MTE3101 Knowing Numbers

Topic 1 Numeration Systems

1.1 Synopsis

This topic covers the development of various numeration systems, ranging from early
numeration systems to our present Hindu-Arabic Numeration System. Early numeration
systems discussed include the Tally Numeration System, the Roman Numeration System,
the Egyptian Numeration System, the Mayan Numeration System and the Babylonian
Numeration System. Under the Hindu-Arabic Numeration System, the number of symbols
and grouping in various bases is highlighted. You will also learn how to change from one
base to base 10 and vice versa.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

1. Compare the development of various numeration systems.

2. Change base b to base 10 and vice versa.

1.3 Conceptual Framework

Numeration Systems

Early Numeration Different Numeration Hindu-Arabic Numeration

Systems Systems Systems

 Number of symbols and grouping in various bases

 Changing base b to base 10 and vice versa

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1.4 Early Numeration Systems

In olden days, people used several ways to record the few numbers they needed. For
instance, to represent the number of sheep in a flock, a shepherd collected pebbles. By
matching the pebbles against the flock, the shepherd could see if any of his sheep were
missing. Mathematicians nowadays call this kind of matching a one-to-one
correspondence.

Later, people developed other ways to record the possessions they owned. They tied knots
in a leather thong or scratched tally marks on the side of a rock and matched the knots or
marks against each item. In fact, tally sticks and pebbles were important advances towards
the creation of numeration systems.

A tally stick

Then people began to use symbols to represent numbers. For example, the picture of
"wings" was used to mean two objects. In most early numeration systems, people formed
numerals simply by repeating basic symbols and adding their values to get the number they
wanted. The Egyptians, Greek, and Romans used numeral systems of this kind. The
picture below depicts the Greek Numeral system.

Greek Numerals

The Hindus used a numeration system that was superior to all others. It followed the
principle of place value and used ten numerals. This system evolved into our present day
Hindu-Arabic System (also known as the decimal numeral system) and is now used in
every part of the world.

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The development of various early numeration systems is given below.

1.4.1 The Tally Numeration System

This system is the simplest amongst the numeration systems. It is composed of single
strokes, one for each object being counted. However, two disadvantages of using this
system are that (1) large numbers require many individual symbols, and (2) it is difficult to
read the numerals for such large numbers. For example, can you quickly tell what number
is represented by these tally marks? Not easy, right?

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

The Tally system was improved by ‘grouping’ whereby the fifth tally mark was placed
across every four to make a group of five just like this: IIII
Grouping makes it easier to recognise the number being represented. Using the grouping
technique, can you now tell what number is represented by the tally marks in the above
example?

1.4.2 The Egyptian Numeration System ( Around 3400 BC)

The Egyptian hieroglyphic system is an example of a simple grouping numeration system.

The numbers are formed by combining copies of the symbols (hieroglyphics) that represent
the powers of ten. This numeration system is based upon tally marks, that is,

I II III IIII IIIII IIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIIII IIIIIIII

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

However, after 9, they needed a new symbol that began “grouping” to represent certain
sets of numbers. The next value was ∩ (heel bone) that represented 10.

As mentioned earlier, the Egyptian method for recording quantities is based on 10 with a
symbol for one, ten, and each successive power of ten. A distinct hieroglyphic was used for
each power of 10. However, there was no symbol for zero. Thus, a particular symbol was
omitted in a numeral when that multiple of ten was not part of the number.

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Some symbols used in the Egyptian Numeration are illustrated below:

The Egyptian system simply followed an additive property; that is, the value of the number
was the sum of the face values of the numerals, for example:
What number is represented by the following hieroglyphics?

That’s right! The above hieroglyphics represent a value of 21,346.

Try writing 465,123 using the Egyptian System. Good luck!

1.4.3 The Roman Numeration System (Between 500 B.C. and A.D. 100)

The Roman Numeration System is a more sophisticated simple grouping system compared
to the Egyptian Numeration System. Advantages over the Egyptian system include utilising
the:
 “subtractive principle” that allows numbers to be represented more concisely, and
 “multiplicative principle” that makes writing large numbers easier.
The following table shows the eight alphabets that are used to denote different values in
the Roman Numeration System and their corresponding values in the Hindu-Arabic
Numeration System.
Roman Numeral Hindu-Arabic Numeral
I 1
V 5
X 10
L 50
C 100
D 500
M 1000

Certain rules have to be followed when using the Roman Numeration System, that is:

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 Only the symbols I, X, C, and M may be repeated, but never write a symbol more
than 3 times in succession. If a fourth symbols seems necessary, use the
subtraction principle.
 When using the subtraction principle, we can only subtract the symbols: I, X, C, and
M (not V, L, or D – nothing with a “5”)
 We can only subtract numerals from the next 2 higher numerals. (e.g. you can have
IV and IX, but you cannot have IL, IC, ID, IM)
 Use a bar above a symbol(s) to indicate multiplication by 1000 e.g.
V means 5 x 1000 = 5000; IX means 9 x 1000 = 9000
 Use vertical bars to indicate multiplication by 100 e.g.
| V | means 5 x 100 = 500 ; | L | means 50 x 1000 x 100 = 5,000,000

More examples are given below:

 If the Roman numerals are listed such that each numeral has a larger value than the
numeral to its right, then the value of the numeral is found using an Additive property. Each
of the numeral I, X, C and M may be repeated up to three times. The numerals V, L, and D
are not repeated, for example:
XVI = ?
CCCVI = ?
MMCCCLXII = ?

 If the numerals are listed such that each numeral DOES NOT have a larger value than
the numeral to its right, then the value of the numeral is found using an Additive property
and a Subtractive property. The only numerals that may be subtracted from other numerals
are I, X, and C, for example:
IV = ? ; IX = ? ; XL = ? ; XC = ?; CD = ?; CM = ?; CXLIV = ?; MCDLXXI = ?

 Furthermore, the subtraction of these values is allowed only if the value of the numeral
to the right is within two rows on the table above of the numeral to the left, for example:
XL = ?; XC = ?
but XD is not equal to 490 because X is 3 rows from D in the table shown above.

What then is 490 using Roman symbols? 490 = ___________________

Well done! You’ve got it!

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 The Roman system is a positional system since the position of a number can affect
the value of a number being represented, for example:
XI is 11 whereas IX is nine

 When writing very large numbers, the Roman Numeration System also employs a
Multiplicative property, for example:

IX = 9 x 1000 = 9000 ;
IDICCLXII = 500 x 100 + 100 + 100 + 50 +10 + 2 = 50,262

Try this:

Write using Roman Numerals:

 579 4,709 = ___________________________
 304,536 8,070 = ___________________________

1.4.4 The Mayan Numeration System ( Between A.D. 300 and A.D. 900)

The Mayan Numeration System was a base-20 system (vigesimal) that used only three
symbols comprising a system of shells, bars and dots in a vertical place value system. A
dot represented one, a bar represented five and a shell represented zero. The chart below
shows the first complete cycle of Mayan numbers.

Mayan numerals

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Just like in our present number system, place values were used to expand the Mayan
system to represent very large values. However, this system has two significant
differences from the system we use, namely: 1) the place values are arranged vertically,
and 2) they use a base 20, or vigesimal, system.

This means that the number in the second postion in the Mayan system has a value 20
times the value of the numeral instead of having a value 10 times that of the numeral as in
our present system. It follows that the number in the third place has a value of (20)2, or
400, times the value of the numeral. This principle is illustrated in the chart below.

Sometimes this number will be expressed in the shorthand 3.10.6.13.17 in writings on the
Mayan numeration system, especially when discussing dates that are recorded in books of
the upper classes or in monuments.

There are two advantages when using this system for expressing numbers, that is, 1) large
numbers can be easily expressed – thus, long time periods can be recorded; and 2) simple
arithmetic can be easily accomplished by the users.

In the marketplace, sticks and pebbles, small bones and cacao beans, or other items
readily at hand can be used to express the numbers in the same way that they are
expressed on the monuments or in the books of the upper classes.

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Simple additions can be performed by simply combining two or more sets of symbols
(within their same set) as shown below.

For more complicated arithmetic, you must remember that you can borrow or carry only
when you reach 20 and not 10, as illustrated below.

It is important to note that this number system was in use in Mesoamerica while the people
of Europe were still struggling with the Roman numeral system. The Roman system
suffered from serious defects, that is, there was no zero (0) in the system, and, as opposed
to the Mayan system, the numbers were entirely symbolic, without direct connection to the
number of items represented.

Let’s take a look at the following example.

Example:

Write as a Hindu-Arabic numeral.

Solution:
The given Mayan numeral has four places. From top to bottom, the place values are 7200,
360, 20, and 1.
Begin by representing the numeral in each row as a familiar Hindu-Arabic numeral as
shown.

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Multiply each Hindu-Arabic

numeral by its respective place
value.

Find the sum of these products.

Now, try expressing the following Hindu-Arabic numerals using Mayan numerals. Have
fun!
 489
 1813

1.4.5 The Babylonian Numeration System (Between 3000 and 2000 B.C.)

Another ancient numeration system was invented by the Babylonians. This system used
only two numerals, a one and a ten, as shown:

The picture below shows the Babylonian System which was a positional, base-60
(sexagesimal) system. Notice that for numbers 1 through 59, the system is repetitive, that
is, the system was an additive system..

