Solutions to Example Sheet 2

All groups are nite; all representations are over omplex ve tor spa es.

Group G a ts on set X
Æ orbit of x 2 X is xG := fgx 2 X j g 2 Gg
Æ stabilizer of x 2 X is Gx := fg 2 G j gx = xg
Æ xed point set of g 2 G is X g := fx 2 X j gx = xg
Spe ial ase: G a ts on itself via onjugation
Æ onjuga y lass of x 2 G is xG := fgxg 2 G j g 2 Gg 1

Æ entralizer of x 2 G is CG (x) := Gx = Gx = fg 2 G j gx = xgg

Æ enter of G is Z (G) := fg 2 G j gx = xg for all x 2 Gg = Tx2G CG (x)
Æ ommutator of x and y is [x; y℄ := x y xy 1 1

Æ ommutator subgroup of G is G0 := h[x; y℄ j x; y 2 Gi

Re all: jxG j = [G : Gx℄
1. (a) Let  be a representation of G with hara ter , and suppose dimension of  is d. Show ker  =
fg 2 G j (g) = dg.
(b) Show j(g)j  d for all g 2 G, and that if jgj = d, then (g) = Id , where  is a root of unity.
Solution. As in Problem 7, Example Sheet 1 (applied to the y li subgroup hgi E G), we may
pi k a basis so that (g) = diag( ; : : : ; d) where the i 's are nth roots of unity, n = ordG(g) = jhgij.
1
Note that (g) is basis independent and so (g) =  +


+ d . 1

(a) Clearly if g 2 ker , then (g) = tr (g) = tr(Id) = d. Conversely, d = (g) =  +


+ d ould 1
only happen if i = 1 for all i = 1; : : : ; d. Hen e (g) = Id.
(b) By the triangle inequality j(g)j = j +


+ dj  j j +


+ jdj = d. Equality o urs i
1 1
arg( ) =


= arg(d ) =  for some . So  =


= d = ei whi h must be a root of unity
1 1
sin e all i 's are and so we have (g) = ei Id. 
2. Let  be a hara ter of G, and suppose g 2 G has order 2, ie. g = 1. Show (g) 2 Z, and (g)  (1)
2

(mod 2).
Solution. Let d be the dimension of . As in the solution of Problem 1, (g) is a sum of d square
roots of unity, ie. 1. Sin e 1  1 (mod 2), (g)  d = (1) (mod 2). 
3. (a) Let G = f1; i; j; kg be the \quaternion group" Q , (ij = k = ji, i = j = k = 1).
8
2 2 2

Regarding G as a subgroup of the quaternions H = C C j , we get a two-dimensional representation

of G. Show this is irredu ible.
(b) Con lude the remaining irredu ible representations of G are one-dimensional. Find them. Write
the hara ter table of G.
( ) Let G = D = symmetries of the square. Show G a ts on C irredu ibly, and determine the
8
2

hara ter table of G.

(d) Compare the hara ter tables of D and Q . Comment?
8 8
1
Solution . First, a few easy fa ts about Q . Clearly 1 are in Z (Q ); jij = kik = i
8 8
1 1

and so iQ8 = fig. By the symmetry in the relations on i; j; k, we must also have j Q8 = fj g
and kQ8 = fkg and thus Z (Q ) = f1g. Sin e [i; j ℄ = i j ij = ijij = i j = 1, we have
8
1 1 2 2

[a; b℄ = 1 for every a; b 2 fi; j; kg, a 6= b, again by symmetry and 1 2 Z (Q ). So Q0 = f1g
and Q =Q0 = f1; i; j; ij g = Z=2  Z=2. The `header' of the hara ter table is:
8 8
8 8
1 The solution to this problem is worked out in full details. You are not required to write most of these steps down in
your solutions (and please don't). The obvious steps will be dropped in future problems.

