid-
ered.
A normal material in a piston is light metal or cast iron, and often has a steel top.
The advantages with cast iron pistons are better wear and heat resistance. There-
fore smaller clearances can be used which makes it possible to use poorer quality
fuels.
In supercharged diesel engines the piston bottom is cooled by lubrication oil.
The flame step is from the first ring and up to the piston top. In newer engines
this is made of steel.
The piston ring area and ring set as in Fig 37, have to be such that the sealing
is good and the lubrication oil consumption is low. The consumption in a 4-
stroke diesel engine is around 1 g/kWh. Lubrication oil consumption is not only
dependent on the oil scraper ring, but also the clearance between piston and liner.
Standard Previous
Compression ring Compression ring
Chamfered Chamfered
Assymetrical-barrel shaped Directional shaped
Chromium-Ceramic coating Chromium coating
Compression ring Compression ring

Chamfered Directional crowned
Assymetrical-barrel shaped Plasma coating
Chromium-Ceramic coating
Oil Scraper Ring Oil Scraper Ring

Conformable Conformable
Chromium-Ceramic coating Chromium coating
Spring loaded Spring loaded
Fig. 37. Piston ring set
Blow through in a supercharged engine is in the range of 0.2...0.8 % of the air

supply.

Main components (Moving) 0020
Possible reasons for piston ring grove wear:

• high temperature in the ring grove (over heating)
• poor fuel quality and corrosion due to combustion gases
• big piston clearance
• bad inlet air cleaning
To lower the wear the groves can be hardened.
Fig. 38. Piston
The aims of the piston skirt are to guide the piston in the liner, to take up side
forces from the piston, to transport heat to the cylinder liner wall and lubrication
oil, and to regulate the thickness of the oil film in the cylinder. In the upper part
of the piston skirt, under the oil scraper ring, is an oil collecting grove. This is to
ensure an equal shirt lubrication when the piston moves upwards. Holes in the
piston shirt on the back side of the oil scraper ring are there to evacuate the oil
surplus back to the crankcase space. Figure 38 shows a typical piston.
The piston forces are transferred to the crankshaft through the piston pin boss.
They have a rigid and strong design to withstand variable loads.
The piston rings are, due to their function, divided into two groups, compression
rings and scraper rings. Both types have their own basic purpose. The compres-
sion rings have to prevent gases from passing through to the crankcase and the
scraper rings transport the oil surplus from the cylinder liner walls back to the oil
sump. The aim is to minimise the oil consumption and blow-by.
The piston rings have to work in unfavourable circumstances. Due to the mass-
and gas forces and friction forces the rings are moving in their groves axially, and
due to side movement even radially. Wrong position of the rings against the liner
wall and vibrations will make it possible for the gases to blow by and for the oil
consumption to increase.
Materials in piston rings are cast iron of various qualities. Slide surfaces are, in
modern engines, chromed to increase life time. To increase the compression in
the scraper ring, various types of spring constructions are used in the back side
of the ring.

0020 Main components (Moving)
Normally the diameter of the gudgeon pin is around 40 % of the piston diameter.
This size of gudgeon pin is needed to ensure enough bearing areas. In medium
speed engines, where the pistons are cooled, the lubrication oil is led through the
gudgeon pin up to the top of the piston.
6.2. Connecting rod

The purpose of the connecting rod is to transfer gas forces from the piston to the
crankshaft. In the design both the gas and mass forces have to be considered. The
connecting rod is one of the most important parts in a diesel engine. The upper
part of a connecting rod is fixed and the lower part is always split up. In the upper
part the bearing is pressed in. The lower part is split either horizontally or in-
clined. The lower part is tightened to the connecting rod with two or four screws.
Inclined parting face is used when the stresses on the screws would otherwise be
too big. In bigger and supercharged engines, the parting face is milled and the
serrating is polished. Figure 39 shows a typical connecting rod.
Fig. 39. Connection rod
6.3. Crankshaft
Due to gas and mass forces the crankshaft is exposed to torque and bending
movement. Normally the crankshafts are forged in one piece except for very big
engines where the shaft is built up of pieces. In medium speed engines the coun-
ter weights are manufactured separately and connected to the shaft by screws.
Bearing surfaces are either hardened or unhardened. Drillings in the shaft is there
for feeding lubrication oil from main bearings to connecting rod bearings and
further up to the piston through the connecting rod. The material used in crank-
shafts today has special steel qualities.
Fig. 40. Crankshaft