Babylonian numerals

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Although the Babylonian numeration system was developed around the same time as the
Egyptian system, the Babylonian System was more sophisticated in that the idea of place
value was used, where symbols represented different values depending on the place in
which they were written. The position of individual numerals affected the values.

The Babylonians left a space to distinguish the various place values in a numeral from one
another. However, this led to some confusion as the values represented could be
misinterpreted. For example, two Babylonian tens written next to each other could be
interpreted as 20, or 610 or even 3060. From 300 B.C. onwards, a separate symbol made
up of two small triangles arranged one above the other was used to serve as a placeholder
to indicate a vacant place which removed some of the confusion. Although the placeholder
acted much like our zero in our numeration system, the Babylonians did not recognize zero
as a number.

Take a look at the following example.

Example: Write as a Hindu-Arabic numeral.

Solution:
From left to right the place values are 602, 601, and 1.

Represent the numeral in each place as

1  1  60 2  ( 10  1 )  60 1  ( 10  10  1  1 )  1 a familiar Hindu-Arabic numeral.

 2  60 2   11  60 1   22  1
 2  3600   11  60   22  1 Multiply each Hindu-Arabic numeral by
its respective place value.
 7200  660  22
 7882 Find the sum of these products.

Now, try doing this.

Write 4, 571 as a Babylonian numeral.

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1.5 The Hindu-ArabicNumeration System (About A.D. 800)

The Hindu-Arabic numeration system we use today was developed around A.D. 800. It has
this name because both Hindus and Arabs contributed to the system. The Hindus
developed an alphabet and used some letters to represent some of their digits in their
numeration system.

An important characteristic of this system is that we can write the numeral for any number,
whether large or small, using only ten symbols called digits , namely,
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

The word, digit literally means “finger” or “toe”. Thus, ten digits were probably selected
because we have 10 digits on our two hands or on our two feet. As only ten basic symbols
are used, the Hindu-Arabic numeration system is also called the decimal numeration
system, from the Latin word decem, meaning “ten”.

Another basic principle of this system is ‘Grouping by tens’ (decimal system) in which ten
ones are replaced by one ten, ten tens are replaced by one hundred, ten hundreds are
replaced by one thousand, etc. The number of objects grouped together in such a way is
called the base of the system. Thus, the Hindu-Arabic system is a base ten system.

Hindu-Arabic numerals can be written in expanded form, in which the value of the digit in
each position is made clear. For example, we can write 663 in an expanded form such that:
663 = (6 x 100) + (6 x 10) + (3 x 1)
= (6 x 102) + (6 x 101) + (3 x 1)

The Hindu Arabic numeration system is a positional-value, or place-value system. The

positional values in the system are based in the powers of ten, as shown:
…, 105, 104, 103, 102, 101, 10

To understand and appreciate why the Hindu-Arabic System is superior to others and used
throughout the world, read more about the following attributes of this system:
 Digits
 Grouping by tens
 Place Value
 Additive and Multiplicative

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Let’s take a look at some examples:

Example 1:
Write 3407 in expanded form.
Solution:
3407 = (3 x 103) + (4 x 102) + (0 x 101) + (7 x 1) , or
= (3 x 1000) + (4 x 100) + (0 x 10) + (7 x 1)
Example 2:
Express the expanded form as a Hindu-Arabic numeral: (7 x 103) + (5 x 101) + (4 x 1).
Solution:
We start by showing all powers of ten, starting with the highest exponent given.
Any power left out is expressed as 0 times that power of ten.
(7 x 103) + (5 x 101) + (4 x 1) = (7 x 103) + (0 x 102) + (5 x 101) + (4 x 1)
= 7054
Now try this.

Write each of the numbers in expanded notation:

 728,407
 60,006,060

To compare the development of early numeration systems, you need to find out more about
different numeration systems. Read further or explore relevant websites to get more
information on them.

Happy reading! Happy surfing!

1.6 Different Numeration Systems

Grouping by tens is an important characteristic of the Hindu-Arabic Numeration system and

we call this system a base ten system. The base of a numeration system represents the
number of symbols used in the grouping and reflects a process of repeated grouping by
some number greater than one. All numbers are written in terms of powers of the base.

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1.6.1 Number of symbols and grouping in various bases
The number of symbols used in a particular base depends on the method of grouping for
that base. Apart from grouping by tens, we can group by twos, fives, twelves, sixteens or
any other counting number. A base two numeration system group by twos, whereas a
base five numeration system will group by fives, and so on. For bases larger than ten,
other symbols can be invented. To group by elevens, or twelves, other symbols such as
alphabets T, E and U may be used to represent values ten, eleven and twelve. The table
below shows some examples of grouping in various bases.