1
 xQ8 1 1 fig fj g fkg
jCQ8 (x)j
8 8 4 4 4
(a) If we regard H as a left C -ve tor spa e (ie. we write the s alars on the left), then right multipli-
ation by elements in Q gives rise to a Q -a tion on H , (ie. Q  H ! H , (g; ) 7! g). Pi k
8 8 8
the basis f1; j g and determine the Q a tion (to make things learer, Æ is used to denote group
8
a tion and
is used to denote s alar multipli ation):
1 Æ (i) = i
1 + 0
j 1 Æ (j ) = 0
1  1
j 1 Æ (k) = 0
1 + (i)
j
j Æ (i) = 0
1 + (i)
j j Æ (j ) = 1
1 + 0
j j Æ (k) = i
1 + 0
j
and this gives a matrix representation  : Q ! GL (C ) with 8 2
       
(1) = 01 01 ; (i) = 0i 0i ; (j ) = 01 01 ; (k) = 0i 0i :

Computing the tra e gives the following entry in the hara ter table:
xQ8 1 1 fig fj g fkg
 2 2 0 0 0
 is irredu ible sin e

h ;  i = 1
X
 (x) (x)
jQ j x2Q8
8

=
X 1
 (x) (x)
Q j C Q8 (x)j
x 8
 
1 2 ( 2) 0 2
= 8 8 + 8 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 1: 0 0 2

(b) Let d ; d ; d be the dimensions of the other non-trivial irredu ible hara ters. Then sin e
1 2 3

1 + d + d + d + 2 = jQ j = 8;
2 2
1
2
2
2
3
2
8

we must have d = d = d = 1. Hen e the remaining irredu ible representations are one-
dimensional. By Problem 7, the linear hara ters are exa tly those lifted from Q =Q0 = Z=2 
1 2 3
8
Z=2. Re all from the Problem 9, Example Sheet 1 that the irredu ible (thus one-dimensional)
8

representations ( linear hara ters) of Z=2  Z=2 are:

Z=2  Z=2 (0; 0) (1; 0) (0; 1) (1; 1)
1 1 1 1
 1 1 1 1 1
 1 2 1 1 1
 1 3 1 1 1
Lifting the hara ters on Z=2  Z=2 to Q means to see where the map
8

Q !
Q =Q0 '! Z=2  Z=2 !
8 8

C8

sends the onjuga y lasses in Q . For instan e if we look at  , then

8 1

1 7! 1 7! (0; 0) 7! 1 i 7! i 7! (1; 0) 7! 1 k 7! ij 7! (1; 1) 7! 1

1 7! 1 7! (0; 0) 7! 1 j 7! 1 7! (0; 1) 7! 1
and we get (abusing notation, we use  for the lifted hara ter too):
1

xQ8 1 1 fig fj g fkg

 1 1 1 1 1 1
Repeating this for  and  , we obtain the full hara ter table of Q :
2 3 8

2
 xQ8 1 1 fig fj g fkg
1 1 1 1 1
 1 1
1 1 1 1
 1 1
2 1 1 1
 1 1
3 1 1 1
 2 2 0 0 0
( ) See: Some notes on Dn , An and Sn .
(d) D  Q sin e D has two elements of order 2: a and b, while Q has only one element of order
8 8 8
2
8
2: 1. So the hara ter table of a group does not determine the group up to isomorphism. 
4. Determine the hara ter table for D = symmetries of the hexagon.
12

Solution. See: Some notes on Dn, An and Sn. 

5. Determine the hara ter table for D = symmetries on the 5-gon. For every representation V of D ,
10 10
we may regard it as a representation of Z=5 ,! D . Determine, for ea h irredu ible representation
10
V of D , how it de omposes into irredu ible hara ters for Z=5.
10

Solution. See: Some notes on Dn, An and Sn. 

6. Determine the hara ter table for the alternating group A . 4

Solution. See: Some notes on Dn, An and Sn. 

7. Des ribe the ommutator subgroup of a group in terms of the hara ter table of G.
Solution. We laim that the rows in the hara ter table of G with 1 in the rst olumn are pre isely
the hara ters lifted from G0 E G. If , a hara ter of G, is lifted from 0, a hara ter of G=G0, then
 = 0 Æ  and so  is one-dimensional, ie. (1) = 1. Conversely, if (1) = 1, then we have to nd a
0 : G=G0 ! C  su h that  = 0 Æ . The obvious hoi e would of ourse be
0
G=G0 ! C  ; xG0 7! (x):
Sin e our denition of 0 involves a hoi e of oset representative, we have to show that this is a
well-dened map, ie. the image is independent of the oset representative we hose: (x) = (xg) for
all g 2 G0 or equivalently (g) = 1 for all g 2 G0. The last ondition is just G0  ker(0 ) and this is
obvious sin e G= ker(0 )  C  and so is abelian, thus G0  ker(0 ). Observe also the hara ters lifted
from the irredu ible hara ter of G=G0 are all distin t ( lear from how a lifted hara ter is dened)
and so the hara ter table of G ontains exa tly jG=G0 j rows of dimension one.
We further laim that \
G0 = ker(): (7.1)
(1)=1