Main components (Moving) 0020
The aim of the flywheel is to increase the running smoothness. The size of a fly-
wheel depends on the degree of smoothness and the driven machine. The mate-
rial in a flywheel is cast iron or steel. The flywheel is connected to the shalt by a
flange connection. In bigger engines it is advisable to use tight fitting screws.
When deciding the type of cast iron, even the peripheral velocity has to be con-
sidered.
With torsional vibration dampers the vibration level will be lowered. If torsional
vibration calculations shows the need, these are fitted. Most common today is the
friction damper. This damper is fitted in the free end of the crankshaft.
6.4. Valve mechanism

In todays 4-stroke diesel engines the gas exchange is performed by valves placed
in the cylinder head. The valves are driven by the camshaft. The camshaft revo-
lution is half of the engine revolution.
To avoid gas exchange and expansion losses the valve opening and closing speed
should be high. The camshaft should be placed as high up as possible compared
to the cylinder head to lower the masses of the valve mechanism.
In the diesel engines poppet valves are mainly used. Sealing surface is tapered.
Normal values are 20...45°. The valve stem diameter is around 20...25 % of the
valve disc diameter.
In supercharged and poor quality fuel operating engines, the stem is chromed to
lower the wear. In real heavy fuel engines, the valve guide is equipped with an
O-ring which acts as a pump and feeds oil on the valve stem thus preventing the
valve from sticking. The rocker arm has to transfer the camshaft movement to
the valves. The valve clearance is adjusted from the adjustment screw in the
rocker arm.
The valve tappets in bigger engines are normally roller tappets. The push rod be-
tween the valve tappet and rocker arm is often made out of steel pipes with hard-
ened pieces in both ends.
Camshafts in todays medium speed engines are made in sections with separate
bearing journals. The shape of the cams is dependent on the opening velocity of
the valves. The cam surface is hardened. There are three cams in one camshaft
piece, two for the inlet and exhaust vales and one for the fuel injection pump.
The camshaft drive is normally gear wheels. The gear drive can be on either side
of the engine. The material in these gear wheels is high quality cast iron, and fur-
thermore the gear tooths are hardened. Figure 41 shows a typical camshaft sec-
tion.
Fig. 41. Camshaft

0020 Bearings
7. Bearings
7.1. Types
The bearings are one of the most important parts in an engine. The aim of the
bearing is to transport loads from a moving part to a fixed part or from one mov-
ing part to another moving part. In diesel engines with high peak pressures, the
connecting rod bearings and the main bearings are heavily loaded. Two types of
bearings exist in diesel engines, roller bearings and slide bearings. In a roller
bearing the friction is lower than in a slide bearing. The roller bearings are used
for smaller engines and the slide bearings for bigger engines. We will concen-
trate on slide bearings.
In slide bearings lubrication oil is used to lower the friction and heat between the
two slide surfaces. Advantages with slide bearings compared to roller bearings
are:
• a slide bearing stands high revolutions and high loads.
• a slide bearing stands better against shock and shaking forces which occurs in
piston combustion engines.
• a slide bearing requires less space than a roller bearing.
• a slide bearing is easy to change since the bearing consists of two pieces.
7.2. Function of slide bearings

The function of a slide bearing depends on the bearing, bearing housing, the shaft
and the lubricant. Of these the lubricant is the most important since it transports
the load from one component to another. If the lubricant cannot carry the load or
keep the two surfaces away from each other, the result is over heating of the bear-
ing. Since the bearing load changes, the thickness of the oil film also changes.
When starting an engine, there is a dry friction between the bearing and the shaft.
When the engine reaches a certain revolution the oil film increases and the dry
friction changes to liquid friction.
When the temperature of the shaft and the lubrication oil increases, the oil vis-
cosity friction forces decrease at the same time.
Fig. 42. Oil film

Bearings 0020
7.3. Bearing materials

Requirements on bearing materials:
• enough hardness to carry the shaft load without deformations.
• soft enough to absorb small particles of impurities, without scratching the
shaft.
• big fatigue strength to withstand the variable loads occurring in a piston com-
bustion engine.
• stand against corrosion.
• high thermal conductivity. In loaded bearings, heat is created. Most of the heat
is transported away by the oil.
Most common materials used in slide bearings are:

• PbSnCu layer, not good enough for engines operating on poor quality fuels
due to sensitivity to corrosion.
• SnSb layer, has a better resistance against corrosion since no lead is in the
material and also has better wear resistance and fatigue strength since the hard-
ness is higher. Fatigue strength is a function of the thickness of the layer. The
thinner the layer is the higher the fatigue strength is.
• AlSn layer, hardness bigger than tri-metal bearings, good for poor quality
fuels. A good resistance against corrosion and high fatigue strength. Disadvan-
tage is that this material stands less impurities.
Fig. 43. Bearing
7.4. Bearing design

In todays diesel engines the main bearings and the connecting rod bearings con-
sist of bearing shells of steel on which the bearing material is fastened. Connect-
ing rod bearings and the normal main bearings are without collars. Only one
bearing in either side of the crankshaft is equipped with a flange to take up axial
forces. The rest of the bearings in an engine are bearing bushes. Todays bearing
can be replaced without any fittings. The most common main and connecting rod
bearings are tri-metal or bi-metal bearings.

0020 Bearings
7.5. Bearing load

The bearings are designed to stand the combustion pressures as well as the mass
forces occurring on maximum allowable output when the whole bearing surface
is equally loaded. If the bearing surface is only partly loaded the lifetime will be
shorter. Furthermore an oil grove in the shell will split up the bearing load as seen
in figure 44. As a general rule, it can be said that the slide surfaces on both bear-
ing and shaft shall be as smooth as possible since a thinner oil film is required on
a smooth surface.
When replacing bearing shells it is important to change to the right one in regards
to both design and material.
Fig. 44. Bearing load
7.6. Clearance and lubrication

When the engine is running, the bearing load varies in both size and direction.
To ensure good guidance of the shaft in the bearing, the clearance between the
bearing shell and the shaft should be minimised. This is made so that the end part
of the shells have been made thinner than the rest of the bearing shell, as seen in
the figure 45. Parting face of the bearing is always placed where there is no bear-
ing load.
To ensure an equal lubrication of the surface the bearing shells are equipped with
oil pockets or grooves. As earlier mentioned the aim of the lubrication oil is not
only to lubricate but also to transport heat.
To achieve this the oil flow has to be relatively big which requires a certain clear-
ance, but not too much since the pressure will then be too low.
If bearing clearances are correct, the temperature of the oil leaving the main bear-
ings is around 90°C, and around 110°C when leaving the connecting rod bear-
ings. This applies for an inlet temperature on the oil at around 75...8O°C. As a

Bearings 0020
guidance for bearing clearances, it can be said that they should be around 0.08 %
of the shaft diameter.
8db48.cgm
Fig. 45. Bearing shell

0020 Fuel System
8. Fuel System
8.1. Description of function
The fuel oil system consists of the fuel supply system and the injection System.
The aim of the transfer system is to transfer clean fuel oil from the tank to the
injection pump and transport the leak oil back to a tank for reuse. Main compo-
nents are transfer pump and filters. When operating the engines on poor quality
fuel oils, a cleaning system and a temperature control system are also required.
Fig. 46. Fuel system
The injection system ensures that the right amount of fuel is fed to the various
cylinders at the right time. Today, injection pump pressures are up to 1500 bar.
This requires high quality components. The injection system consists of injection
pump and injection valve. The supply pump transports the fuel to the suction side
of the injection pump, via cleaning devices and filters. From the suction side of
the injection pump the fuel flows via inlet holes to the top of the pump piston,
when this is in its lowest position. The fuel cam on the camshaft will force the
injection pump piston upwards, the pressure will rise, and the fuel will discharge
via the pressure valve in the top of the injection pump via the injection pipe to
the injection valve. After the injection, the pump piston will return to the start po-
sition forced by a spring. At the same time the spring loaded pressure valve on

Fuel System 0020
the top of the pump will close the outlet to the injection pipe. Leak fuel oil from
the pump and the injection valve are connected to the leak fuel oil piping system.
8.2. Supply pump

