Adult Theory

Theory: A system of assumptions, accepted principles and rules of procedure designed to

analyze, predict or explain the nature or behavior of a specific set of phenomena

What is a model of a theory?

• A tentative description of a system or theory that accounts for all of its known
properties
• Models break down abstract ideas to more concrete measurable levels
• Models of theories are useful tools that aide in building the framework from
which you make a hypothesis of a particular phenomena
• Models are used to:
o Describe the phenomena
o Predict what will happen
o Explain why it is going on
o Figure out how to control it

Paradigm = overall view of a particular phenomena

o Directs theory building, evaluation and development of ways to address a
particular phenomena (i.e., treatment approaches).
o The paradigm determines the level of analysis and specificity of
description within that level.
o More precise descriptions of patients’ strengths and weaknesses lead to
greater chances of success.

Paradigm that guide investigation and treatment of language disorders

1. Structuralism: understood in terms of neuroanatomical organization

Basis for syndrome oriented approach

2. Functionalism: Understood in terms of organization of psycholinguistic structures and

processes

3. Connectionist: emerge from functionalism focus on the dynamic aspect of language

processing

Paradigm/ Model
Structuralism/ Syndrome Oriented Approach : language is understood via
neuroanatomical organization
Structuralism is the basis of the Syndrome Oriented Approach

Syndrome Oriented Approach

• Links language deficits to specific neurological regions
• Syndrome: Symptoms correspond to neurological lesion
• Explanation of this approach is tied to neuroanatomy
• Behaviors are described at the level of the task
 Criticisms:
• Syndrome groups are defined too broadly and with overlapping
characteristics
• Most people do not have clean lesions thus will often not be able to
neatly categorized in a single group
• Syndrome categories (e.g. Broca’s and Wernicke’s) do not describe
what language related functions are affected
• Syndromes are defined as a “checklist of syndromes” but these do
not uniquely define the syndrome
• Often there is disagreement on where patients can be classifies &
at times if patients can be classified at all
• Research using this design may be subject to error due to
variability within groups
Criticisms of syndrome oriented approaches) (from Gagnon and Martin, 2002 –
recommended reading)
• Do not effectively predict outcome or recovery
• Change is equated with moving form one syndrome to another 
Wernicke’s’ to Conduction
• Measure of change is based on correlation data
• Specific predictions of an individual’s recovery pattern are not
possible
• Reliable predictions on treatment generalizations can not be made
because of the high variability within syndromes
Arguments in favor of Approach:
The majority of the claims are that the approach is not specific enough;
however, “these models provide a first step in rehabilitation” (Hillis)
It is a general understanding and a starting point not a comprehensive
overview. From which to base entire long term treatment plans
Good place for now- functional imaging will provide us with more information
in the future

2. Functionalist Approach: Disorder is understood in terms of

psycholinguistic structures and processes
Functionalist Approach= the box and arrow approach
Based on the information processor
Boxes= different types of language representations (semantic, phonological)
Arrows= meant to demonstrate the processes that occur between
representation
Offers a more detailed description of what process is not functioning properly
Results are not just descriptions of language tasks but are descriptions of
processes
Successful in tx setting (development of PALPA)

Criticisms
Unable to describe can tell us what processes are impaired and need to be
targeted but CANNOT tell us how to target those processes
- think of language as levels of psycholinguistics-semantics, phonology, etc
- here is the breakdown; here is a place we need to fix
o reconnect pathways
 o capitalize on what is intact (circumlocution)
- one directional-each level activates the next level
- no two levels activated at the same time (independent stages of processing)
- doesn’t tell how one system activates the next, just says that it does
- what the connections are between the “boxes” and “arrows”
Psycholinguistic Approach

Language Oriented Treatment:

• Based on psycholinguistic approach
• Although a psycholinguistic approach still tied to neural underpinnings
of language
• Aphasia is a disorder of access NOT a loss of language
• Content of therapy plays an important role in this approach
o Highly individualized
o Relies on analysis of patterns of deficits and strengths of
individual
• Communication is subdivided into 6 systems:
o Auditory processing
o Oral Expression
o Graphic expression
o Gesture Abilities
o Visual processing
 Within each modality tasks are vary from easy to difficult
• (Auditory processing; Single word comprehension
(easy) to Comprehension of discourse)
• Based on stimulus-response, reinforcement paradigm, Reinforcement
is feedback given after errors
• When difficulties are encountered – the stimuli and/or task is altered
• Goal is to maximize successful performance so need to continually
change task/ and stimuli to fit ability level of client
• Goal is errorless learning
• Cueing may be utilize when pt can not respond independently-
movement through task hierarchy/ difficulty level is decided by
clinician