In the earlier part, we have already shown that G0  ker() for all one-dimensional hara ter . So
\" is done. For the onverse, re all that:
➀ By the earlier part, all irredu ible hara ters of G=G0 are of the form 0 where 0 Æ  =  is a
one-dimensional hara ter of G.
➁ In general, if x 2 G satises (x) = 1 for every irredu ible hara ter of G, then x = 1.
So we have
T
g2  ker() =) (g) = 1 for all one-dimensional hara ter  of G
(1)=1

=➀) 0(gG0 ) = 0 Æ (g) = (g) = 1 for all irredu ible hara ter 0 of G=G0
=➁) gG0 = G0
=) g 2 G0
and we get \". 
Remarks. (7.1) allows us to get G0 from the hara ter table of G. Re all that ker() = fx 2 G j
(x) = (1)g and so in this ase G0 is the olle tion of those x 2 G satisfying (x) = 1 for every
one-dimensional in the hara ter table (see example below).
3
 Example. It is easy to tell whi h are the elements in G0 on e you are given the hara ter table
of G. In Problem 8, we will see that the hara ter table for the non-abelian group of order 21,
F7;3 = hx; y j x7 = y3 = 1; y 1xy = x2 i is:
F7;31 xF7 3 ;
(x )F7 3
3 ;
bF7 3;
(b )F7 3
2 ;

jg j 1
F 7 3 ;
3 3 7 7
1 1 1 1 1
 1 1 1 1  
 1 2 1 1  
 3 3 0 0
 3 4 0 0
So G0 = f1g [ xF7 3 [ (x )F7 3 = f1g [ fx; x ; x g [ fx ; x ; x g = hxi, ie. union of the onjuga y
; 3 ; 2 4 3 5 6

lasses orresponding to the blo k of 1's in the table.

8. The table below is part of the hara ter table of a nite group, but some of the rows are missing
jg G j 1 3 3 7 7
a 1 1 1  
p
= ( 1 + 7i) 1

b 3 0 0 p 2

 3 0 0  = ( 1 + 3i) 1
2

(a) omplete the table

(b) des ribe the group in terms of generators and relations
(a) The table is obviously missing the trivial hara ter . Sin e a is irredu ible, so must a; the
latter is a hara ter distin t from , a, b ,  and so must also be on the table. Hen e we have
jg G j 1 3 3 7 7
1 1 1 1 1
a 1 1 1  
a 1 1 1  
b 3 0 0
 3 0 0
(b) The order of the onjuga y lasses tells us that G is non-abelian and has order 21. By Problem
7, the one-dimensional hara ters are pre isely the ones that are lifted from the hara ters G=G0 .
Sin e there are three of these, jG=G0j = 3, so jG0j = 7 and so G0 = Z=7. Let x 2 G be a generator
of G0 and so it has order 7. Let jyGj = 7, then a(y) =  (or  ) is a third root of unity. Note that
a is one-dimensional and so a homomorphism of G ! C  . The order of y is either 3, 7 or 21. It
annot be 21 or G would be y li (thus abelian); it annot be 7 sin e a(y ) = a(y) =  6= 1; 7 7 7

so y has order 3. x and y together must generate a group of at least 21 and so we have found the
generators of G. It remains to obtain a non-trivial relation between x and y. Sin e hxi = G0 E G,
yxy = xr for some r with g d(r; 7) = 1 (sin e y xy must have the same order as x) and we
1 1

may regard r as an element of (Z=7). Observe that y xny = (y xy)n = xrn and so 1 1

x = y xy = y (y xy)y = y xr y = y (y xr y)y = y xr y = xr :
3 3 2 1 2 2 2 2 3
1 1 1 1

So r  1 (mod 7), ie. order of r in (Z=7) divides 3; if it were 1, then we get yx = yx and
3

onsequently G abelian, so it must be 3. By raising elements in (Z=7) = f1; 2; 3g to third
powers, we may nd that the elements of order 3 expli itly and so get r = 2; 4. Hen e we have
G = hx; y j x = y = 1; y xy = x i or hx; y j x = y = 1; y xy = x i:
7 3 1 2 7 3 1 4

It is easy to see that this two presentations dene isomorphi groups (taking z = y in the rst 2

presentation and rewriting the relations in terms of x and z gives the se ond presentation). 