The fuel supply pump shall feed the injection pump with such a pressure that the
injection pump cylinder will be filled up with fuel between the injection periods.
The capacity of the supply pump shall be big enough to avoid insufficient supply
on overload of the diesel engine. In engines burning poor quality fuels the supply
system is round circulated and the quantity is between 1.5...2 times the consump-
tion on overload. The pressure is also kept higher to avoid possible boiling due
to water in the fuel oil. Most common pumps today are screw pumps.
8.3. Filter
A good filtered fuel will give harmless operation. In medium speed engines the
most common filter type is a duplex filter. This means that the filter consists of
two type of filters. The first one to flow through is called a fine filter. This fine
filter is normally made out of paper and has to be changed regularly. The fine fil-
ter filter particles bigger than 10...20 microns (µm). The other filter is a wire
gauze insert filtering particles bigger than 4...50 microns. A good filter is also
equipped with an alarm indicating when the filter inserts have to be changed.
Fig. 47. Fuel oil filter

0020 Fuel System
8.4. Injection pump

The injection pump in a diesel engine is a single piston pump. We will concen-
trate on pumps used in medium speed engines The purpose of this pump is, as
earlier mentioned, to feed the cylinder with the right quantity of fuel at the right
time. The piston and the cylinder is called the pump element. The camshaft is
forcing the piston upwards and the spring is again forcing the piston down. Clear-
ance between the cylinder and the piston is very small. A normal value is 6...10/
1000 of a mm. If parts are to be changed in a pump, it is advisable to change both
piston and cylinder or the complete pump element at one time. Another name for
the piston is plunger. As seen in the figure below the plunger has a longitudinal
grove and a helix slot which is called the control helix.
By this control helix the fuel quantity is regulated. In the cylinder is one or two
drillings through which the fuel enters from the suction side to the pressure side.
Fuel enters when the plunger is in the lower position. When the plunger moves
up and reaches the point where the drillings will be closed, the pressure rises and
the fuel passes to the injection valve passing the pressure valve in the top of the
injection pump. Injection ends when the helix comes in contact with the inlet
drillings. By rotation movement the plunger stroke will be longer or shorter. The
fuel quantity is thus regulated by rotation of the plunger. Plunger rotation move-
ment is transferred to a rack where an indication of the quantity is given. When
the pressure drops in the injection pump cylinder, the higher pressure in the in-
jection pipe and the injection valve spring will force the pressure valve to close
until the pressure starts rising again. It is important that the injection stops as
quickly as possible to avoid after-combustion.
Fig. 48. Injection pump

Fuel System 0020
8.5. Injection valve

The injection valve injects the fuel atomised to the combustion chamber in such
a way that mixing of the fuel to the air in the cylinder is effective, and the com-
bustion is complete. The fuel will not ignite before it is gasified. Advantages of
injection valves with a spring loaded needle are the short injection time and high
pressures.
Fig. 49. Injection valve

0020 Lubrication system
9. Lubrication system
9.1. General
Independent of how precise a metal surface is machined there are always irregu-
larities which can be seen with enough magnification. When two metal surfaces
are gliding against each other, their roughnesses are touching and causing a re-
sistance against gliding. This resistance is called dry friction and results in wear-
ing of surfaces, heating, and as a result, seizure. If a lubricant is placed between
these surfaces it will fill up the roughness and form a film which then prevents
metal contact. Instead of dry friction we will get liquid friction. The aim of lubri-
cation flow is to:
• reduce the friction to a minimum
• seal against the gas pressure above the piston rings
• transport heat away
• protect against corrosion
• flush away deposits
9.2. Description of systems

Most medium speed diesel engine manufactures today are using pressure lubri-
cation. A lubricant is supplied to various places in big quantities and under pres-
sure. By doing this, heat is transported away and the bearings are flushed of
possible impurities. The volume of such a system is far bigger than in other sys-
tems. The lubrication oil is collected in a lubrication oil sump under the engine
or in a separate tank. From this place it will be sucked through a strainer to the
lubrication oil pump where it will be forced through a filter and a cooler to vari-
ous places to be lubricated. The pump can be both engine driven as well as elec-
trically driven.
Splash lubrication is used in older 4-stroke engines. The oil is in the oil sump
where it is splashed around by a ladle on the crankshaft, thus lubricating cylin-
ders and bearings, and then drips down into the sump. Cooling of the lubrication
oil in these engines is arranged by radiation to the surroundings.
Direct lubrication means that various places are lubricated by a separate small
pump. This is used in some small diesel and semi-diesel engines.