Base Symbols Method of Grouping Notation

two 0,1 1011two

or 10112

three 0, 1, 2 102three
or 1023

four 0, 1, 2, 3 23four
or 234

ten 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 11ten or
6, 7, 8, 9 1010
eleven 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 10eleven
6, 7, 8, or 1011
9, T
twelve 0,1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, Etwelve or
7, 8, 9, E12
T, E
thirteen 0,1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, Ethirteen or
7, 8, 9, E13
T, E, U
Grouping in Various Bases

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Grouping by twos, eights and sixteens will give you insight into the numeration systems
used with computers. These three numeration systems, namely, binary (base 2), octal
(base 8) and hexadecimal (base 16) are used when dealing with the internal workings of
computers. In order to be knowledgeable and efficient, a programmer must have at least a
rudimentary understanding of how they work and how they are interrelated. The chart
below shows the relationship between these three bases. Notice that in this case the
alphabets A, B, C, D, E and F are selected to represent values of ten to fifteen as opposed
to the earlier example where symbols, T, E and U were used instead.

Binary-Quartet/Hexadecimal Conversion
Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Relationship between bases 2, 8 and 16

To summarise numeration systems with bases other than ten and to gain insight into the
numeration systems used with computers, you need to learn more about the number and
types of symbols used besides knowing how to change from one base (say base b ) to
base 10 and vice versa.

1.6.2 Changing from base b to base 10 and vice versa

To change from base b to base ten, we need to write the numerals in expanded
notation. The resulting number is in base ten. Let’s take a look at an example.
Example :
Change 1011 two to base ten.

Solution:
1011 two = (1 x 23 )+ (0 x 22 )+ (1 x 21 ) + (1 x 20 ) = 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 + 0 = 11

Now, try and do this on your own.

Convert to base ten

 1110012
 12345
 307628

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Changing from base 10 to base b :
To change from base ten to any other base, we need to look for a pattern, for example:
 To change from base ten to base two, group by twos.
 To change from base ten to base three, group by threes.
 To change from base ten to base four, group by fours.
 To change from base ten to base five, group by fives.
The groupings from this pattern are summarized in the following table.
Base Place Value
5 4 3
2 2 = 32 2 = 16 2 =8 22 = 4 21 = 2 20 = 1
3 35 = 243 34 = 81 33 = 27 32 = 9 31 = 3 30 = 1
4 45 = 1,024 44 = 256 43 = 64 42 = 16 41 = 4 40 = 1
5 55 = 3,125 54 = 625 53 = 125 52 = 25 51 = 5 50 = 1
8 85 = 32,768 84 =4,096 83 = 512 82 = 64 81 = 6 80 = 1
12 125 =248,832 124 = 20,736 123 = 1,728 122 = 144 121 = 12 120 = 1
Place-value Chart
The above grouping process can be interpreted in terms of a simple division. Let us
study the example below to get a clearer idea.

Example: Convert 53 to base 2

Use the following process to convert a decimal number into binary form.
 Divide the decimal number by 2 and take its remainder
 Repeat the process until it produces a result of 0
 The binary number is then obtained by taking the remainder from the bottom
to the top
5310 => 53 ÷ 2 = 26 remainder 1

26 ÷ 2 = 13 remainder 0

13 ÷ 2 = 6 remainder 1 Read from the bottom to the top

6÷2= 3 remainder 0

3÷2= 1 remainder 1

1÷2= 0 remainder 1
Reading from the bottom to the top, we get 1101012 .
Now, try doing this on your own. Good luck!
 Convert 678 to base 2
 Convert 2345 to base 5

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Things to do:

Sub-topics 1.4 and 1.5 ( 8 hours )

1. Refer to your ‘Resource Materials’ and read Musser, G. L., et. al. (2006).
Mathematics for Elementary Teachers: pp. 60 - 73
2. Find additional materials on the above from various resources. You are
encouraged to visit some relevant websites on ’Numeration Systems’.
3. Make short notes.

Sub-topic 1.6 ( 2 hours )

1. Refer to your ‘Resource Materials’ and read Smith, K.J. (2001). The Nature of
Mathematics. Pacific Grove CA: Brooks and Cole : pp. 129 -140
2. Do some exercises on changing base b to base 10 and vice versa. You may
choose relevant problems from pp. 78 – 79 and pp.139 – 140 .

Reminder: Keep your notes and printed materials including your solutions in
your portfolio.

References

Musser, G. L., et. al. (2006). Mathematics for Elementary Teachers. 7th ed. USA:
John Wiley
Smith, K.J. (2001). The Nature of Mathematics. 9th ed. Pacific Grove CA: Brooks /Cole
Thomson Learning

Useful websites

1. The Development of Ancient Numeration Systems:

http://mtl.math.uiuc.edu/projects/2/Wood/frame.htm
2. Mayan Numeration:
http://www.hanksville.org/yucatan/mayamath.html
3. Number bases:
http://www.macdonald.egate.net/CompSci/Pascal/hnumeration.html

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