Cognitive Neuropsychological approach

• Cognitive models are neutral about neuroanatomical organization of
language
• Functional = behavioral components in the processing of language
• These models are termed box and arrow models or psycholinguistic
models
o Boxes= are hypotheses of components of a language system
 What components?
• Representations of sounds, meaning, words
• Rules for sequencing words and sounds
o Arrows: Represent communication between component
representation
 • A person’s abilities and deficits are described based on cognitive
components of a language task and not the task itself
o Word production is disrupted because
 Mapping of word meaning to word form is impaired
 phonological encoding is impaired

Limitations of the Cognitive neuropsychological approach

• Hillis and Newhart admit that treatment procedures are not based on
the cognitive neuropsychological model but that will identify deficient
cognitive processes that can be target in therapy

Connectionism

• Also form the psycholinguistic viewpoint

• Takes functionalism one step further
• Instead of just understanding what the connections are between the
boxes and arrorows the connectionist approach looks at how they
interact
• Functional modes= independent stages of processing but connectionist
approach describe stages of processing as being interactive

Terminology
• Network of units arranged in levels according to type of information
that they convey
• Connections between units at each level
o Connection vary in strength
• Information flows forward and feed back
• Activation- representations become activated
• Activation is transmitted from one representation to another
- Interactive activation models (the bunch of circles and line).
- Are used to demonstrate principles of learning and re-learning after
brain damage. They can address questions such as:
o What kind of stimuli are best used to promote learning?
o How intense (how many sessions per week) should therapy be?
o think of language as levels of psycholinguistics-semantics, phonology,
etc
o here is the breakdown; here is a place we need to fix
o reconnect pathways
o capitalize on what is intact (circumlocution)
o how connections interact and bring about a more dynamic understanding of
how language is processed
o dynamic, explains how one level activates the next
o bi-directional- feed forward and feed backward
o can have activation at more than one level at a time (interactive
stages of processing)
o because of loss of connection/access, brain moves in different
directions and tries to make new pathways
 o example: if see a picture of a cat, it activates the semantics of
cat. Ideally, it will then go to the phonological level, but let’s say
that your phonological level isn’t working (the access isn’t there).
Then, your brain will go back up to semantics, pick another close
word, and produce “dog.”
o Activation: theory that timing of rise rate/decay rate are disturbed
o Rise rate (how long it takes to activate)
o Decay rate (how long it takes to deactivate)

Types of Connectionist models

• Localist connectionist: Language representations (e.g., semantic and
phonological) are implemented in the model as discrete units.
Localist Interactive activation model

Dell & O’Seaghdha, 1992

Criticisms of Connectionist
Approach

• Largely
Distributed connectionist: representations are of based on aare
language computer
data system and use of
implemented as series of features that comprise a particular language
element. computer systems to test
Plaut & Shallice, 1993 validity of the model but
Distributed human brain more complex

Does not have the practicality

to be used in the clinical setting
Fromkin, Garrett and Levelt
Language processing is modular  so stages of word processing (retrival of semantic
and phonology) are independent of other processes

Dell and others (Harley, Stemberger)

Word processing is INTERACTIVE

What data are used to as evidence to test theories of word retrieval.

Speech errors
Analysis of hesitation and pauses
Naming reaction time
Analysis of tip of the tongue phenomena

Using cognitive/psycholinguistic models to diagnose language disorders

Paradigm/ Model Approaches
Structuralism: Syndrome
language is understood Oriented
via neuroanatomical Approach
organization
Psycholinguist
Functionalism: ic Approach
Language is understood
via organization of
linguistic structures and Cognitive
processes neuropsycholo
gical Approach
Connectionist : Off
shoot of functionalism,
looks at the dynamic
aspects of language
processing

Symptoms often frequently occur with specific lesion sites.

Explanation is tied to neuroanatomy.
(e.g. what cause’s comprehension defects--> damage to Wernicke’s aphasia)
Behavior described at level of task (e.g. poor naming ability)