Lubrication system 0020
Fig. 50. Lubricating oil system, pressure lubrication
9.3. Lubrication oil flows

For effective heat transport, the lubrication flow has to be large. The main lubri-
cation pump shall be oversized. Nearly 50% of the flow is by-passed through a
regulating valve.
9.4. Lubrication oil cooling

Besides lubricating, the lubrication oil also takes part in cooling the bearings and
other thermally highly loaded parts such as the pistons. Normally the coolers are
tube or plate coolers. Water is used as a cooling media on the secondary side.
9.5. Lubrication oil cleaning

Cleaning the lubrication oil is important since dust, metal particles and combus-
tion rests are acting like grinding materials which quickly wear out the moving
parts. Normally bigger engines are equipped with filters of the same type as de-
scribed in the fuel system chapter.
Furthermore, some engine manufacturers have equipped their engines with a
centrifugal filter. In this filter, the impurities are separated by the centrifugal
force; difference in density. The function can be seen in the figure 51. Oil is en-

0020 Lubrication system
tering in the centre and is flowing down to the lower part of the rotor where the
nozzles are. The reaction force of the flowing oil is rotating the filter. Revolu-
tions on such a filter depends on the oil pressure between and is in the range of
5,000...10,000 RPM.
ID10-20.cgm
Fig. 51. Centrifugal filter
9.6. Lubrication oil consumption

Due to the function of the piston, small lubrication oil consumption cannot be
avoided. In the figure below, the lubrication oil temperature in various places can
be seen.
Fig. 52. Lubricating oil temperatures

Lubrication system 0020
Main consumption takes place in the middle section or the engine cylinder, and
some parts in the upper section or the valve guidances. From these two places the
oil tries to enter the combustion space. These leaks are called internal leaks. Via
the cylinder liner, piston and piston ring set to the combustion chamber, oil is en-
tering due to following reasons:
• the up and down going piston and the variable acceleration lubrication oil is
moving closer to the TDC.
• during the working stroke acting side, forces are moving the lubrication oil
between the piston and the liner.
• since the piston rings are moving freely in the groves they create a pumping
effect.
Lubrication oil consumption is dependent on the following:

• engine revolution; the higher the engine revolutions are the bigger the con-
sumption will be due to the pumping effect from the piston
• mean effective pressure; the higher the output is the higher the oil temperature
will be. When increasing the output the peak pressures will also increase as
well as the blow-by. Increased blow-by will vaporise more lubrication oil.
• viscosity of the lubrication oil; the higher the viscosity is the lower the con-
sumption will be.
• roughness of the liner; too rough of a surface will increase the consumption,
especially if there are scratches in the liner wall.
• piston ring pressure against the liner wall; too low a pressure will increase the
consumption and too high a pressure will increase the wear.
Lubrication oil consumption is, as earlier mentioned, around 0.3...0.7 % of the

fuel oil consumption. If the lubrication oil consumption rises to 2 % of the fuel
oil consumption it is indicating that something has to be done.

0020 Cooling system
10. Cooling system

10.1. Need of cooling
During the compression and the work stroke, gas temperature in the engine cyl-
inders will rise to very high values. To prevent the lubrication oil from burning
on the cylinder walls, an effective and even cooling is needed. The cooling is also
needed for cooling the charge air after the compressor when the engine is
equipped with a turbocharger. Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, the lubrication
oil is cooled. Around 25...30% of the fuel energy will be transported away by
cooling.
10.2. Air cooling

Air cooling is used in very small engines. Advantages with air cooling are:
• simple and cheap construction
• can operate during all ambient conditions since air temperature changes have
only a small influence on the cylinder temperature
• the operation temperature can be reached quickly
Disadvantages are that lower compression ratios have to be used, and as a con-
sequence, lower output can be reached. Also, the noise level is higher than in a
liquid cooled engine.
10.3. Liquid cooling

Liquid cooled engines are the most common today. The cooling jacket surrounds
the cylinder down to the crank case. Water is led into the jacket in the lower part
and is discharged in the upper part from where it is transported to a cooler.
One type of liquid cooling, mainly used in smaller engines, is called thermosi-
phon circulation. This cooling system is based on the fact that the water density
drops when the temperature goes up. Circulation is obtained since the water rises
when heated up. Circulation in relatively slow.
In larger engines where higher energy quantities are to be cooled away, a forced
cooling system, or pump cooling, is to be used. The pump is normally a centrif-
ugal pump and is placed at the cooling water inlet. Advantages with the liquid
cooling systems are:
• the temperature is equal in the whole engine
• cooling spaces are lowering the noise level
The flow of a cooling water pump is dependent on the heat to be transported. To
achieve an equal cooling the temperature rise should be kept within 5...8 °C. This
will give a flow of around 60...120 l/kWh, calculated from the engine net out-
put.