4
 Remarks. Note that Part (b) annot be done in general sin e the presentation of a group determines
it uniquely up to isomorphism while as Problem 3 shows, the hara ter table of a group doesn't
determine the group uniquely. Also, the way to arrived at the generators and relations is quite ad
ho | it depends on how mu h group theory you assume. If you know that there exists exa tly
one non-abelian group of order pq, p  1 (mod q): Fp;q = ha; b j ap = bq = 1; b ab = ar i where 1

r 2 (Z=p) has order q (a standard exer ise in the appli ation of Sylow's theorems), then the header
of the hara ter table alone would tell you what the group is non-abelian of order 21 and thus must
be F ; .
73

9. Show dimC HomG (C [X ℄; C [Y ℄) = number of G-orbits on X  Y , where X and Y are nite G sets, and
C [X ℄ and C [Y ℄ are the orresponding permutation representations.
Solution. Let  and  be the hara ter aorded on the permutation G-modules C [X ℄ and C [Y ℄
1 2
respe tively. Re all that  (g) = jX g j and  (g) = jY g j. Sin e
1 2

dimC HomG(C [X ℄; C [Y ℄) = h ;  i; 1 2

we just need to ompute the . To do this, we observe two easy fa ts:

rhs

➀ (X  Y )g = f(x; y ) 2 X  Y j g (x; y ) = (gx; gy ) = (x; y )g = X g  Y g .

`
➁ If Z is a G-set, then g2G ` Z g = f(z; g) 2 Z  G j z 2 Z g g = f(z; g) 2 Z  G j gz = z g =
f(z; g) 2 Z  G j g 2 Gz g = z2Z Gz .
Let Z = X  Y . We have
 
1 X 1 X
g ➀ 1
X
h ;  i = jGj  (g) (g) = jGj jX jjY j = jGj jZ j = jGj  Z 
1 2 1
g
2
g 1  a g

2
g G 2
g G g G 2 g G 2
 
=➁ jG1 j = jG1 j jGz j = 1 =➂ 1
n X
a  X X X X

 Gz  jGz j = j G j j z Gj jz G j = n
2
z Z 2
z Z z 2Z z 2Z i =1 2
z ziG
Sn
where ➂ follows from writing Z = i ziG, a disjoint union of orbits, and n is of ourse just the
number of orbits on Z = X  Y .
=1

Remarks. The disjoint union or, if you are sophisti ated, the oprodu t, of a family of sets Xi
indexed by i 2 I is dened as `i2I Xi = f(x; i) j x 2 Xig. ThisS is to be distinguished from the usual
meaning of `disjoint union' of subsets Ai  X , i 2 I , where i2I Ai is a disjoint union means that
Ai \ Aj = ? for all i 6= j . For instan e f1; 2; 3gq f3; 4g = f(1; 0); (2; 0); (3; 0); (3; 1); (4; 1)g (index the
rst set by 0 and se ond by 1) whereas f1; 2; 3g [ f3; 4g = f1; 2; 3; 4g. So when Ai  X , i 2 I , are
non-disjoint subsets of X , forming oprodu t for es them to be disjoint.
10. (a) Show that the one-dimensional hara ters of G form a group. Denote this Gb. Show that if g 2 G,
the map  7! (g) from Gb to C is a hara ter of Gb, hen e an element of Gbb. What is the kernel
of the map G ! Gbb.
(b) Show that if G is abelian, the map G ! Gbb is an isomorphism. Con lude from the stru ture
theorem for abelian groups that the groups G and Gb are isomorphi as abstra t groups.
Remark: it is not a good idea to identify G and G b . One reason why is:
( ) Let ' : G ! H be a homomorphism of abelian groups. Dene a map ' : Hb ! Gb. Show ' is
surje tive i ' is inje tive.
Solution.