Cooling system 0020
Coolers are used to cool down the water. One common way is by water to water.
Radiators and cooling towers are also often used where the water is cooled by the
ambient air temperature.
By temperature regulation, overheating of the engine can be avoided. Further-
more, temperature regulation prevents against too effective cooling while still
maintaining an equal temperature throughout the whole engine. To regulate the
temperature a thermostat is used. This thermostat is placed in the outlet line. Out-
let temperature of the cooling water is normally between 80...90 °C. For a typical
regulated cooling system, see figure below.
Fig. 53. A typical regulated cooling system

0020 Starting air system
11. Starting air system

11.1. Starting of an engine
Piston engines have to be started by an external power source. In a steam engine,
only the steam valve has to be opened.
11.2. Starting systems

For smaller engines (up to 200 hp) the most commonly used is an electric starting
motor equipped with a pinion which, under starting sequence, is in contact with
a gear ring on the engine flywheel.
Bigger engines are started with compressed air in a pressure range of 15...30 bar.
Electrical or diesel driven compressors are used to fill up the air bottles. From the
air bottle the compressed air is led to the engine’s main starting valve.
When opening the main starting valve air passes through, and a small quantity
goes to the starting air distributor. However, the main part goes to the starting
valve which is placed in the cylinder head. When the air distributor is in position
the air passes up to the starting valve and forces the valve to open. Air is fed to
the cylinder just after the piston has passed TDC during the expansion stroke, and
will close before the exhaust valve opens. See figure 54 for a typical starting sys-
tem.
11.3. Preheating before start

By preheating an engine the friction forces can be lowered. Preheating will also
allow fast loading of the engine. Either the combustion air or the entire engine
should be preheated.
11.4. Remote start

To avoid damages (turning gear engaged, turning bar in flywheel) the starting
system can be equipped with an interlocking device. Air to the distributor has to
pass a valve. If turning devices are engaged, air cannot pass up to the distributor
and the engine cannot be started. Among other safety devices slow-turning can
be mentioned. By such a device, possible water in the combustion spaces can be
recognised and the engine fails to start.

Starting air system 0020
Fig. 54. A typical starting system

0020 Charge air and exhaust system
12. Charge air and exhaust system

12.1. Quantities of suction air
Air consumption can be calculated based on the specific fuel consumption. The
air consumption can also be calculated based on the cylinder volume, engine rev-
olution, volumetric efficiency and the air constant. Experience shows that for a
4-stroke suction engine the needed amount of air is 75 dm3/min for each kW. The
same value for the supercharged engine is 80 dm3/min. These values are for max-
imum output.
12.2. Air filters

The values for the air consumption can be used when choosing a type of air filter.
The most common type of air filter is the dry type. Normally this filter is placed
on the engine. These filters have to protect the engine from dust in the ambient
air. Dust is considered particles within the range of 1...500 microns.
In some installations it might be necessary to use an oil bath filter. These are nor-
mally placed away from the engine. Disadvantages are the higher price and the
higher maintenance costs.
12.3. Air silencers

Any air silencers beside the air filter on the engines are normally not needed.
12.4. Exhaust gas silencers

In exhaust gas systems the gas back pressure has to be considered. In suction en-
gines the exhaust gas back pressure should not be higher than 1000 mm vp, and
in a supercharged engine only half of this value is acceptable. For every 500 mm
vp increase in the exhaust gas pressure, the output decreases by 1%. When the
silencer is choosen, both the back pressure and the noise absorbtion has to be
considered. In the exhaust gas system a general rule is to use as few pipe bends
as possible. Furthermore, the exhaust gas pipes must be flexibly connected to the
engine.
12.5. Crankcase ventilation

The crankcase ventilation system evacuates the blow-by gases from the combus-
tion. By measuring the crank case pressure the condition of the piston rings can
be checked. Normally engines are not equipped with crank case pressure indica-
tors, but they are easy to make and install, if not already installed.