(a) The group operation on Gb is learly pointwise multipli ation of fun tions, ie. for  ;  2 Gb, the 1 2
produ t   is dened by   (x) :=  (x) (x) for all x 2 G. The is just multipli ation of
1 2 1 2 1 2 rhs
omplex numbers and so is ommutative and asso iative. (x) 2 C  and so the inverse of  is the
map x 7! 1=(x) = (x ) whi h is learly in Gb sin e  (xy) = (y x ) = (y )(x ) =
1 1 1 1 1 1

 (x) (y). The trivial hara ter is the identity element. So Gb is an abelian group.
1 1

For ea h x 2 G, dene x : Gb ! C  ,  ! (x). x 2 Gbb sin e x(  ) =  (x) (x) = 1 2 1 2

x ( )x ( ) and x( ) = (x) = 1.
1 2

Let  : G ! Gbb, x 7! x. Then ker() = fx 2 G j (x) = 1 for all  2 Gbg = T2Gb ker() = G0 ,
the ommutator subgroup of G, where the last equality follows from (7.1).
5
 (b) If G is abelian, then ker() = G0 = f1g and so  is inje tive. Sin e G is nite,  is bije tive
(pigeon hole prin iple). (  ) =  (x) (x) = ( )( ). Hen e  is an isomorphism.
1 2 1 2 1 2

Re all from Example Sheet 1, Problem 7 that for k = C , every one-dimensional hara ter (there
irredu ible representation) of a y li group Z=N is of the form  : Z=N ! C  , n 7! n for
some N th root of unity. If we pi k  2 C  to be any primitive N th root of unity, say  = e i=N , 2

then it's lear that N = but d 6= for d = 1; : : : ; N . Hen e Z[=N = h i = Z=N . Observe
that G\  G = Hom(G  G ; C )   = Hom(G ; C )  Hom(G ; C ) = Gb  Gb . Apply this
 
repeatedly to a nite abelian group G = Z=N 


 Z=Nm (stru ture theorem), we get that
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1

= Z\
Gb  =N  : : : Z\
1 =Nm = Z=N 


 Z=Nm = G.
1

( ) Let ' 2 Hom(G; H ). Dene ' : Hb ! Gb,  7!  Æ ', the latter is a omposition of two
homomorphisms with image in C  and so is indeed in Gb. ['(  )℄(x) =   ('(x)) = 1 2 1 2
 ('(x)) ('(x)) = [' ( )' ( )℄(x) and so ' 2 Hom(H;
1 2 1 2
b Gb ). If ' : G ! H is inje tive,
then we have the exa t sequen e
0 !G ! '
H:
Applying the ontravariant fun tor Hom( ; C  ) gives exa t sequen e

Hom(H; C  ) '! Hom(G; C  ) ! 0
and so ' : Hb ! Gb is surje tive. Conversely, assuming the previous statement, we have the exa t
sequen e 
Hb '! Gb ! 0:
Applying Hom( ; C  ) gives exa t sequen e
(' )
0 b C )
! Hom(G; b C )
! Hom(H;
and sin e Hom(G; b C ) = Gbb= G by Part (b), (' ) ' ' is inje tive. 
11. Compute the hara ter tables of S ; S ; S . Compute the hara ter the hara ter tables of A ; A ; A
3 4 5 3 4 5
(An  Sn). The groups Sn a t by onjugation on An. This indu es an a tion on the set of irredu ible
representations of An. Des ribe it for n = 3; 4; 5.
Solution. See: Some notes on Dn, An and Sn. 
12. The group SL (Fq ) a ts on P (Fq ) = Fq [ f1g by Mobius transformations:
2
1

 
a b
z = az + b :
d z + d
Show that SL (Fq ) has an irredu ible representation of dimension q.
2

Solution. (By Murray Rogers, Queen's College) If we set G = SL (Fq ) and X = P (Fq ) then we 2
1

know that for the permutation representation C [X ℄ the hara ter  has
h; i = #G-orbits on X  X:
If we dene
= f(x; x) 2 X  X j x 2 X g, then G a ts transitively on
, sin e g = x
2 G 1

sends (1; 1) to (x; x).

1 0

Also, G a ts transitively on (X  X )n
, sin e g = a db
sends (1; 0) to (x; y), where

a = (x y) x; 1
b = y; = (x y) ; d = 1: 1

Hen e G has two distin t orbits on X  X , as these orbits learly annot overlap, so h; i = 2. Thus
perm =  0, where dim(0 ) = jX j 1 = q, irredu ible. 

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