Charge air and exhaust system 0020

0020 Control and monitoring system
13. Control and monitoring system

13.1. Speed regulation principles
The diesel engine, depending on the function, either has to run on constant speed
or as sometimes on ships, on variable speeds. This cannot be achieved without a
speed regulator. The basic function for the governor is to keep the revolution at
the pre-set value, independent of the load. When the load changes the revolution
also changes, and this change in revolution will be picked up by the governor. If
the revolutions go down, the load will increase and the governor will increase the
fuel via the fuel rack on the engine until the revolutions come up to the pre-set
value. In the case when the revolutions go up, which is an indication that the load
has decreased, the governor will decrease the fuel via the engine fuel rack until
the revolutions are once again at the pre-set value.
13.2. Type of governors

Different types of governors are available today. Since mechanical governors
are mostly used in small engines they will be neglected in this chapter, and in-
stead we will concentrate on governors used in medium speed engines.
The medium speed engine governors are mainly mechanical hydraulic gover-
nors. Mechanical means that the governor is mechanically linked to the fuel
rack. The accuracy is far above the mechanical governor. The steady load band is
below 0.5 %. In generator sets these governors are equipped with a speed drop
which will divide and balance loads between units paralleled in an electrical sys-
tem.
13.3. Monitoring points

Under normal operation the engine parameters should be recorded regularly.
Every engine manufacturer has their own measuring sheets. Such a sheet should
be used. Depending on the way of operation these parameters should be recorded
from once a day to once a month. When measurements are taken, all values are
of equal importance and should be taken at the same time under the same running
conditions. Every set of measurement should be saved and used for trend analy-
ses. Such a trend analyse should preferably be made every four weeks. Making
a trend analyse means that various parameters are plotted into a diagram. Param-
eters to be plotted are:
• injection pump rack value
• turbocharger revolutions
• exhaust gas temperature after the cylinders (as a mean value)
• peak pressures as a mean value of all cylinders
• charge air pressure
• charge air temperature

Control and monitoring system 0020
A medium speed engine should be equipped with the following thermometers

and pressure gauges, placed on the engine, called local meters and gauges:
• engine revolution counter
• turbocharger revolution counter
• exhaust gas thermometer after each cylinder
• pressure in the charge air receiver
• temperature in the charge air receiver
• HT-water temperature in and out
• LT-water temperature in and out
• HT-water pressure before the engine
• LT-water pressure before the engine
• lubricating oil temperature before and after the lubrication oil cooler
• lubricating pressure
• fuel supply pressure
• fuel supply temperature (when running on poor quality fuel, needs to be
heated)
Besides these local meters and gauges the engine room should be equipped with
an ambient temperature meter, a pressure gauge for the barometric pressure and
a measuring device for the relative humidity.

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0020 Introduction

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 1

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 2

Fig. 1. Piston diesel engine

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 3

1.2. Grouping of diesel engines

Aspirating stroke Compression stroke

Expansion stroke Exhaust stroke

Fig. 2. Different strokes

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 4

Fig. 3. Different ways of construction

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 5

Fig. 4. Different ways of function

G. Based on the revolutions. Slow speed engines in a range of 85...300 revolu-

1.3. Basic principle of the piston engine

The formula is:

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 6

Fig. 5. Swept- and compression volumes

where: n is engine speed in revolutions per minute and S is stroke in meter.

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 7

where: µm is the mechanical efficiency.

Fig. 6. Mean effective pressure

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 8

Fig. 7. Supercharged engine

The power, or output, is expressed in watt or kilowatt according to the SI-units.

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 9

Fig. 8. Different sides of an engine

Fig. 9. Direction of rotation

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 10

Numbering of cylinders and main bearings. The most common today is to

Fig. 10. Marking of main bearings and cylinders

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 11

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 12

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 13

Fig. 11. The Akroyd engine

2.2. The diesel engine

2.2.1. The beginning

Fig. 12. Mr Rudolf Diesel

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 14

2.2.2. Development of the diesel engine

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 15

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 16

3. Function Principles of the Diesel Engine

3.1.1. Combustion process

Fig. 13. Need of air for combustion

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 17

100ø 75ø 50ø 25ø TDC 25ø 50ø 75ø 100ø

Fig. 14. Cylinder pressure diagram

This picture explains:

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 18

3.1.2. The shape of the combustion space

The shape of the combustion space is of importance for an effective mixing of

Direct injected comb. space

Whirl- and fore chamber

Fig. 15. Shape of combustion chamber

B. Split combustion spaces:

Deciding which type of combustion chamber to choose depends on the follow-

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 19

Direct injected combustion spaces

1BF28/JC Wärtsilä NSD Finland Oy 20

3.2. Working process

Fig. 16. Seiliger diagram

The first process is called constant volume combustion or “Otto” process: