10 - World Bank Report On Evap Cooling

WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO.
421
(I EneegySeries
Work in progress
for public discussion
WTP421
March 1999
Evaporative
Air-Conditioning
Applicationsfor Environmentally
FriendlyCooling
GelitJan Bom
Robert Foster
Ebel Dijkstra
AMIaijaTummer-s
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WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 421
EnergySeries
Evaporative
Air-Conditioning
ApplicationsforEnvironmentally
FriendlyCooling
GertJanBom
RobertFoster
EbelD#jkstra
Marja Tummers
The WorldBank
Washington,D.C.
Copyright © 1999
The International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development/THE WORLD BANK
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ISSN: 0253-7494
Gert Jan Bom, Ebel Dijkstra, and Marja Tummers are development consultants at Ecozone, Haarlem,
the Netherlands. Robert Foster is a project engineer at New Mexico State University, Las Cruces.
Libraryof Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Evaporative air-conditioning: applications for environmentally

friendly cooling / Gert Jan Bom . . .[et al.].
p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper; 421. Energy series)
Includes bibliographical references (p. ).
ISBN 0-8213-4334-3
1. Air conditioning. 2. Evaporative cooling. I. Bom, Gert Jan.
II. Series.
TH7687.E94 1998
697.9'3-dc2l 98-31273
CIP
ENERGY SERIES
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InternationalReviewof Stove Programs
No. 243 Menke and Fazzari, ImprovingElectricPowerUtility Efficiency:Issues andRecommendations
No. 244 Liebenthal, Mathur, and Wade, SolarEnergy:Lessonsfrom the PacificIslandExperience
No. 271 Ahmed, Technological DevelopmentandPollutionAbatement:A Study of How Enterprisesare FindingAlternativesto
Chlorofluorocarbons
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No. 279 Anderson and Ahmed, TheCasefor SolarEnergyInvestments
No. 286 Tavoulareasand Charpentier, CleanCoalTechnologiesforDevelopingCountries
No. 296 Stassen, Small-ScaleBiomassGasifiersfor Heat and Power:A GlobalReview
No. 304 Foley,PhotovoltaicApplicationsin RuralAreasof the DevelopingWorld
No. 308 Adamson and others, EnergyUse,Air Pollution,and EnvironmentalPolicyin Krakow:Can EconomicIncentivesReally
Help?
No. 325 Bacon,Besant-Jones, and Heidarian, EstimatingConstructionCostsand Schedules:Experiencewith PowerGeneration
Projectsin DevelopingCountries
No. 362 Foley,Floor, Madon, Lawali, Montagne, and Tounao, TheNiger HouseholdEnergyProject:PromotingRural
FuelwoodMarketsand VillageManagementof Natural Woodlands.
Contents
Foreword............................................................. ix
Abstract............................................................. xi
Acknowledgments ............................................................. xiii
Abbreviations, Symbols, and Glossary ............................................................. xv
1. Introduction............................................................. l1
Benefits of Evaporative Cooling .............................................................. 2
Opportunities and Limitations .............................................................. 2
Environmental Benefits.............................................................. 2
Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning .............................................................. 3
Residential Coolers .............................................................. 3
Indirect Evaporative Air-Conditioning .............................................................. 4
Desiccant-Assisted Evaporative Air-Conditioning .............................................................. 4
Commercial Evaporative Air-Conditioners .............................................................. 5
Comparing Vapor-Compression and Evaporative Air-Conditioning ................................................. 5
Outlook .............................................................. 5
2. Opportunities and Constraints.............................................................. 9
Climatological Factors ............................................................. 9
Comfort Issues ............................................................. 10
Expected Performance of Evaporative Air-Conditioning ............................................................. 12
Power Supply ............................................................. 13
Water Supply ............................................................. 13
Advantages of Evaporative Versus Vapor-Compression Air-Conditioning .................................... 13
3. Economics............................................................. 15
Economics of Residential Coolers ............................................................. 15
Investment Costs ............................................................. 16
Market Situation ............................................................. 18
4. Technology ............................................................. 21
Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning ............................................................. 21
Indirect-Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning ............................................................. 26
Desiccant Cooling ............................................................. 29
5. Choosing and Maintaining Equipment ............................................................. 31
Available Equipment ............................................................. 31
v
vi Evaporative Air-Conditioning, Applications for Environmentally Friendly Cooling
Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning Recommended Air Change Rate

for Design Wet-Bulb (WB) Conditions .......................................................... 33
Maintenance .......................................................... 33
6. Solar EvaporativeAir-Conditioning.......................................................... 37
The Market.......................................................... 37
Optimizing Evaporative Air-Conditioning Design for Solar Operation ..........................................
38
7. Introductionand Local Manufacturein Developing Countries.........................................................
41
Maintenance ........................................................... 41
Installation and Sizing.......................................................... 41
Manufacturing Requirements ........................................................... 41
Know-How .......................................................... 43
8. CommercialEvaporativeAir-Conditioning .......................................................... 45
Commercial versus Residential Cooling .......................................................... 45
Commercial Kitchen Evaporative Air-Conditioning .......................................................... 46
Laundry and Dry Cleaning .......................................................... 46
Extreme Heat Conditions .......................................................... 46
Industrial Applications .......................................................... 47
Factory Air-Conditioning Design Considerations ........................................................... 47
Agricultural Applications-Poultry .......................................................... 48
Greenhouses .......................................................... 49
Bibliography.......................................................... . 69
Annexes
1. Introduction to Evaporative Cooling .......................................................... 53
2. Suitability of Evaporative Air-Conditioning in Different Climate Zones ........................................
57
3. List of Manufacturers and Suppliers .......................................................... 63
Boxes
2.1 Relative Humidity and Wet-BulbTemperature .......................................................... 10
5.1 A Simple Sizing Example .......................................................... 32
Figures
1.1 Typical Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioner .3
1.2 Roof-Mounted Downdraft Evaporative Air-Conditioning Unit, El Paso, Texas .4
1.3 Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioner for Transport Use .7
2.1 Modified Evaporative Air-Conditioning Comfort Zone Taking into Account
Increased Airflow Compared with ASHRAE Comfort Zone Based on Vapor
Compression Air-Conditioning .11
2.2 Annual Energy Use Summary: Vapor Compression Air-Conditioning
(SEER= 9.5 for Phoenix, Arizona, USA).14
2.3 Annual Energy Use Summary: Indirect/Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning
(2,000scfm, for Phoenix, Arizona, USA).14
3.1 Typical Investment Costs for Evaporative Air-Conditioning in the United States .16
3.2 Typical Investment Costs for Evaporative Air-Conditioning in India .17
3.3 Typical Life-Cycle Costs: Evaporative Air-Conditioning versus Air-Conditioning
for the United States .17
3.4 Typical Life-Cycle Costs: Evaporative Air-Conditioning versus Air-Conditioning for India .18
4.1 Simplified Evaporative Air-Conditioning Process .22
4.2 Psychrometric Process for Direct Evaporative Cooling, Mexico.22
4.3 Comnonly Available Rigid Cellulose Pads Provide Superior Saturation and Cooling
Compared with Ordinary Aspen Pads .24
4.4 Close-up of Rigid Cellulose Pad Made of Corrugated Paper .24
4.5 Common Cabinets for Residential Coolers in India .26
Contents v2i
4.6 Cutaway of a Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning ................................................................... 27

4.7 Plate-Type Indirect-Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning .................................................................
27
4.8 Indirect-Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioners on a Public School Rooftop,
Colorado Springs, USA.................................................................. 28
4.9 Indirect-Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning Process ..................................................................29
4.10 Ventilation Cycle Desiccant Cooling System .................................................................. 30
6.1 A Solar-Powered Evaporative Air-Conditioner .................................................................. 37
6.2 Evaporative Cooler Coupled with Solar Power (System installed by a homeowner
in Chaparral, New Mexico, USA).................................................................. 39
7.1 Evaporative Air-Conditioners in Kamla Market, New Delhi, India ................................................. 42
8.1 Typical Evaporative Air-Conditioning Application for Poultry Houses .......................................... 49
8.2 Evaporative Cooling Pad Section of Rigid Cellulose Pads .................................................................
50
8.3 External Evaporative Air-Conditioners on a Research Greenhouse, New Mexico
State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico.................................................................. 50
A1.1 Psychrometric Chart and Saturation Line .53
Al.2 Complete Psychrometric Chart .53
A1.3 Wet-BulbDepression of Ambient Air .54
A1.4 Saturation Effectiveness for an 80 Percent Effective Evaporative Cooling Pad .54
A1.5 Saturation Effectiveness of 80 Percent for Evaporative Cooling Pads at Different
Ambient Conditions .54
A1.6 Effectof Indirect Evaporative Cooling on Ambient Airstream .54
Al.7 Effect of Combined Indirect Evaporative Cooling Coupled with Direct Section.55
A1.8 Energy-Saving Effect of Using a Smaller Coil Coupled with Indirect and Direct
Evaporative Cooling Sections.55
A2.1 Suitability of Evaporative Air-Conditioning: Africa .57
A2.2 Suitability of Evaporative Air-Conditioning: Asia .58
A2.3 Suitability of Evaporative Air-Conditioning: Australia .59
A2.4 Suitability of Evaporative Air-Conditioning: Europe .60
A2.5 Suitability of Evaporative Air-Conditioning: North America.61
A2.6 Suitability of Evaporative Air-Conditioning: South Arnerica .62
Tables
1.1 Vapor-Compression versus Evaporative Air-Conditioning .................................................................6
2.1 Effectiveness of Evaporative Cooling by Climate Type ....................................................................
9
2.2 Relation between Wet-Bulb Temperatures and Effectiveness of Evaporative
Air-Conditioning .................................................................. 10
2.3 Evaporative Air-Conditioning Performance in Selected Locations at 1 Percent
Cooling Design Conditions .................................................................. 12
2.4 Benefits of Evaporative Air-Conditioning Versus Vapor Compression Air-Conditioning ............13
5.1 Available Residential Evaporative Air-Conditioning Equipment ..................................................... 31
5.2 Useful Cooling Chart: Percentage of Useful Cooling for Direct Evaporative
Air-Conditioning Output ................................................................... 34
6.1 Available Packaged Solar Evaporative Air-Conditioning Equipment .............................................. 38
6.2 Design Measures to Optimize Evaporative Air-Conditioning for Solar Power .............................. 38
7.1 Work Involved in Manufacturing Evaporative Air-Conditioning .................................................... 42
Foreword
Although evaporative coolers cannot be used in all countries and at all times, they are generally very
much underutilized in places where they can be used successfully. This is unfortunate, both for the
potential user, the country, and the global environment. Benefits include lower cooling equipment costs
and a much reduced electricity bill for the user, reduced electrical energy and power demand at peak-
times for the country, and lower greenhouse gas and CFC/HFC emissions for us all.
This handbook is designed for those who do not know evaporative coolers, but might be convinced
to try using or promoting them. It provides the advantages and disadvantages of using evaporative
coolers while comparing them to the commonly used, energy guzzling, and expensive vapor compres-
sion air conditioners. Existing markets where evaporative coolers are currently used, local manufactur-
ing possibilities, operational aspects are discussed along economic and global aspects. A world-wide list
of manufacturers and suppliers is included in the Annex.
James Bond
Director
Energy, Mining and
Telecommunications Department
ix
Abstract
As the harmful environmental effects of chloro-fluorocarbons (CFCs) and greenhouse gases have be-
come better known, interest has grown in environmentally friendly cooling technologies. Evaporative
air-conditioning (EAC) is such a technology. Whereas conventional vapor compression air-conditioning
(VAC)uses CFCs as cooling liquids, EAC uses water. EAC technology is simple, functional, and has both
residential and commercial applications in industrialized and developing countries. EAC can provide
superior cooling and ventilation while consuming less energy (and hence contributing less to green-
house gas emissions) than VAC. EAC works best in hot, dry climates, but it can be used in more humid
climates as well.
This paper elucidates some of the technical characteristics and fields of application for EAC and out-
lines the climatic conditions under which EAC can be most effectivelyemployed. The document begins
with a general outline of the applications and limitations of EAC and explains the differences between
"direct" and "indirect" EAC. Chapter 2 discusses the applicability of EAC in different climates and ex-
plains the use of wet-bulb temperature as a useful tool for predicting the applicability of EAC. Chapters 3
and 4 discuss the economics of EAC versus VAC in terms of energy consumption, required investments,
and life-cyclecosts. Production costs, the paper points out, are low enough so that EACs can be manufac-
tured relatively easily in the developing world, as is now being done in South Asia and the Middle East.
Chapters 5 and 6 review the market for EACs and try to show how EAC can increase individuals'
"feeling of comfort."
Chapter 7 explains the basic technology of EAC.The difference between direct and indirect coolers is
elaborated on through the use of a psychrometric chart. The hardware components of the EAC are ex-
plained: pads, motor, pump, and fan. Chapter 8 lists the equipment available on the market. It also points
out that the capacity of the cooler and the size of the room to be cooled are key elements in selection of an
EAC.A simple example is given to aid in sizing. Like any sort of mechanical equipment, EACs need to be
maintained regularly to perform well and last longer. Maintenance requirements for each component are
discussed in chapter 9. EACs require little energy, and because the presence of strong sunshine coincides
with the need for cooling, a link with solar energy appears to be attractive.
In chapter 10 the usefulness of solar EAC and the present market situation are outlined. EAC is an
attractive cooling solution, for industrial as well as for less developed countries too. The requirements for
the introduction of a relatively new technology like EAC are discussed in Chapter 11.In Chapter 12 the
usefulness of EAC for commercial applications is outlined. Commercial kitchens, laundry and dry clean-
ing and industrial applications are three areas where EAC could be useful.
xi
Abbreviations, Symbols,and Glossary
Design temperatures: outdoor temperatures at a fixed percentage more temperate than worst-case fig-
ures, which are a standard air-conditioning system design parameter.
Enthalpy: total heat content of air-water vapor atmospheric gas. Not altered by adiabatic cooling.
Evaporative air-conditioning: lowering of dry-bulb temperature as air passes over water. Two methods
using evaporating water to cool air: (1) direct, which is adiabatic and humidifies the air; and (2) indirect,
which is nonadiabatic and cools the air being treated.
Indirect evaporative air-conditioner. a heat and mass transfer device used to sensibly cool a primary
airstream, without addition of moisture, by means of an evaporatively cooled secondary airstream. Since
the secondary air provides wet-bulb depression, it represents a heat sink to the primary air.
Latent heat load: heat carried by water vapor in air; varies with humidity. Wet-bulb temperature is an
index to latent heat.
Saturation (cooling) effectiveness: the primary air dry-bulb temperature reduction divided by the pri-
mary air entering dry-bulb temperature less the entering secondary wet-bulb temperature.
Temperature, dry-bulb: the air temperature measured by a dry temperature sensor.
Temperature, wet-bulb: the temperature measured by a temperature sensor covered by a water-moist-

ened wick and exposed to air in motion. When properly measured, it is a close approximation of the
temperature of adiabatic saturation.
xv
Introduction
Evaporative air-conditioning (EAC) technologies are being used increasingly in residential and com-
mercial applications worldwide. EAC technologies-which rely on water as a coolant rather than on
chemical refrigerants-are economical to produce and use and have important environmental ben-
efits. This paper introduces the technical aspects of EAC, reviews EAC's scope of application, and
surveys the specific climatic conditions under which EAC can be used most effectively in industrial-
ized and developing countries.
Under the right conditions and applicafions, EAC can provide excellent cooling and ventilation with
minimal energy consumption using water as the working fluid and avoiding the use of ozone-destroying
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Policymakers in particular should become better informed about EAC be-
cause of the opportunities it affords to reduce the use and emission of CFCs and hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), the reduction in CO2 emissions that come from the energy efficiency of the technology, and the
potential for mitigating problems of peak electricity demand during the hot season in many countries.
The viability of using EAC will depend on the particular application and on the local climatic conditions.
For example, for comfort cooling, EAC is most suited to dry regions, although technical improvements
such as indirect/direct and desiccant-assisted systems widen the zone of applicability. On the other hand,
some commercial applications of EAC are suitable even in humid climates.
In general, several sectors have significant reasons for considering employing EAC technologies:
* Utilities.Dissemination of EAC appliances can serve as a significant demand-side management

(DSM) tool for utilities. Power savings of EAC technology versus VAC are on the order of 70
percent for direct EAC and 50 percent for indirect EAC. This differential presents substantial
peak-saving opportunities for utilities that can promote the use of EAC within their service areas.
* Governments.For goverrnent agencies and planners, cost savings from reduced electrical con-
sumption can be realized directly by incorporating EAC technology into buildings and other in-
stallations. In addition, government planners should encourage use of EAC technologies as a rel-
evant technology alternative to VAC that will save consumers money, reduce overall electrical
demand, reduce pollution emissions, and help meet international treaty obligations related to re-
ducing pollutant emissions.
1
2 Evaporative Air-Conditioning: Applications for Environmentally Friendly Cooling
* Consumers.Consumers who use EAC at home can save money on cooling costs. The typical capi-
tal, installation, and operation costs are significantly lower for EAC technologies than for VAC
technologies. Moreover, EAC technology is simple enough so that most homeowners can main-
tain their own units.
* Privateenterprise.The manufacture and sale of EAC appliances presents significant opportunities
for both small and large enterprises. It is particularly suited to manufacture even in relatively
poor developing countries because-unlike the comparatively complex technical requirements
for production of chemical air-conditioners-EAC production requires only the basic infrastruc-
ture and skills mix related to sheet metal, motor, pump, and fan fabrication. Hence, marketers of
EACs can underbid VAC prices while maintaining comparatively high profit margins. In the
right climates, EACs can gain far more than a "niche" market: in some of the larger cities in the
southwestern United States and northern Mexico, for example, 95 percent of the residential air-
conditioning market is taken by EAC units, most of them manufactured locally.
Benefits of Evaporative Cooling

The following benefits of EAC can be cited:
* Significant local fabrication and employment
* Substantial energy and cost savings
* No chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)usage
* Reduced peak demand
* Reduced CO2 and power plant emissions
* Improved indoor air quality
* Life-cyclecost effectiveness
* Easily integrated into built-up systems
* Wide variety of packages available
* Provide humidification when needed
* Easy to use with direct digital control (DDC)
* Greater regional energy independence
Opportunities and Limitations

EAC works best for comfort cooling where it is hot and dry. EACs are widely used in the Middle East,
Australia, the Indian subcontinent, Eastern African, northern Mexico, and the southwestern United States.
Residential EACs are known in India as desertcoolers,and in such desert or dry-steppe climates EACs do
give "significant relief" during the hot months. "Significant relief" is considered to be provided when the
final supply-air temperature leaving the EAC is about 20' to 250C (680to 77°F). Even in a tropical savanna
climates such as in the northeast of Brazil, the Sahel region of Africa, the southwest Dominican Republic,
EAC can be useful in some comfort cooling applications and also for many commercial applications such
as greenhouses and poultry houses.
A limiting factor for the application of EAC is the definition of comfort. A residential cooler bringing
down the temperature from 450to 30°C(1130to 860T) may still be appreciated even if it does not provide
"significant" relief.
Environmental Benefits
EAC technologies represent significant enviromnental benefits related to reducing CFC/HCFC use and
for obviating C02 and other emissions, as well as for reducing peak electrical demand. For example, the
Introduction 3
4 million EAC units in operation in the United States provide an estimated annual energy savings equiva-
lent to 12 million barrels of oil and an annual reduction of 5.4 billion pounds of CO2 emissions. They also
avoid the need for 24 million pounds of refrigerant traditionally used in residential VAC systems. Similar
energy savings and environmental benefits are also made by commercial applications of evaporative
cooling technologies in the United States and elsewhere. Through increasing use of EAC technologies,
countries can save energy, reduce power plant emissions, obviate CFC usage, and improve indoor air
quality. Basic air conditioning with water is a relatively simple process.
Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning

Direct EAC is the simplest, the oldest, and the most widespread form of air-conditioning. This system
typically uses a fan to draw hot outside air into a dwelling through a porous wetting medium. Heat is
absorbed by the water as it evaporates from the porous wetting medium, and the air thus leaves the EAC
at a lower temperature. The amount of cooling provided is determined by efficiency of the wetting me-
dium, the fan, and the overall design and construction of the unit.
A critical component in EAC is the use of water. This may vary from a few liters per day in small
residential coolers to perhaps a hundred liters or more in pad-and-fan EAC systems in greenhouses and
complicated duct-systems in laundries and hotel kitchens.
Residential Coolers
A residential EAC typically consists of a cubical box of sheet metal or plastic containing large vertical
filter "pads," an electric-motor-driven fan, a water pump, a water distribution system, and a water sump
at the bottom. As Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2 show, the fan draws in warm outside air through the wetted
media, cooling the air. The water pump lifts the water from the sump through the distribution system to
the top of the pads from where it trickles down by gravity back to the water sump. The cooled air is then
delivered either directly through a grille into a single room or into a duct distribution system.
This is a "direct" EAC in which the cooled and saturated outside air flows into the room, displacing
the hot air. It is simple and cheap but is not sufficient for indoor comfort cooling once ambient wet-bulb
temperatures reach 21°C (69.8°F).
Figure1.1. TypicalDirect EvaporativeAir-Conditioner
Distribution
Manifold
d. Conditioned
Inlet Wetted Air
Air Media
Recirculation
Pump
Source:Authors.
4 Evaporative Air-Conditioning: Applicationsfor Environmentally Friendly Cooling
Figure1.2. Roof-MountedDowndraftEvaporativeAir-ConditioningUnit, El Paso,Texas
7."~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~.
Source: R. Foster.
Indirect EvaporativeAir-Conditioning
Indirect-direct EAC is a method established only over the past 15 years. It is not as widely used as direct
EAC, but it is gaining in popularity because it cools air more than direct EAC, and cools the air down
from higher wet-bulb temperatures. hindirect EAC accomplishes these effects by building an additional
step into the cooling process. That is , the incoming air is cooled first with a normal air-to--airheat ex-
changer. This is the "indirect" stage because it does not add moisture to the supply air. Instead, only one
side of the heat exchanger is cooled with evaporating water as the supply air passes through the other
side, dropping in temperature as it does. Only then, as it passes through the direct EAC stage, is the
supply air moisturized. The final air leaving an indirect-direct EAC unit is generally 3.5C (6.30 F) cooler
than what could be achieved with a direct EAC unit alone.
Because it cools the air first without moisturizing it, the indirect-direct process also allows the EAC
unit to provide more comfort in slightly more humid areas. Commonly these units achieve 65 percent
indirect stage efficiency (performnancefactor), which allows an ambient wet-bulb temperature of up to
250 C to provide acceptable room temperatures for real comfort.
Two-stage air-conditioners combinLingindirect and direct EAC are becoming popular in the United
States and Australia, particularly in locations where slightly higher wet-bulb temperatures (i.e.,conditions
of higher ambient humidity) do not permit sufficientlycomfortablesupply-air temperatures via direct EAC.
On the downside, however, the two-stage units have higher construction and maintenance costs.
Desiccant-Assisted EvaporativeAir-Conditioning
The use of dehumidifying chemicals (e.g., desiccants such as silica gel) further widens the scope for EAC.
Desiccant technologies can widen the scope for comfort cooling to even the most humid regions. In such
systems, the desiccant is used first to dehumidify the ventilation air to a desired state; then, EAC (either
direct or indirect or a combination thereof) is used to cool the air to the desired supply-air temperature.
Introduction 5
CommercialEvaporativeAir-Conditioners
Commercial EAC applications are of several types. Commercial comfort cooling applications are used
for offices,retail establishments, and so on, as determined by local climates and comfort preferences.
In other commercial applications, EAC may be used to moderate the effects of an additional internal
heat source that does not depend (only) on the climate or the time of the year. For example, temperatures
may rise inside warehouses or buildings because of the operation of ovens, machines, or the presence of
livestock. These heat sources sometimes exacerbate already high ambient temperatures. Although the
cooling requirements differ as a matter of degree, so to say, cooling of buildings affected by both internal
and external sources of heat does require a somewhat different approach from residential cooling to
moderate high outside ambient temperatures. For one thing, such commercial EAC systems may well
need to be designed for operation the year round rather than just in a "hot season." A commercialkitchen
or bakery, for example, might need cooling year-round. Moreover, the internal cooling requirements may
be quite localized within the building (e.g., spot-cooling in a manufacturing plant).
Another difference between commercial and comfort cooling with EAC is that EAC in some com-
mercial applications is the only practical alternative; that is, where VAC technologies cannot function or
compete effectivelybecause of high operating costs. The most salient example here is the cooling towers
in a power plant, but on a smaller scale, EAC is the only real alternative in agricultural applications such
as greenhouses, where VAC is both inappropriate and far too costly
Common commercial applications for EAC include the following:
* Commercial kitchens
• Hotels and restaurants
- Hospitals
• Other institutions
* Laundry and dry cleaning
* Industrial applications
- Agricultural applications
- Poultry sheds
- Greenhouses
* Schools and offices
* Transit buses (Figure 1.3)
* Industrial applications
- Warehouses
- Spot cooling
- Factories
ComparingVapor-Compressionand EvaporativeAir-Conditioning
Table 1.1 compares the basic characteristics of VAC with those of EAC.
Outlook
Worldwide, the potential for EAC is much greater than is currently realized. Investment, operation, and
replacement costs can be lowered significantly by foregoing or replacing VAC technologies and using
EAC.The potential applications are manifold: from buildings and homes to buses and kitchens. In some
developing regions of the world where air-conditioning has scarcely arrived, EAC could bring comfort,
as VAC may not be affordable by many because of its high investment and operating costs. Even where
the conventional electric grid service is available, EAC may be a viable and economically attractive op-
tion, particularly in conjunction with the use of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules.
6 EvaporativeAir-Conditioning:Applicationsfor EnvironmentallyFriendlyCooling
Table 1.1. Vapor-Compression versus Evaporative Air-Conditioning
Basic characteristics Vapor compression AC Evaporative AC
Coolant CFCs/HFCs Water

Production residential coolers Small and large scale Small and large scale
Sensitivity to humidity for Applicable in all climate types Applicable in dry hot climates
comfort cooling applications for comfort cooling
Ventilation (indoor air quality) 20% outside air 100%outside air
Energy use in a typical residential 1,000kWh/yr 350 kWh/yr
air conditioner for a 100m3 room.
Investment for a residential cooler Developed country Developed country
US$1,000-1,600 US$200-700
Less developed country Less developed country
US$600-1,400 US$60-300
Maintenance Change filters every 2 years Annual pad change for aspen
sump coat every 2 years
Annual accumulated costs In USA: US$500 In USA: US$170
including power, maintenance, In India: US$500 In India: US$37
depreciation
Source:Authors.
Some options expanding and realizing the benefits of EAC are noted below:
Low energy use/solar. Small EAC units using solar photovoltaics (PV) are available in several com-
mercial and prototype models. Manufacture and dissemination could be done through commer-
cial channels providing cost-efficient cooling in grid-and non-grid settings.
Transfer
I of technology. EAC technologies are a fertile field for South-South transfer of technology,
in particular with regard to small residential coolers and some agricultural applications.
.Support possibilities. EAC has substantial applicability as a demand-side management tool, in gov-
ernment offices and schools. Technical assistance to developing countries, pilot programs, and
demonstrations all may provide further opportunities for EAC.
Introduction 7
Figure 1.3. DirectEvaporativeAir-ConditionerforTransportUse
Note he EAC unit(onthe forklift at right) wasbut by imatran andisbeinginstalledontoatytransitbusinDenverColorado.

More than 400 buses in the United States and more than 1,200in Australia use evaporative air-conditioning.
Source:R. Foster.
Opportunities and Constraints
Climatological Factors
Unlike vapor-compression air-conditioning, which can work under virtually any climatic conditions,
evaporative air-conditioning varies in applicability and efficiencywith the relative humidity of the out-
side air: that is, the drier the air, the more suitable EAC is and the better it cools. The general climatic
parameters for applying EAC for comfort cooling can be superimposed on the world map in terms of
three types of climatic zones that are, respectively, highly, moderately, and marginally suitable for EAC
(Annex 2 contains maps showing these zones of applicability of EAC for each continent). The climate
types are listed in Table 2.1, and for each type the effectiveness of EAC is indicated. This effectiveness is
rather constant for desert climates, but for both the steppe and savanna climates, a generalization about
applicability masks what may be significant month-to-month variations in the actual comfort derived
from EAC. It should be emphasized, moreover, that this sort of zoning provides only a rough indication
of suitability; each zone may contain areas that are better or worse suited for EAC than their assignment
to the zone would suggest. Moreover, some specialized EAC applications (e.g., in greenhouses or poultry
houses) are effective and commonly used in even the most humid of climates outside of these zones.
EAC is already popular in the desert climate zones such as the arid southwestern United States,
Mexico, Australia, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Libya, Spain, Sudan, Egypt, India, Pakistan, and South Africa.These
Table 2.1. Effectivenessof EvaporativeCoolingby ClimateType

Climatetype Generaleffectivenessof EAC
Desert Realcomfortduring the wholecoolingseason(e.g.,offices,homes,libraries,restaurants)
Steppe Realcomfortduring the dry period of the hot seasonand moderatereliefcoolingduring
more humid periods
Savanna Onlycan provide reliefcoolingduringthe hot season(e.g.,warehouses,greenhouses,
poultryhouses).
Source:Authors.
9
Box 2.1. Relative Humidity and Wet-Bulb Temperature
Apart from using the rough measure of climate zones or the level of humidity, one can predict the effectivenessof EAC for a
particular location fairly accurately using the locally prevailing wet-bulb temperatures (WB).Table 2.2 shows how these are
measured. In brief, by adding about 5-C (9°F)to the WB,one knows the effectiveroom temperature that can be reached with
EAC. Becausethe WBvaries over seasons and during the course of the day,it does not suffice to use average WB. Rather, one
should consider the WB at the time when cooling is most important-for example,around noon.
areas have in common high summer temperatures coinciding with low humidity-that is, high ambient
temperatures combined with low wet-bulb temperatures. This combination means that EACs can be
very efficient and can provide real indoor comfort (see Table 2.2 and Box 2.1 for a range of benefits). A
total of about 20 million EAC units are presently in use worldwide.
EAC is largely unknown, however, in many areas with steppe or savanna climates, even though it
could constitute a real alternative to VAC.
Comfort Issues
"Human comfort" depends on a range of factors ranging from temperature, humidity, and air movement
to clothing and culture. What is comfortable for one person in one society may be entirely uncomfortable
for another. Someone who has long lived without VAC may find an artificially air-conditioned environ-
ment uncomfortable, whereas people who take VAC for granted in their homes and workplaces may
avoid being outside during hot weather all together.
Standards
Comfort zones are often shown on standard psychrometric charts and have been developed to indicate
regions where a person is "comfortable." In the United States, the American Society of Heating, Refriger-
ating and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)has developed comfort zones based on psychrometric
charts. However, these standard types of comfort charts have more limited relevance related to evapora-
tive air-conditioning. First, standard comfort zones are based on air velocities typical of vapor-compres-
sion air-conditioning systems, not the higher air velocities used with evaporative air-conditioners. Sec-
ond, the traditional comfort zones used today (unlike those of the past) have horizontal, constant humid-
ity-ratio (constant dew point) lines supposedly aimed to minimize respiratory diseases, mold growth,
and similar problems. Relative humidity boundary lines are just as effective (and were previously used)
and would distort comfort analysis less. Tests have shown that human comfort is a continuum, not con-
fined between dewpoint lines. Consequently, the standard comfort zones commonly used face shortcom-
ings relative to EAC.
Table 2.2. Relation between Wet-Bulb Temperatures and Effectiveness of Evaporative Air-Conditioning
Wet-bulb Typical supply air temps

temperature Type of EAC Unit (Dry-bulb) Cooling effectiveness
15-210 C Direct 17-230 C Real comfort

21-230 C Direct 23-250 C Moderate relief
Indirect / direct 22-230 C Real comfort
23-270 C Direct 25-300 C Some relief
Indirect / direct 23-260 C Moderate relief
Source:ECI.
Opportunitiesand Constraints 11
TheModified Comfort Standard for Evaporative Air-Conditioning

The effect of a given air stream on a person can be determined by an effective temperature chart, as is
commonly used when calculating wind chill. By increasing the velocity of movement, air feels cooler.For
evaporative air-conditioning, it is more reliable to consider a comfort zone bounded by relative humidity
and extended to take into account the cooling effect of increased airflow, as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure2.1. ModifiedEvaporativeAir-ConditioningComfortZone Takinginto Account IncreasedAirflow

Comparedwith ASHRAE ComfortZone Basedon VaporCompressionAir-Conditioning
23.9
Wet-Bulb
Temperature (°C) 18.3 90_L_g
ModifiedComlbrtZone
2i < AtArddt ioning 70
7.2 12.7 18.3 23.9 29.4 35.0 40.6

Dry-BulbTemperature(0C)
Source:ECI.
Actual Comfort
The actual comfort derived from EAC for a given dry and wet-bulb temperature depends on the follow-
ing factors:
* Saturationeffectivenessof the evaporativeair-conditioner.Only if the saturation effectiveness is 100
percent can the temperature of the air leaving the air-conditioner be equivalent to the wet-bulb
temperature. This depends on the condition and quality of the medium, heat losses from the mo-
tor, fan, and pump, and heat absorption through exposure of the air-conditioner cabinet to direct
solar gain. Typicalsaturation efficienciesare between 60 and 90 percent for commercially available
media.
* Heat absorptionof the spaceto be cooled.This depends on exposure of walls and roof to solar gain,
shading, number, size, and location of windows and construction materials.
* Heatgenerationin the space.Number of people present in the room, their activity and the presence
of heat generating equipment such as copy machines, stoves, television, and computers.
* Sizing of the EAC unit.
* Properinstallationand airflows.Cooled air should be properly divided and directed so as to most
effectively "wash" the space and occupants to be cooled.
* Activity of the occupants.Sedentary people require less cooling than physically active persons.
EACmay only be the only realistic way to provide a high level of comfort for every day of the year in
many desert climates. In some locations, EAC maybe acceptable for users willing to experience less than
full comfort from the EAC for a few hours on the hottest days of the year because the slight discomfort
does not outweigh the extra costs associated with VAC.
12 EvaporativeAir-Conditioning:ApplicationsforEnvironmentallyFriendlyCooling
Expected Performance of Evaporative Air-Conditioning

The expected performance for both direct and indirect/direct EAC units commonly found in the market
for selected locations worldwide is given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3. EvaporativeAir-ConditioningPerfornancein SelectedLocationsat 1 PercentCoolingDesign

Conditions
1% designconditions Directsupply Indirect/Direct
Location DB/WBa Air DBb Supply Air DBC
Asia/Pacific
Alice Springs, Australia 39.4/20.0 22.9 17.6
Beijing,China 35.0/23.31 25.1 22.1
Bangalore, India 35.5/23.3 25.2 22.2
Christchurch, New Zealand 27.8/17.8 19.3 16.4
Melbourne, Australia 34.4/20.6 22.6 18.9
Kabul, Afghanistan 36.7/17.8' 20.6 15.6
Singapore, Singapore 32.2/26.1 27.0 25.6
Middle East
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 43.9/20.0 23.6 17.1
Ankara, Turkey 36.1/18.3 21.0 16.1
Jerusalem, Israel 33.3/17.2 19.6 15.0
Tehran, Iran 38.3/16.7 19.9 13.7
Africa
Cairo, Egypt 38.9/23.3la 25.6 22.1
Casablanca, Morocco 34.4/21.1la 23.1 19.0
Europe
Madrid, Spain 35.6/20.0 22.3 18.2
South/CentralAmerica
Cali, Colombia 28.9/20.0 21.3 19.0
Santiago, Chile 32.2/19.4 21.4 17.9
Caracas, Venezuela 28.9/20.6 21.8 19.7
San Jose, Costa Rica 29.4/20.6 21.9 19.7
NorthAmerica
Los Angeles, California, USA 35.6/20.0 22.3 18.2
Denver, Colorado, USA 33.9/15.0 17.8 12.2
Albuquerque, New Mexico,USA 35.6/16.1 18.1 13.3
Las Vegas,Nevada, USA 42.2/18.9 22.4 16.1
Dallas, Texas, USA 38.9/23.9 26.1 22.2
Guadalajara, Mexico 33.9/18.9 21.1 17.2
Mexico City, Mexico 28.9/15.6 17.6 13.9
Ciudad Juarez, Mexico 37.8/17.8' 20.8 15.2
a. Temperatures in °C, 1%Dry-bulb/Mean Coincident Wet-bulbdesign conditions (ASHRAE).

1. 1%design dry bulb condition and 5%design wet-bulb condition (U.S.Army).
la. (ASHRAE).
b. Direct saturation effectivenessof 85% is assumed; dry-bulb supply temperature °C.
c. All casesassume an overaUperformance factor of 65% for the indirect process and asaturation effectivenessof 85%for the
direct process; dry-bulb supply temperature 'C.
Source:ECI.
Opportunitiesand Constraints 13
Power Supply
The power requirements for EAC units can range from 100Wfor the smallest units to more than 1,000W
for the larger packaged sizes. Because a packaged EAC unit has a low-mass fan and a centrifugal water
pump, it creates little demand for extra current during start-up. This means that if the unit requires a
current of 1 amp for operation, a power supply of 1 amp is also sufficient for starting. In contrast, a VAC
of, say, 1,200Wand 5 amps would require a starting current of at least 10 amps.
In developing countries where power demand often exceeds the supply, voltage drops are not un-
common. This is detrimental to VAC units because the compressor motor has to supply a constant torque
and may draw too much current and burn its windings. EAC units on the other hand are much more
tolerant of voltage fluctuations because both the fan and the centrifugal pump draw less current at lower
voltage and thus simply run at a lower speed without overheating.
Water Supply
The water consumption of most packaged EACunits varies from 5 to more than 100liters per day depending
on cooler size, ambient temperature, relative humidity, and operating hours. The units can be directly con-
nected to the main water line, controlling the water feed through a float valve, or they can be manually filled
for smaller indoor units. Accessto a water supply is a prerequisite for EAC.The units with automatic water
feed can make do with a relatively smallreservoir,but the manually filled units use a larger reservoircapacity
commensurate with the water consumption so as not to require refilling more than once or twice a day.
Advantages of Evaporative Versus Vapor-Compression Air-Conditioning

EAC has several significant benefits over VAC (Table2.4 summarizes the comparative benefits). For one
thing, EAC consumes significantly less energy than VAC. The only power-consuming components of a
direct evaporative cooler are fans and small water pumps; in contrast, VACs and heat pumps are more
complex, having more fans and a compressor (see Figure 2.2 for a summary of use by VACs).People
living in dry regions that require cooling thus can realize large energy (and cost) savings by using EAC
instead of VAC systems. As noted, the energy savings of EACs vary with humidity levels and tempera-
tures. Direct systems in low humidity regions typically yield energy savings of 60 to 80 percent over VAC
systems. Indirect/direct systems yield 40 to 50 percent energy savings in moderate humidity zones (Fig-
ure 2.3). Indirect systems with vapor-compression second stages can provide adequate comfort cooling
in high-humidity zones with savings of up to 25 percent.
Table 2.4. Benefitsof EvaporativeAir-ConditioningVersusVaporCompressionAir-Conditioning

Item EAC VAC
Power consumption 50to 70%Lowerthan AC High
Indoorair quality Muchbetter using100%outsideair Poorwith 20%outsideair
Refrigerants Water CFCs,HFCs,HCFCs
Maintenance Annualpad changefor aspen, Bi-annualfilter change
fiveyear pad changefor cellulose
Fabrication Simple Moderatelycomplicated
Pollutionemissions No CFCemissions CFC,HFC,HCFCemissions
lowerpower plant emissions high power plant emissions
Waterconsumption High (evaporationand Moderate(waterneededat the
bleed-off) power plant)
Localemployment High for fabrication,distribution, Moderatefor fabrication,
installation,and maintenance high for distribution,installation,
and maintenance
Source:Authors.
Figure 2.2. Annual Energy Use Summary: Vapor CompressionAir-Conditioning (SEER = 9.5for Phoenix,
Arizona, USA)
12,000 -
s 10,000
E 8,000
2 6,000
>, 4,000
NbO
2,000
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Natural gas * Electricity
Source:ECI.
Figure 2.3. Annual Energy Use Summary: Indirect/Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning (2,000 scfn,for
Phoenix, Arizona, USA)
12,000
,_ 10,000
8,000
> 6,000
b 4,000
2,000
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Natural gas * Electricity
Source:ECI.
3
Economics
In general, evaporative air-conditioners are much less expensive to purchase and operate than vapor-
compression air-conditioners. It must be noted, however, that these two cooling technologies must be
compared with care because VACcan always provide full comfort (provided the unit is adequately sized
for the load and the owner is willing to pay the electric bill), but EAC cooling depends on local climato-
logical conditions. Thus it is only in settings where both EAC and VAC can provide comfort cooling that
a true comparison can be made. Beforedelving into the economics of EAC and VAC, it is worth enumer-
ating several elements that play a role in the economics of both types of cooling:
* Cost of the cooler
* Cost of installation
• Length of the cooling season
* Cost of electricity
* Cost of water
* Interest rate.
Economics of Residential Coolers

Worldwide, the most widespread EAC applications are small- and medium-sized packaged residential
coolers. More than 20 million residential units are installed around the globe. They are produced in dif-
ferent ways. In India, small enterprises use a labor-intensive production process (1 million units a year
are manufactured by some 300 to 400 enterprises in New Delhi alone). These "desert coolers," made of
sheet metal, wood fiber pads, and a simple pump, find their way onto the market either as finished
products or as kits and are transported and installed all over India. The other fabrication techniques are
more sophisticated. For example indirect-direct EAC production in Australia and the United States use
coated sheet metal, plastics or fiberglass, efficient cellulose paper pads, computerized thermostats, and
bleed-offs. These units are marketed with glossy brochures and exported to a number of countries. Prices
vary as much as production. In India, the smallest coolers are about US$35 and the largest US$150or
more. In Australia and the United States, direct EAC outdoor units sell for US$300to US$700,and simple
15
indoor units are available for US$40 and up; however, the largest and most expensive units sell for more
than US$1,200.
The investment cost for a direct-indirect system is roughly double that for a direct EAC unit (and in
fact approaches the level as VAC). However, the direct-indirect EAC's power consumption is only about
25 percent higher than direct EAC on an annual basis, and the total cost of electricity and maintenance for
indirect-direct EAC systems amounts to only about 50 percent of that of conventional VACs of compa-
rable performance.
Investment Costs
Figure 3.1 compares typical total investment costs of EAC and VAC systems for different room sizes (20,
60 and lOOm2 ) for the United States. In all cases EAC is the cheaper option.
Figure 3.1. TypicalInvestment Costsfor EvaporativeAir-Conditioningin the United States

2,500 -
, 2,000-
- 1,500 _
E 1,000,
500-
20 EAC 20 AC 60 EAC 60 AC 100EAC 100 AC

Room size in sq m for EAC and AC
ES Installationcost Costcooler
Source:R. Foster.
It is striking that although the cost of EAC coolers in the United States is low, the cost of installation
is relatively high, because of the labor involved in placing the cooler, connecting it to water and electric
power sources, and providing a drain for the flush water.
The same has been done for India in Figure 3.2. Here the difference between EAC and VAC is much
more pronounced because EAC units are made by small wayside industries at very low cost, whereas
VAC units are either imported or made by large, inefficient industries at much higher cost.
The cost of installation in India is low because labor is cheap. These typical investment costs for India
and the United States illustrate that the relative economic merits of EAC are more pronounced in devel-
oping countries than in the industrialized world.
Life-Cycle Costs
The life-cycleand operationalcosts have alsobeen analyzedfor these two countries,as depictedin Fig-
ures 3.3and Figure3.4.
Economics 17
Figure 3.2. Typical Investment Costs for Evaporative Air-Conditioning in India
1,000-
Cei- 800
600 -
i 400 -
200-
0
20 EAC 20AC 60 EAC 60 AC 100EAC 100AC
Installation cost Cost cooler
Source:R. Foster.
Figure 3.3. Typical Life-Cycle Costs: Evaporative Air-Conditioning versus Air-Conditioningfor the United
States
6,000 -
,5,000
m) 4,000
8 3,000
2,000
1,000
0
20 EAC 20 AC 60 EAC 60 AC 100EAC 100AC
* Depreciation 2 Energy n Water
D Interest Maintenance
Source:R. Foster.
Figure3.4. TypicalLife-CycleCosts:EvaporativeAir-Conditioningversus Air-ConditioningforIndia
6,000 - -_
rA 5,000-
4,000
8 3,000
2,000 -
1,000
0- , ,
20 EAC 20 AC 60 EAC 60 AC 100EAC 100 AC

* Depreciation E Energy n Water
D:Interest Maintenance
Source:
R. Foster.
For the calculation of the operational costs it was assumed in all cases that the maintenance is done by
a hired professional, which explains the rather high annual maintenance cost for EAC in the United States.
In reality, however, many EAC owners do their own maintenance because it is easy and saves money. In
developing countries where labor is cheap, maintenance is generally done by professionals. In India, for
example, it is common for owners of EAC units to have a maintenance contract with an EAC dealer.
Market Situation
At least 20 million residential EAC units are in operation worldwide. Of these, some 8 to 10 million are in
India, and more than 4 million are in the United States. Other significant markets also exist in Australia,
South Africa, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia. EAC also has significant market potential in many other areas
of the world (e.g., in the Sahel); yet in most of these areas, EAC technology is unknown.
A significant reason why EAC units are not in operation in more areas around the world is that half
or more of the world's population lives in coastal regions, or within 100 kilometers of coasts, and these
areas are typically humid and hence generally not the most favorable sites for EAC units. In contrast, the
most favorable climatic conditions for using EAC are in dry and hot desert regions, and these are com-
paratively sparsely populated.
Population differences notwithstanding, sufficient populations live in dry and hot regions to consti-
tute meaningful markets for EACs. In the United States, for example the current sales of direct EACs are
more than US$150million per year. Moreover, the recent growth of the U.S. EAC market has been signifi-
cant, with annual increases of 10 percent reported by manufacturers.
California, which traditionally has used VAC, represents one of the world's fastest-growing EAC
markets. The California Energy Commission (CEC), noting the 50 to 80 percent energy savings pos-
sible with EAC (as opposed to VAC)technologies statewide, adopted energy credits for EAC as part of
the Title 24 code compliance program in January 1993.Inclusion of EAC in the Title 24 program facili-
tates significant prospective growth of the industry in California. The CEC is also promoting an EAC
Economics 19
commercialization program that seeks to accelerate adoption of EAC to maximize its energy saving,
environmental, and economic development potentials.
Several California utilities are promoting EAC for commercial and residential applications as well.
Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) offers rebates for commercial use of evaporative cooling equipment.
Under the utility's customized program, hybrid and two-stage EACs can receive a US$200/kW reduc-
tion as replacements for VAC technologies. PG&E also offers a line-item rebate for the installation of
commercial evaporative cooling equipment at US$80per ton displaced of VAC for new construction as
part of a "Retrofit Express" program.
Locally in California, the Sacramento Municipal UtilityDistrict (SMUD)has a new construction rebate
program that provides rebates to EAC in the commercial sector based on calculated energy savings com-
pared with conventional cooling. In late 1992Southern California Edison began offering US$100rebates
for installation of residential EAC (direct and indirect-direct) in their service territory. The company has
promoted these rebates actively in desert locations, offering an incentive of US$125for replacement of
residential VACunits with EACequipment. Southern California Edison also provides and maintains EACs
at no cost to qualifying low-income residents in their service area. On the commercial front, the company
is interested in energy conservation in the retrofit market and offers rebates at US$75 per ton for direct
EAC and US$100per ton for indirect-direct EAC for displaced tonnage of VAC(they use 1,250cfm = 1 ton
cooling).About 30 to 50 commercial installations are taking advantage of this program each year.
The State of New Mexico is requiring the use of EAC (mainly indirect-direct systems) instead of
VAC systems in new public schools and additions. New Mexico places about 100 new EAC applica-
tions per year in schools.
The Stratospheric Ozone Protection Division of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)has
included EAC as an acceptable technology in the EPA's Significant New Alternatives Policy (SNAP)
rulings on alternative refrigerants and technologies. This should further encourage the adoption of EAC
technologies in the United States.
Greenpeace and other environmental organizations are advocating EAC as an environmentally re-
sponsible technology worldwide. This type of interest from environmental organizations should also
further global market development.
The greatest market development problem facing the EAC industry currently is the lack of a normal-
ized test standard for performance ratings. Saudi Arabia and Australia have some limited general test
standards. However, the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE)standards committees on EAC have submitted a proposed test standard for testing indirect
evaporative air conditioning equipment adopted by ASHRAE in 1996. Similarly, a proposed ASHRAE
test standard for direct EAC units should be adopted in 1998.When these standards are adopted, the
industry worldwide will benefit from a proposed certification program for rating EACs based on the
ASHRAE test standards by the Evaporative Cooling Institute. This certification program will provide
design engineers worldwide with an independent performance-based test standard for rating EACunits.
The EAC market should continue to grow worldwide as interest from utilities and countries in-
creases in applying the technology as an energy conservation tool. Given advances with indirect and
hybrid systems that widen the climatic range of application, the potential market penetration of this
technology is large. Indeed, when coupled with desiccant technologies, EAC could displace VAC tech-
nologies in many applications in the coming century.
4
Technology
Direct EvaporativeAir-Conditioning
A residential evaporative air-conditioner consists of a cubical box with large, vertical filter-like "pads," a
sump at the bottom, an electric-motor-driven fan, a water pump, and a water distribution system (see
Figure 4.1). The fan draws in warm outside air through the wet pads, cooling the air. The water pump
lifts the water from the sump through the distribution system on top of the pads from where it trickles
down by gravity back to the sump. The cooled air is then delivered either directly through a grill into a
single room or into a duct system to cool more than one room.
This is a "direct" evaporative air-conditioner in which the cooled and humidified outside air flows to
the room and removes the heat. An efficient wetted pad can reduce the air temperature by as much as 95
percent of the wet-bulb depression (ambient dry-bulb temperature less wet-bulb temperature), while an
inefficient and poorly designed pad may only reduce this by 50 percent, or worse. A simplified process
diagram for direct evaporative air-conditioning is shown below. There is actually very little change in
energy state of the air (i.e. there is no sensible cooling) other than energy inputs from the fan and make-
up water. Direct EAC is simple and cheap but it has the disadvantage that if the ambient wet-bulb tem-
perature is higher than 21°C(69.8°F),the cooling effect is not sufficient for indoor comfort cooling.
The saturation effectiveness of a direct evaporative air-conditioner best describes the performance of
the unit. Saturation effectiveness is defined as the difference between the entering and exit dry-bulb (DB)
temperatures over the wet-bulb (WB)depression and can be defined as follows:
Saturation effectiveness = DBI - DB2

DB, -WB1
where
DB1 = Entering (typically ambient) dry-bulb temperature
DB2 = Exiting dry-bulb temperature
WB1 = Entering (typically ambient) wet-bulb temperature
21
Figure 4.1. Simplified Evaporative Air-Conditioning Process
Dry air Water Moist air
Latent
energy
35 0 C e.. Latent.
DB energy
:::. Heat needed
to evaporate
water
Direct
Sensibl evaporative
heat ~~~cooler 210 C
energy D
Water ha
You feel 35°C Sensible and You feel 21°C

latent heat energy
Sensible heat in the air is used to evaporate water

(transfered to latent energy in the moist air)
Source:Authors.
A psychrometric chart, which shows moist air properties, more clearly demonstrates the evaporative
cooling process. The initial dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures are shown at the start of the process, and
the endpoint of the evaporative cooling process is found to the left at the end of the arrow along the line
of constant wet-bulb temperature. For example, taking 1 percent design conditions for Ciudad Juarez,
Mexico, of 37.7°C (99.9°F) dry-bulb temperature at a mean coincident wet-bulb temperature of 17.7°C
(63.9°F), and using evaporative media that has a saturation effectiveness of 85 percent, we find that the
evaporative media will change the state of the airstream to a dry-bulb temperature (supply air) of 20.7TC
(69.3°F). This process is shown in Figure 4.2 for Ciudad Juarez.
Figure 4.2. Psychrometric Processfor Direct Evaporative Cooling, Mexico
20.70 CDB for

S.E.=85%
a // \ ~~~Direct
Evaporative oa
/4/
/ \ti~~Coling Process +;o
0
Cd. Jukrez, Mexico i

37.7 DBJ17.7°C WB 2
Dry-Bulb Tempearture °C
Source:ECI.
Technology 23
Direct evaporative coolers do not recirculate air in applications. Instead, air is passed only once through
the system and then exhausted. This leads to superior indoor air quality. Evaporative cooling media also
act as a wetted filter that scrubs out many contaminants (see also Figure 1.1).
Pads
The pad-or medium, as it is often called-serves to bring the water and air into contact so that the air
can absorb moisture and lower the dry-bulb temperature (cooling effect). An ideal pad should have the
following characteristics:
* Minimum resistance to airflow
* Maximum air-water contact for vaporization
* Equal distribution of airflow resistance, air-water contact, and water flow
* Resistance to chemical or biological degradation
* Ability to self-clean airborne matter
* Durability and consistent performance over life-cycle
* Low cost.
In reality, all pads fall short of this ideal and thus require some trade-offs among advantages. There
are at present three major types of pads: aspen (or other similar type) wood, rigid pads, and synthetic
pads. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Aspen Wood Pads. These pads are composed of thin shredded wood slivers, packed loosely to a
thickness of 3 to 5 cm. This material is spread equally over the pad-holder surface and held in place by a
flexible steel or plastic grid. The thin wood strands absorb water and ensure good diffusion of the water
over the surface of the pad, which gives it sufficient cooling characteristics. This good cooling, combined
with the very low cost (US075per replacement pad) has made aspen wood the most popularly used pad
material worldwide. Aspen pads have some serious deficiencies in performance and durability, however.
First, because wood is an organic material, it degrades fairly quickly in humid conditions. In application,
this means that the strands decrease in strength and sag under the weight of the water they have absorbed.
T'he sagging means that some areas of the pad become more compact, blocking the airflow, while other
areas become more open, increasing airflow at the cost of reduced saturation efficiency.This combination
leads to reduced cooling.Moreover,dust, pollen, and other airborne organic or inorganic matter are trapped
between the strands of the pad, increasing resistance to airflow and imparting unpleasant odors to the
cooling air if the pad is not properly dried during daily use. Similarly,when the EAC is turned off and the
remaining water in the pad evaporates, it leaves behind a deposit of minerals, called scale. This scale is not
completely dissolved when the unit is restarted and it impairs the airflow and blocks the pad.
Depending on the intensity of usage, the level at which mineral concentrations are controlled (ad-
equate bleed-off), and the outside air quality (quantity of dust in the air) aspen pads may be replaced
once a cooling season or sometimes after two cooling seasons. Even so, optimum performance of the
EAC may only be achieved in the first weeks after installation of pads. A properly packed pad may start
with 70 percent saturation efficiency but may decline to 50 percent efficiency after only a few weeks,
operating at that level or less until it is replaced.
Another problem with aspen wood pads is their sensitivity to installation technique. That is, the pads
must be installed so as to ensure that the woody material is spread in equal density across the pad's total
area. If this is not done, the saturation efficiency will be reduced from the start. Because replacement of
pads is needed regularly and appears to be a relatively simple task, many EAC owners will do it-with
varying results in terms of efficiency-themselves.
Rigid Pads. Rigid pads became available in the early 1980's. They are made of a specially impreg-
nated type of paper or glass fiber and typically use a honeycomb type structure. They are made of strips
of corrugated paper alternative with upward and downward slopes, cemented together where the corru-
gations touch (Figures 4.3 and 4.4). This arrangement eliminates most of the problems associated with
aspen wood because rigid pads have the following advantages:
Figure 4.3. Commonly Available Rigid CellulosePads Provide Superior Saturation and Cooling Compared
with Ordinary Aspen Pads
Source: Munters Corporation.
Figure 4.4. Close-up of Rigid Cellulose Pad Made of Corrugated Paper
Source:Munters Corporation.
* Long and fairly constant service life between three and seven years, depending on maintenance
* Largely self-cleaning (i.e., dust washes off)
* No biological deterioration of the pad material
* More consistent saturation efficiency of about 75 to 90 percent
* Low pressure drop across the pad.
The disadvantage is that rigid media are more costly (about US$100more on an EAC that would cost
US$300if using aspen wood pads). They are also bulkier, which makes them difficult to use in smaller
units. At present, about 25 percent of the EACs sold in the United States are fitted with rigid pads, a share
Technology 25
that is growing. In fact, some U.S. manufacturers expect that eventually most EACs will be fitted with
rigid pads because of their performance advantages over aspen pads.
OtherPad Materials. In a bid to improve on aspen wood, some manufacturers are supplying pads
made of woven plastic. The plastic pads avoid many of the disadvantages of aspen wood but have the
disadvantage of poor cooling efficiency because of the poor wetting characteristics (low saturation effec-
tiveness) of the plastic material. Other substances have been tried as pad materials such as woven ex-
panded paper, fabrics, wood wool made of pine, fir, cottonwood, cedar, redwood, spruce, plain and
etched glass fibers, copper, bronze and galvanized screening, but none of these are extensively used.
Country-SpecificPad Materials.In each country where evaporative air-conditioners are used or are
intended to be used it may be advisable to look for an inexpensive and easily available indigenous pad
material-such as Khus-khus grass in India-or a long-lasting alternative such as a rigid pad. The objec-
tive, of course, is to avoid the need for continuous large-scale shipment of pad materials such as aspen
wood from the United States or Australia or if corrugated paper from Europe.
Cabinet
The cabinet of the air-conditioner is usually made of hot dip galvanized steel, coated with baked on high
quality paints (see Figure 4.5). Corrosion can be a problem with drip air-conditioners because most parts
come into contact with highly oxygenated water and concentrated solutions of waterbome or airborne
chemicals. To eliminate corrosion problems some manufacturers supply stainless steel air-conditioners
and some others air-conditioners made entirely of polypropylene, polyurethane, or glass fiber. In Austra-
lia at least one manufacturer brings an aluminum air-conditioner on the market. Stainless steel air-condi-
tioners are expensive and very sensitive to electrolytic corrosion (one screw of the wrong material may
cause corrosion of the whole air-conditioner) and glass fiber or plastic models are subject to deterioration
due to ultraviolet radiation. If galvanized steel cabinets are cleaned and repainted inside after every sea-
son, they should last 10 years or more.
Fan and Motor

Small air-conditioners (up to 55m 3 /min of washed air), serving only one or two rooms are often fitted
with an axial propeller type fan. These fans, with 2 to 4 blades, operating at 900 to 1,400rpm are noisier
than centrifugal types but are about twice as efficient. For higher airflow resistance, as is usually the case
for larger air-conditioners delivering air to a duct system, centrifugal fans are more suitable. They are
very quiet in operation but the efficiencyis only half of that of an axial fan.
Axial fans are usually fitted directly on the motor shaft but centrifugal fans are belt driven and geared
down to roughly 1/3 of the motor speed. In general it can be said that the larger the fan and the lower the
speed the more quiet it is.
The motors for most residential air-conditioners are two-speed, single-phase, shaded-pole and four-
pole types in the range of 200 to 1000W.They should have a drip proof construction and a 50°Callowable
temperate rise, certified by some recognized authority. More advanced designs are beginning to incorpo-
rate variable speed motors.
Recirculation Pump
The most popular pump is a small submerged centrifugal pump driven through a vertical shaft from an
air-cooled motor mounted dry above the waterlevel in the sump. These pumps are inexpensively made
(US$15retail price) and may last no more than three to five seasons. They require no maintenance but can
be vulnerable to dry running. The capacity is generally not more than 20 1/min against a head of about
lm. In many cases there is a small outlet besides the pump discharge for the purpose of continuously
26 Evaporative Air-Conditioning: Applicationsfor Environmentally Friendly Cooling
Figure4.5. CommonCabinetsforResidentialCoolersin India
Photo: R. Foster.
bleeding off some of the water circulated to prevent an excess concentration of minerals in the water. To
combine this bleeding off with operation of the pump limits the loss of water during operation only.
Controls
Direct-drip air-conditioners can generally be run on two speeds, with or without the pump. Operating
the air-conditioner without the pump can be desirable when the outside humidity is too high for effective
cooling but ventilation still provides some comfort. In the United States and Australia many EACs are
now also supplied with an indoor thermostatic control to stop the unit when it gets too cold and start it
when it gets too hot.
The air outlet of either the air-conditioner or the duct is usually fitted with a bidirectional set of
louvers to control the direction of the airflow.
Indirect-Direct EvaporativeAir-Conditioning
A two stage air-conditioner combining indirect and direct processes is gaining popularity in the United
States in places where the higher wet-bulb temperatures (i.e.,higher ambient humidity) does not permit
sufficiently low indoor temperatures from a simple direct air-conditioner. In this system the outside air is
precooled in an indirect stage and then further cooled in a subsequent direct stage. The first stage cools
the air without adding moisture and in the second stage moisture is added. The result is that the final air
temperature leaving the air-conditioner is generally 3.5 °C lower than what could be achieved with a
direct air-conditioner only. This expands the application of evaporative air-conditioning considerably to
areas with slightly higher wet-bulb temperatures. Commonly 65 percent indirect stage efficiency (perfor-
mance factor) is reached which allows an ambient wet-bulb temperature of up to 25°C to provide low
enough room temperature for real comfort (see Figures 4.6 and 4.7 for pictures of direct and indirect-
direct evapoative air-conditioning).
The investment cost is however roughly double that of a direct air-conditioner (nearly the same level
as for refrigerative air-conditioning) but the power consumption is only about 25% higher on an annual
basis than for direct air-conditioners. The total cost of electricity and maintenance for indirect/direct
systems amounts to roughly 50 percent of that of vapor-compression for the same performance.
Technology 27
Figure4.6. Cutawayof a DirectEvaporativeAir-Conditioning
Key 1:galvanized and painted steel (or sometimew plastic) housing, 2: louvered pad frame for air-inlet,3: blower wheel and shaft
4: water distribution system (header), 4: motor with belt driven centrifugal fan, 5: thermally protected water pump with bleed-off,
6: extra finish is good against rust, and 7: float valve, also overflow and bottom drain are located in the water sump.
Source:ECI.
Figure 4.7. Plate-Type Indirect-Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning
Conditioned SecondaryOutside Air

SupplyAir Pad
uts Air
Secondary Outside
Air Exhaust
Source: ECI.
Many buildings in drier regions that use vapor-compression air-conditioning can replace it with indi-
rect/direct evaporative air-conditioning systems to provide comfort cooling. Residences can also benefit in
these regions by employing indirect/direct evaporative cooling as well. One potential problem for retrofit
situations is that existing building or residential ducts may be inadequately sized for the increased airflow
delivery required by indirect/direct evaporative coolers over vapor-compression systems.
For indirect systems, typically a secondary (or scavenger) airstream is used in which the evaporative
cooling takes place. One method of doing this is based on using coils with water that has been evapora-
tively cooled. Water evaporatively cooled through a cooling tower is circulated through a heat exchanger.
The supply air to the space is passed over the other side of the heat exchanger. If the evaporatively cooled
water is colder than the supply air passing over the heat exchanger fin, than the supply air will be cooled
without the addition of moisture to the airstream. The heat removed from the airstream raises the tem-
perature of the water which is returned to the evaporative cooling process to be cooled again through
evaporation of some of the water. Obviously, by adding the heated water to the evaporative cycle from an
external source this is no longer an adiabatic process.
Another common method used employs air-to-air heat exchange, one side of which is wetted. The
evaporative cooling occurs on the wet-side and heat is transferred from the conditioned airstream on the
dry-side. Figure 4.8 shows a typical type of indirect/direct evaporative air-conditioning system using a
plate heat exchanger. The first stage (indirect) sensibly cools the air, which is then passed through the
second stage (direct) which evaporatively cools the air.
Figure 4.8. Indirect-Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioners on a Public School Rooftop, Colorado Springs, USA
Source:Norsaire Systems, Inc.
Performance of indirect evaporative cooling is measured by the performance factor which is the ratio
of the reduction of the dry-bulb temperature of the dry-side airstream to the initial difference between
dry-side dry-bulb and wet-side wet-bulb temperature. The performance factor is affected by equipment
size and effectiveness, as well as overall air and water quantities. Industry ratings are normally based on
a specific ratio between dry-side and wet-side air quantities.
Performance factor = DB, - DB2 (dry-side)
DB1 (dry-side) - WB1 (wet-side)
The indirect process is shown as a sensible cooling process on the psychrometric chart (the identical
process for vapor-compression refrigeration). This process follows a line along a constant humidity ratio
since no moisture is introduced in the indirect stage. Often a direct stage is introduced after the indirect
Technology 29
stage, and sometimes several indirect stages can be used to further enhance the sensible cooling effect.
Some larger commercial units are designed to use the building exhaust air coupled with evaporative
cooling on the heat exchanger to provide even better performance. Figure 4.9 shows an indirect/direct
evaporative cooling process for Ciudad Juarez, Mexico for 1 percent design conditions of 37.7°C(DB)/
17.7°C(WB).Whereas when only a direct stage a supply air temperature of 20.7°Cwas possible, adding
an indirect stage with a performance factor of 65 percent followed by an 85 percent effective direct stage
yields a final supply air temperature of 15°C(DB),which is 5.7°Cless than a direct stage alone.
Figure 4.9. Indirect-DirectEvaporativeAir-ConditioningProcess
// ~~~~~~~al
{//
0
< ~~~~~~~~~~~E
~~
~ 151C
DBfor
/ Process
IdDirect
P
j~~~~~~~~~lndrc 4, Process r
Cd.Juirez, Mexico .
37.7DB/17.7°CWB E
Dry-BulbTemperature
'C
Source:ECI.
Desiccant Cooling
Evaporative air-conditioning can be coupled with desiccant technologies to expand the range for comfort
cooling applications. A desiccant assisted evaporative cooling system is used to dehumidify the ventila-
tion air first with the desiccant to a desired state, and then to use evaporative cooling (either direct or
indirect or a combination thereof) to cool the air to the desired supply temperature.
Processes developed use either liquid (e.g., trimethylene glycol) or solid (e.g., silica gel) desiccants.
Desiccants do not have the environmental problems associated with CFCs. The desiccant must be reacti-
vated with a low grade and inexpensive thermal heat source such as natural gas, solar, geothermal, or
waste heat. A desiccant combined with an evaporative air-conditioner provides sensible cooling that can
meet cooling comfort needs even in the most humid environments without use of CFCs.A typical desic-
cant assisted evaporative cooling cycle is shown in figure 4.10.Thermal COPs of 2.0or higher, with an EER
of 35 or better for electric parasitic power (fans, pumps, wheel motors) are possible for desiccant-assisted
evaporative air-conditioners. Desiccant-assisted evaporative air-conditioners have recently become com-
mercially available in the last couple years, although no residential models exist yet. Size and costs of
desiccant equipment are gradually decreasing, which should lead to general acceptance by the market-
place over time, and greater use of evaporative cooling to more humid regions for comfort cooling.
Figure 4.10. Ventilation Cycle Desiccant Cooling System
Outside cooler ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Supply

OUA E ~~~~~~~~~hot-dry
airm
Air dryair~~~~~~~~~ooer~
Air
houtsidUe
air cR°BdIEva?|Rtay
moister
Exhau
sHeat
Retu
Air
Source.ECI.
5
Choosing and Maintaining Equipment
Available Equipment
EAC units for residential cooling are available in different configurations, sizes, and ratings. Table 5.1
gives an overview.
Cooler Selection
Portable Coolers. For cooling needs either inside a building or on the porch, spot cooling can be pro-
vided by a portable or trolley mounted small capacity air-conditioner. If these air-conditioners are used
inside there should be sufficient ventilation to prevent recirculation of air through the air-conditioner
otherwise humidity will build up and eventually nullify the cooling effect. Preferably the unit should be
placed just inside an open window so that it will mostly draw in outside air, and other windows should
be open to allow washed air to escape and not be recirculated. Such portable air-conditioners are some-
times sold without proper instruction and by either expecting too much or operating units incorrectly,
customers may be dissatisfied. It is often common for persons whose only prior experience is with vapor-
compression air-conditioning to try and incorrectly operate evaporative air-conditioners similarly.
Table5.1. AvailableResidentialEvaporativeAir-ConditioningEquipment
Type Spaceto be cooled Installation Capacities
Portable Singleroom Window 15-40m3/min
In room 15-40m3/min
Fixed Singleroom Window 20-100m3/min
Tworooms Window 40-160m3/min
Home(wholehouse) Rooftopor 80-300m3/min
Through-the-wall
Source:Authors.
31
32 EvaporativeAir-Conditioning:Applications
for EnvironmentallyFriendlyCooling
Window Units. If a whole room and possibly a second room needs to be cooled, a window EAC
unit is often used, blowing the cold air directly into the room without any ducting. Although called
window units, sometimes an aperture is made in the wall of the house and the air-conditioner is fitted
outside on brackets. For the same purpose an air-conditioner can be fitted on the roof and have a single
straight vertical duct into the living room whence the cool air can be directed to another room by the
opening and closing of doors and windows. Roof mounting is often preferred because it is generally
considered more attractive than wall mounting.
Home Coolers. For cooling more than two rooms with a single air-conditioner and to cool alternate
not adjoining rooms, a ducting may be required and is usually placed between the ceiling and the roof.
Thus, it is logical to mount the air-conditioner on the roof.
A disadvantage of roof mounting is the more difficult access to the air-conditioners for maintenance.
For roof mounting one should also try to avoid running water lines in the attic as to avoid potential
freezing of the water lines in winter.
Sizing
Rough Sizing. The capacity of air-conditioners is given in m3/min air displacement. As a rule of thumb an
air-conditioner size is chosen which provides an air change in the room between once and four times every
four minutes, depending on prevailing wet-bulb temperatures (higher means more airchange required),
saturation efficiencyof the particular cooler (higher efficiencymeans reduced airchange requirement) and
the features of the building (more heat input means more airchange required). See Box 5.1 for an example.
Take for example a room with a volume of 46m3 with large window area, high sun exposure, little
shading, and poor insulation. The outside air wet-bulb temperature during the hottest time of the day is
26'C. It is not possible to cool this room to full comfort because that would require a wet-bulb tempera-
ture of less than 23TC,so only relief cooling can be achieved. The highly unfavorable building features
require a maximum airchange and the unfavorable high wet-bulb temperature requires the same. Con-
sequently the air-conditioner for this room should be sized for 1 airchange per minute or an air dis-
placement of 46m3/min.
In a different situation where for the same room volume there would only be a single window, no
direct sunlight on the walls through shading and trees, good attic ventilation, and an outside wet-bulb
temperature 229C,full comfort can be had if the air-conditioner displaces the room air only once every 3
minutes and should thus have a capacity of 12m3/min.
Box 5.1. A SimpleSizing Example

Building Size = 20 x 30 x 3 m = 1,800 m3 for 1% Design Conditions of 37'C (DB)/18°C (WB)
This would imply an air change based on 18'C WB of every 4.25 to 2 minutes. A more conservative design would use an air
change every 2 minutes, while the air change every 4.25 minutes would probably be sufficient for most comfort applications.
1,800 m3 /4.25 = 423 m 3 /min
Recalling that the saturation effectiveness is defined as the difference between the entering and exiting dry-bulb (DB) tem-
peratures over the wet-bulb (WB) depression, as given in the equation:
Saturation Effectiveness = DB, - DB2
DB1 - WE3
where,
DB, = Entering (typically amnbient) dry-bulb temperature
DB2 = Exiting dry-bulb temperature
WBI = Entering (typically ambient) wet-bulb temperature
Assuming a unit with an 85% saturation effectiveness, the supply air temperature DB2 for this unit will be:
DB2 = 37°C - (.85(37-18'C))
= 20.9'C
Choosingand MaintainingEquipment 33
Other cases are obviously in between those extremes. A room change of once per minute has been
taken as the maximum because higher values will cause unacceptable drafty conditions. The bottom
value of one room change per four or five minutes is because with a lower value there would be insuf-
ficient mixing of the air causing uneven cooling (i.e., cold and warm places).
Using the rough method for sizing inevitably results in some cases of overcooling (need to switch off
the unit earlier) and undercooling in which case (if possible) a higher capacity unit must be bought. Some
manufacturers provide easy to use paperboard slide rules to aid in these estimations. Following is a
recommended air change rate for differing design wet-bulb conditions:
Direct EvaporativeAir-Conditioning Recommended Air Change Rate for Design Wet-Bulb

(WB)Conditions
For Comfort Cooling:

15.5°CWB = One air change every 5 to 2 minutes
17°CWB = One air change every 4.5 to 2 minutes
19°CWB = One air change every 4 to 2 minutes
For Relief Cooling

220C WB = One air change every 3.25 to 2 minutes
23°C WB = One air change every 3 to 2 minutes
24°C WB = One air change every 2.5 to 2 minutes
Note that these are general air change volumes used. It is not recommended to use less than one air
change every 5 minutes for most applications. An accurate method is to calculate the heat load of the
structure by the same engineering principles used for refrigerated cooling. With heat loads determined,
the cooling system is designed to remove them. To do this the probable washed-air temperature delivery
temperature is computed from the outdoor wet-bulb depression and estimated air-conditioner saturat-
ing efficiency.If for instance the outside DB is 35°C,the saturating efficiency is assumed to be 80%and the
WB22°C, than the DB of the washed air is 35-0.8(35-22)=23.6°C.
With a desired indoor design temperature of 27°C, there is a heat gain of 27-23.6=3.4°C.From Table
5.2, it is shown that the heat gain falls within the recommended operating zone and that the useful sen-
sible room cooling is then about 65 percent. Subsequently the volumetric flow of washed-air needed to
maintain 27°Cindoor design temperature is calculated based on the previously established heat load i.e.
amount of heat to be removed from the room per unit of time and the specific heat of the washed air.
For larger structures, building computer simulation models such as DOE2.1E are sometimes used
which contain algorithms for EAC for more precise sizing and an evaluation of overall system perfor-
mance based on TMY or TRYclimatological data.
Maintenance
As with any mechanical equipment, EAC units need to be maintained regularly if they are to perform
well and last a long time. However the maintenance work is easy and the necessary spare parts and
materials are usually readily available. This means that the owner can do the job and so avoids the cost of
calling a professional. The majority of the owners in the USA do the maintenance themselves. In India
though, where labor is cheap, it is mostly done by professionals and often they have a maintenance
Table 5.2. UsefulCoolingChart: Percentageof UsefulCoolingforDirectEvaporativeAir-Conditioning

Output
Washedair temperaturegain in rooms

(Roomdischargetemperatureminus roomentrancetemperature),OC
Temperature gain IC
air enteringcooler 1.7 2.2 2.8 3.3 3.9 4.4 5.0 5.6 6.1 6.7 7.2 7.8 8.3 8.9
(WB depression'C) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) t%) (%) (%)
6.7 31 42 52 63 73 84 94
7.8 27 54 63 71 80 89 98
8.9 23 31 39 47 55 62 70 78 86 94
10.0 21 28 34 42 49 56 63 69 76 84 90 97
11.1 19 25 31 37 44 50 56 62 69 75 81 88 94 100
12.2 17 23 28 34 40 45 51 57 62 68 74 80 85 91
13.3 16 21 26 31 36 42 47 52 57 63 68 73 78 83
14.4 14 19 24 29 34 38 43 48 53 58 63 67 72 77
15.6 13 18 22 27 31 36 40 45 49 54 58 63 67 71
16.7 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 4 46 50 54 58 62 67
17.8 12 16 20 23 27 31 35 39 43 47 51 55 59 62
18.9 11 15 18 22 26 29 33 37 40 44 48 51 55 59
20.0 10 14 17 21 24 28 31 35 38 42 45 49 52 56
21.1 13 17 20 23 26 30 33 36 40 43 46 49 53
22.2 13 16 19 22 25 29 31 34 38 41 44 47 50
23.3 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48
Drafty zone Recommended operating zone Uneven cooling zone
Source:Adapted from Watt (1986).
contract. The regular maintenance consists of preparing the unit at the beginning of the cooling season by
fitting new pads and lubricating the bearings. At the end of the season, the sump should be cleaned out
by removing the scaling and repainting the inside.
The following paragraphs set out the maintenance requirements for each component and type of
problem affecting EACs:
Maintenance of Pads
Pads typically require regular maintenance or replacement, the frequency depending on the materials,
construction, and conditions of use of the unit.
* Replacingaspenwoodpads.These generally need to be replaced every 6 months of usage depend-
ing on factors such as dust in the air, adequate water flow, water hardness and adequate bleed-
off. In very dusty conditions filters can be used as well. These filters can be deaned and pad life
extended. If the water flow is not enough or not equally distributed, dry areas can occur on the
pads, accelerating the deposit of scale which can cause localized clogging and increased air ve-
locities in other pad areas, which may lead to water being carried over with air and reaching the
fan and motor, causing corrosion.
* Regularcleaningof rigidpads.Rigid and some synthetic pads can be cleaned by soaking in a slightly
acid solution that effectively dissolves scale deposits. If this is done every few years, such pads
Choosingand MaintainingEquipment 35
can last 7 years or more. If they are not cleaned regularly they may need to be replaced after three
to five years, depending on water hardness and bleed-off rates.
* Using waterbleed-offto controlscaledeposits.Substantial amounts of water are evaporated in EAC
units and because the water contains minerals which are left behind during evaporation, the con-
centration of minerals steadily increases. If only new (make-up) water was added, the minerals
would eventually increase to the point that they reached saturation and would begin to crystallize
and be deposited. To avoid this, a small portion of the water is drained from the air-conditioner
either constantly or at intervals. The water that is added to the air-conditioner to make up for the
water evaporated is the sum of the evaporated water plus the drained-off water. Generally the
amount of bleed-off is roughly equivalent to 2 to 5 percent of the total water flow,which keeps the
concentration of minerals at an acceptable level. It is difficult however to give rules of thumb here
because the content of minerals in the tap water varies widely from place to place. In New Delhi,
India, for example, where about four million units are operational during the summer months, no
provision is made for bleed-off, and reportedly a once-a-yearcleaning of the sump and removal of
scale is deemed "sufficient." However, pad life clearly would be increased even in New Delhi with
some small amount of bleed-off.
* Scalecontrolusingchemicalwatertreatment.Chemical treatment is not recommended for pads, as it
may shorten the life of the pads and may cause manufacturers to void pad warranties. In particu-
lar chemical water treatment should not be used if the chemicals could get into the supply air-
stream (e.g., in a direct evaporative air-conditioner). Ideally, scale control can be optimized with
miiimal water consumption. However, some type of scale-management system, preferably a bleed-
off, is essential for better performance and lifetime of evaporative air-conditioners media.
Maintenance of FanMotor and Pump

The motor sometimes has bearings that need lubricating once a year, or comes with prelubricated and
sealed bearings that require no attention. The life of the motor is generally between 3 and 6 years, de-
pending largely on whether spray water is carried from the pad or not. Because rigid pads are less likely
to clog, there is less chance of water carry over and motors last longer.
Pumps are typically small centrifugal recirculating pumps that have no maintenance requirements.
The most commonly used pumps are cheaply mass produced and should last several seasons, however in
some countries they don't last more than one season. Replacement pumps should be thermally protected
to prevent the pump from dry-running (which is a fire hazard if the pump dry runs, overheats, and catches
on fire).
CorrosionPrevention for Cabinets

The majority of the evaporative air-conditioners are still made of coated galvanized steel. Because of the
extremely corrosive properties of both the air and the water inside these air-conditioners, if left unat-
tended, they may become extremely corroded after several years. To prevent this from happening, a once
a year (end of season) clean up and inside repainting should be done. If maintained in this manner the
cabinet of a well made air-conditioner can last 10 to 15 years. Plastic or glass fiber cabinets need no
regular repainting but given the deterioration of these materials when exposed to UV radiation, they
may not last as long as well-maintained steel ones.
6
Solar Evaporative Air-Conditioning
Because evaporative air-conditioners require relatively little energy, and because the presence of strong
sunshine often coincides with the need for cooling, a link between EAC and solar energy appears attrac-
tive (see Figures 6.1 and 6.2 for a schematic diagram and a picture). Only a few suppliers offer solar-
powered air-conditioners, however, even in the southwestern United States, the heart of the EAC indus-
try. Companies supplying these devices apparently aim for other markets, such as developing countries
where grid electricity is not yet common.
The Market
It is apparent from Table 6.1 that only a very few sources are suppliers of solar EAC. Moreover, inquir-
Figure 6.1. A Solar-Powered Evaporative Air-Conditioner
Solar (PV)panel array
Evaporatingpad media
Air distribution baffle

Ambient air in
Water storage with

recirculating pump
Axial fan t Supply air out
Source: ECI.
37
Table 6.1. Available Packaged Solar Evaporative Air-Conditioning Equipment
Required solar Approximate cost

Supplier Type Rated capacity capacity including PV modules
Jade Mountain Window 25 m3/mnin 60 Wp US$1,400
Jade Mountain Home 75 m3/min 300 Wp US$4,500
Solar Energie Technik Portable 10 m3/min 110Wp US$2,500
Source:Authors.
ies of suppliers indicate that only a few units have been sold so far (probably only a few hundred,
worldwide, to date). The attractiveness of solar EAC depends largely on the availability and cost of
electric power. Because photovoltaic (PV) power may cost US$0.25/kWh or more, compared with
US$0.10/kWh for power from the grid, PVs are most likely to be cost effective where grid power does
not yet reach. Nevertheless, solar evaporative air-conditioning is a proven technology that can be very
useful and efficient in such circumstances.
Optimizing Evaporative Air-Conditioning Design for Solar Operation

Because of the high investment cost of solar panels (90 percent of the cost of solar EAC is the cost of the
solar array), it is important that the energy requirement of the air-conditioner be as low as possible.
Ordinary evaporative air-conditioners are not really designed for minimizing energy need as electric
power from the grid is inexpensive. This means that for evaporative air-conditioners to be suitable for
solar operation, they should really be redesigned to minimize power consumption.
Important points will be the efficiency of the fan (axial rather than centrifugal), motor efficiency,
reduced pad resistance (larger area) and a high-efficiency circulation pump. At present, it seems that
manufacturers simply replace the AC motors with DC motors or add an inverter to make conventional
air-conditioners suitable for solar power.
Such measures will make the cooler more expensive but sharply reduce the investment in the solar
array and thus the total system cost. Obvious areas for improving the energy efficiency of EAC for solar
power are presented in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2. Design Measures to Optimize Evaporative Air-Conditioningfor Solar Power
Average Possible Potential Component

Component efficiency improvement efficiency efficiency gain
Motor 50% Select optimal DC permanent 70% 40%
magnet motor
Fan 25% Replace by axial type 50% 100%
radial type
Pump 1% Drive from fan motor 4% 400%
Pad n.a. Optimize medium and 25%
reduce air velocity
Overall potential reduction
in power requirements: 60%
Source:Authors.
Solar Evaporative Air-Conditioning 39
Figure 6.2. EvaporativeCoolerCoupledwith SolarPower(System installedby a homeownerin Chaparral,

New Mexico,USA)
Source:
ECI.
7
Introduction and Local Manufacture
in Developing Countries
Maintenance
Unlike conventional air-conditioners and fans, evaporative air-conditioners require simple but relatively
frequent maintenance and replacement of parts. Some parts, such as the aspenwood pads, need to be
replaced after 6 to 12 months, depending on the local water quality. This means that EACmarketing must
be accompanied by an after-sale service network and that where sales are just being established, this
after-sale network will need to be set up as well.
Installation and Sizing

Another important difference between EAC as compared with fans and vapor-compression air-condi-
tioners is that EAC requires some knowledge about airflow direction, distribution, and evacuation for
the cooling to be effective. In some cases (e.g., Tunisia, Bangladesh) EACs of the spot-cooling (trolley)
type were introduced, but because of lack of proper instruction they were used in closed rooms as if they
were vapor-compression air-conditioners. Since EACs require outside air flow, the units did not function
properly, causing general disillusionment and failure in the marketplace. The lesson is clearly that EAC
must be introduced with adequate and honest information to the users, and replacement materials and
trained service personnel should be ensured.
ManufacturingRequirements
EAC is essentially a low technology and can be wholly or partially produced in developing countries,
depending on the existing industrial base. In India and Pakistan, for example, large numbers of units are
being produced entirely locally (see Figure 7.1).
41
Table 7.1. Work Involved in Manufacturing Evaporative Air-Conditioning
Component Type of work Done where
Cabinet Sheet metal working In house

Louvers Sheet metal working In house
Grill Sheet metal or wood In house or purchased
Motor Motor manufacturing Buy from local supplier or
import directly
Fan Metal stamping, aluminum Buy from local supplier
casting or plastic molding or import directly
Pad:
Rigid pad Highly specialized Buy from local supplier
or import directly
Wood wool or other locally Cottage industry Buy from local supplier
available pad material
Source:Authors.
Figure 7.1. Evaporative Air-Conditioners in Kamla Market, New Delhi, India
~~~ , N-
f-._ _
K. 1 ~~~~A- 3
Source;R. . F-
Suc;
>R
.SFoser
_
Introductionand LocalManufacturein DevelopingCountries 43
Certain components are easier to make than others. Electricmotors, fans, and water circulation pumps
can only be produced in countries with a reasonably large industrial base, such as India, Pakistan, and
China. Yet even where such items cannot yet be made locally, they can be imported, and their source
should not be of vital consequence to most manufacturers of coolers because they will be purchasing
them for assembly in any case. Table 7.1gives an overview of the items that are needed for building and
assembling EACs and who makes or supplies the components.
It follows from Table 7.1 that the production of coolers is essentially sheet metal working, while the
mechanical items are usually purchased. Such sheet-metal work can be done on a small scale and re-
quires very little in the way of investments in machines, molds, or accommodation. In short, EACs are a
good product for small-scale entrepreneurs as well as for larger industries.
Know-How
Although the production of EACs itself is rather straightforward, a need remains for a good design if the
cooler is to work satisfactorily. A "good design" means that motor, fan, pump, and pad should be well
matched to obtain good performance, energy efficiency,and cost effectiveness. This industry-specific
know-how often falls short of the mark in developing countries where EAC is already popular, and it
may be lacking altogether in countries where local production is yet to be initiated.
Local enterprises that wish to obtain EAC know-how have basically two options:
* Establish a joint venture with an EAC manufacturer in the West.
* Secure training from independent experts.
8
Commercial Evaporative Air-Conditioning
The principle of evaporative air-conditioning is used not only in residential coolers but also in numerous
commercial installations. Direct EAC is used in commercial and industrial applications such as schools,
greenhouses, buses, laundries, warehouses, factories, kitchens, and poultry houses. Direct and indirect
EACs are also used to provide comfort cooling in many buildings such as schools, libraries, and offices.
Commercial versus Residential Cooling

Many commercial cooling applications are quite different from comfort cooling. Comfort cooling en-
hances the well-being of individuals living in homes, working in offices, and so on, in areas where ambi-
ent temperatures are high. The use of EAC for comfort cooling thus depends partly on the type of climate
and the time of the year and partly on the needs of people for "comfort."
In many commercial cooling applications a factor additional to the type of climate and the time of
year may well be present. That is, the presence of an additional heat source in the form of machines,
ovens, dryers, animals, and so on. In such applications, cooling systems often must be sized and de-
signed to work for the whole year. For example, kitchens often need cooling even during winter. Another
important aspect of commercial EAC, in certain places where a heat source can be cooled directly (e.g.,
spot-cooling in a manufacturing plant), is the air stream.
Another difference between commercial cooling and comfort cooling with EAC is that in commer-
cial applications EAC can play a significant role that VAC systems can do only with difficulty or great
expense. The best example is that of cooling towers in power plants. Moreover, in some agricultural
applications EAC is the only realistic alternative; in greenhouses, for example, VACwould be extremely
expensive to operate. Similarly, in horticulture and floriculture, EAC is useful precisely because it adds
moisture to the air. Because it is an "air-washer," EAC may have distinctive advantages in other appli-
cations as well. Although in some applications-such as in hotels, restaurants, commercial laundries,
and kitchens-only the VAC options are typically considered. But managers of such facilities should
compare VAC and EAC systems and assess the potential of EAC properly before making decisions on
investments. EAC's advantages of ventilation and direct cooling may make it the most appropriate
and effective solution.
45
Commercial Kitchen Evaporative Air-Conditioning
Makeup air,or exhaust air replacement, is typically needed in food service facilities-by building and health
codes, if for no other reason-and EAC can be used to good effectin meeting these requirements. Proper
kitchen ventilation in particular has safety implications and requires a well-designed makeup air system. In
concert, EAC and makeup air systems can improve the comfort, safety,and efficiencyof commercialkitch-
ens while affording energy savings, improving worker morale, and providing customers better comfort.
Cooling Comfort
Heating/cooling rooftop makeup air units provide summertime cooling to commercial kitchens through
direct evaporative air-conditioning. These systems are ideally suited to commercial kitchens because
they provide 100percent fresh air ventilation and cooling,requiring exhaust for proper application, rather
than recirculation of air. With its large summer cooling potential of 15°Cor more, this system can increase
employee comfort substantially. In many areas of the world, direct evaporatively conditioned air can be
introduced through a makeup air unit into the kitchen at between 5 and 10°Cbelow outdoor dry-bulb
temperatures or lower depending on ambient conditions.
Cost Savings
Although VACin kitchens is relatively common, it is certainly not the most efficient approach to comfort,
because most of the air introduced through the VACsystem is immediately exhausted by the stove hood
before it can recirculate. Thus, constantly running fresh air through a VAC substantially increases the
load on the unit and requires purchasing refrigerated air-conditioning capacity well beyond what would
be required for the same internal load with a recirculating system. In addition, a typical rooftop refriger-
ated-heated makeup air unit would be oversized on the heat mode as well and would increase the initial
capital cost. By contrast, an EAC unit could supply kitchens with makeup air without water circulation
through the pads when cooling was not needed.
Sizing
Engineers generally size the makeup air unit to match a predetermined amount of air being exhausted by
the hood ventilator selected. Proper selection of a makeup air unit of the correct size (the quantity of air
that can be delivered by a given unit at the necessary introduction temperature) is the key decision pa-
rameter. Temperature rise and air delivery performance vary with different units. The amount of permis-
sible temperature rise necessary in a given application is determined by the winter design conditions for
the area in question and by the desired indoor temperature level.
Laundry and Dry Cleaning

Evaporative air-conditioning in laundry and dry-cleaning operations cross a variety of ambient air-condi-
tions. Evaporative air-conditioning systems perform important cooling and ventilating functions. Evapora-
tive air-conditioning may provide features that give the laundry operator greater cost-effectiveversatility
in the interior environment as compared to vapor compression air-conditioning and ventilation alone.
Extreme Heat Conditions

The heat levels of laundry and dry-cleaning plants are high. ln addition to the solar gain and human heat
load occurring in a typical (140to 900 square meter) facility,the equipment used generates a large amount
of heat. Heat levels can become unbearably high for finishing (ironing) personnel in particular. Workers
CommercialEvaporativeAir-Conditioning 47
are exposed to heated areas from steam above 80°C.Every plant has a boiler to provide steam for finish-
ing textiles. These units in larger plants are rated as high as 5.3 to 10.5 million KJ/hour (5 to 10 million
BTUh).Although boilers are walled off, at least part of their heat is added directly to the heat load of the
plant. Other equipment that contributes to the heat environment includes washers and tumblers, and in
dry cleaning plants some of the solvent reclamation equipment.
EACs can introduce air approximating the ambient wet-bulb temperature for cooling. Some combi-
nation of spot and area EACs can reduce heat stress conditions to acceptable levels. Where temperatures
are exceedingly high, such as at workstations near large boilers, shielding can be used in combination
with spot cooling to reduce radiant heat. Properly directed evaporatively cooled air washing over hot
surfaces can reduce radiant heat as well. The climate will determine whether the heat load or the ventila-
tion load will require the larger capability. In moderate climates, the ventilation load may be greater than
the airflow required for cooling; the opposite may be true in hot climates.
Industrial Applications
Evaporative air-conditioners and packaged heat/cool ventilating makeup air units combine many fea-
tures which make them applicable in diverse industrial applications. EAC systems can be the most eco-
nomical approach to comfort, increased equipment efficiency,and code compliance under a variety of
conditions. The uses of EACs in heat treating, forging, casting, welding, milling, rolling finishing, clean-
ing and assemblies is also due to safety and comfort concerns for employees and government regulations
pertaining to employee welfare.
Direct EAC is often used to combat problems such as:
* Intense heat, as in many forging, foundry and casting areas.
* Low humidity, as in computer and electronic control rooms.
* Airborne contaminants, as in welding, plating and cleaning areas.
The hot, stagnant conditions present in many casting and furnace rooms may reach indoor dry-bulb
temperatures that exceed outdoor temperatures from 100to 15'C, and may reach nearly 70°Cin some
extremely hot casting areas. Molten steel at 1,300'C,must be cast by workers. In many basic metal plants
where casting, annealing, forging, baking, and drying occur, shutdowns and work slowdowns are typi-
cal during summer months. In some factories work reductions and shift stoppages are required if tem-
peratures climb too high. Some plants curtail operations or even close during the peak summer cooling
periods. The reasons may be union contracts, walk-outs under hot conditions, and so on. Government
regulations vary in different countries, but many countries have legally enforceable occupational heat/
stress standards. Even without government regulations, many industries attempt to relieve the problem
of heat in their plants out of basic practicality. Using evaporative air-conditioning in the plant environ-
ment can help prevent mandatory and spontaneous work reductions.
Spot or area cooling with EAC systems, combined with other heat-control methods such as radiant
heat shielding, can effectively meet government heat/stress standards. EAC can increase summer-
time productivity by as much as 40 to 60 percent in plant areas too large to air-condition with vapor-
compression systems.
EAC is used in industries including aluminum production and fabrication;electronics assembly;power
generation; shop work such as welding, plating and milling; metal fabrication and battery manufacturing.
The benefits of cooling hot workers remain essentially the same in most applications: increases work effi-
ciency,lengthened work seasons, lowered costs, code compliance and increases equipment efficiency.
FactoryAir-Conditioning Design Considerations

Spot cooling is used in industrial areas where people are in close proximity to high-heat processes and
cooling of the entire installation is either inefficient or extremely expensive. Spot cooling with EAC
provides two principal benefits: evaporatively cooled air and air movement. The effect of air motion,
air temperature and humidity must be combined to derive an index to worker comfort (i.e., effective
temperature). Spot cooling essentially isolates the worker from the immediate hot environment by
displacing hot air with a stream of cooled air. Thus, the effect on the worker is determined by the outlet
air temperature and velocity. Calculations for spot cooling are based on the amount of air being deliv-
ered, the heat rise and static pressure in the duct, and the size of the outlet. All of these variables will
determine the amount of comfort or relief felt by the worker.
Ventilation Control
Makeup air systems, in addition to providing space cooling, help in ventilating high-fume areas and in
reducing airborne contaminants in accordance with government standards. Makeup air is typically re-
quired by regulation in the design of areas containing plating tanks and paint-spray booths, for example,
and it is highly recommended in all areas with industrial exhaust. Makeup air is highly recommended in all
areas requiring industrial exhaust. "Air starved" buildings may not be able to provide sufficient flow to
operate the hoods, spray booths, and appliances properly. Inadequate makeup air will cause drastic reduc-
tions of efficiency that will affect propeller fans and natural drafts; in some instances the flow may be
reversed. In addition, some contaminated areas require a large supply-air flow to the dilution of airborne
contaminants with or without associated exhaust-for example,areas using industrial solvents. When year-
round air supply is needed, heating-cooling-ventilationmakeup air systems or EACs are often specified.
Equipment Protection
To last and run efficiently over their design lifetime, many pieces of equipment require appropriate
cooling. Again the use of EAC is a valid option, certainly when the use of vapor-compression cooling is
too expensive, humidity ratio is not the limiting factor, and ventilation alone is not enough. For ex-
ample, considerable waste heat is generated in power generation equipment. Whether the power is
generated by gas or steam turbines (run on fossil fuel, nuclear energy, or even solar power), the tem-
peratures of the installations in which the turbines run must be kept under 41°C, which is the maximum
operating condition for the windings in common alternators. EAC may be used to keep room tempera-
tures lower than 41°C allow generators to operate at overload outputs; the general rule is that approxi-
mately 6 percent overload capacity is available for every 4.5°C below rated ambient temperature (usu-
ally 41°C) achieved by cooling. Other types of equipment also operate more efficiently under cooler
conditions. Electric motors, particularly high-horsepower units (200 HP and larger), can require direct
cooling of the windings for proper operation.
Agricultural Applications-Poultry
Indoor confinement of agricultural livestock is a growing trend worldwide because it yields higher qual-
ity and improved productivity. The comfort and well-being of indoor livestock is also becoming of para-
mount importance from an ethical point of view. Environmental control of livestock housing such as
poultry has become an increasingly critical technology in which EAC plays an important part.
One of the most commnonareas for applying EACis in poultry houses. Of the farm buildings commonly
found in the poultry business, evaporative air-conditioning improves conditions in four major types: the
broiler house, the hatchery, the laying house and the processing plant (see Figure 8.1 for an overview).
Better Growth Rates and Feed Conversion. Proper evaporative air-conditioning of broiler houses
allows birds to achieve a weight gain of from 5 to 8 percent with a corresponding cut in the growth period
of 2 to 8 percent. Closely related to poultry growth rates is the factor of feed conversion.
Reduced Mortality Rates. Improved Hatch Rates, Increased Egg-Laying Rates and Egg Size. High
temperatures-37°C and above-will kill poultry. EAC has been found to decrease poultry production
Figure 8.1. TypicalEvaporativeAir-ConditioningApplicationforPoultry Houses
_ ~~~~Evaporative
' T ~~~~Cooler Evaporative
FG b(7Cooler,'
Source: ECI.
mortality rates by 35 percent or greater. The use of environmental control with EAC in the hatcheries has
been shown to improve hatch rates from 3 to 10 percent. A commercial egg-laying house, or egg ranch,
depends in part on lay rate-the number of eggs laid per hen per day-for its profitability. Appropriate
EAC systems have reportedly improved overall poultry egg-laying rates by as much as 15 percent in-
creased overall quality, and boosted average egg size from 5 to 6 percent.
Improved Conditions for Workers.EAC in poultry houses improves the life and comfort of the
birds, as well as their overall productivity, but it also improves conditions for people working in these
houses during the summertime heat. In addition, EAC provides ventilation and other benefits of particu-
lar value in the poultry environment.
Greenhouses
Excessive summertime temperatures can reduce plant growth and, if high enough, can kill the plants.
Temperatures above 29°Cconstitute a danger to the health and growth of many greenhouse plants, and
sustained temperatures above 35°Care a serious threat to most types of plant life. EAC provides signifi-
cantly lower indoor air temperatures that enhance plant viability, reduce mortality, improve plant size
and increase weight.
Fan and Pad versus Evaporative Air-Conditioners

Evaporative air-conditioning is used in horticulture, floriculture and other high-productivity greenhouse
agricultural systems, where the environmental conditions are critical for production. Basically two sys-
tems, with different areas of application, are used. Fan and pad systems have one air inlet into the green-
house, where the wetted medium is installed and ventilating equipment on the far wall of the building
(see Figure 8.2). This approach causes a significant temperature gradient from the inlet side to the venti-
lation side of the greenhouse because of the heat the air picks up as it travels the length of the greenhouse.
The other system uses external packaged coolers that maintain a positive pressure in the greenhouse.
They are installed outside the greenhouse and blow humidified air through many polyethylene ducts
into the greenhouse (see Figure 8.3). The system maintains a constant overpressure inside the green-
house, with exhaust air leaving the greenhouse at an exit louver. This approach supplies an even tem-
perature gradient in the greenhouse, since the cooled supply air is delivered through the poly ducts
throughout the greenhouse before it picks up additional heat from the greenhouse. This approach creates
a more uniform growing environment inside the greenhouse than does the fan and pad system.
Figure 8.2. Evaporative Cooling Pad Section of Rigid Cellulose Pads
11 ~- I-=-
Pads shown are along west wall of New Mexico State University grower greenhouse maintained by SWTDI in Las Cruces, New
Mexico.
Source;ECIL
f. l _ _11 k .
Additional Crops
EAC can allow an extra growing season for greenhouse crops where summers normally would be too
hot, thus increasing annual yields. Where shading is normally required to lower indoor temperatures
during summer, it may be reduced or eliminated, depending on the crop, when EAC is used. This can
Figure8.3. ExternalEvaporativeAir-Conditionerson a ResearchGreenhouse,New Mexico State University,

Las Cruces, New Mexico
-.
Source:ECI.
further increase plant yields. Increasing the velocity of air movement permits shade requiring plants to
be grown at higher than recommended light levels without reducing plant quality.
Uniformity among individual plants in a crop is enhanced by EAC.Variation among individual plants
in a crop is reduced by lower summer temperatures. This effectbenefits commercial growers attempting to
increase control over the produce they sell. Both size and the date of harvesting of a crop are more uniform.
The former is a benefit in business planning, simplifyingpricing, while the latter affords the grower more
control over the seasonality of the crop, allowing better matching of target dates and deadlines.
Within limits, high relative humidity (RH) is good for plants; however, RH decreases as temperature
rises. EAC provides two benefits to plants under these conditions. The cooling reduces heat stress on a
plant, thereby reducing the need for its own "evaporative air-conditioning"-that is, transpiration by its
leaves. The increased RH means greater saturation of the air surrounding the leaf, inhibiting the vapor-
ization of water from the leaf itself.
Because of the critical nature of temperature in the maintenance of healthy plants, coolingsystems that
fail to maintain conditions necessary to the health and development threaten the success of a greenhouse.
Fine Tuning Greenhouse Environments with Evaporative Air-Conditioning

In warm climates, EAC is useful to ensure that heat-sensitive plants are maintained within safe limits.
Cooling may be necessary for plant survival. In milder climates, however, EAC may be used for special
greenhouse applications. If a greenhouse that is oriented to low-temperature-preferring plants is desired,
EAC can be an essential component, no matter the outdoor climate. To maintain such planned environ-
ments, EACs can be operated at night or on cool days. For example, air that is 27°Cand 30percent RH can
be cooled to 19°C through EAC. Even at night-when cool-house plants require 7° to 13°C tempera-
tures-an EAC either with or without the pump operating can help maintain proper conditions.
Annex 1
Introduction to Evaporative Cooling
Let us first look at the principle of evaporative air- In Figures A1.2 and A1.3, the effect of EAC is
conditioning, which can be explained by way of psy- explained. In the cases shown the DB temperature
chrometriccharts.These charts present the moisture is 40°C, and the air is not saturated with water,
ratio versus the temperature, as it is registered by a RH is only some 15 percent. One can add water,
normal thermometer (the dry-bulb temperature; and the temperature will drop until it reaches the
DB),in a certain situation. The lines in Figure Al.1 saturation line. What happens is that the heat in
connect the points with the same relative humidity the air is "absorbed" by the evaporating water. The
RH. At a given temperature air can contain an sensibleheat is transformed into latent heat.The ef-
amount of water vapor. When this amount of wa- fect is that the temperature is lowered to 20°Cin
ter vapor reaches its maximum (100 percent RH), this case. The difference between 400 and 20° is
the dewpoint is reached and the water starts to con- called the wet-bulb depression.The wet-bulb tem-
dense. The dew points are connected by the satura- perature, or WB, is registered by a normal ther-
tion line. The higher the temperature in a certain mometer that is wrapped in a wet sock or other
volume, the more water it can contain in its gas- piece of textile. The constantly evaporating water
eous stage. In a desert this effect can explain why from the sock causes a drop of the temperature.
in the morning, when the temperature is still low, The WB temperature is always lower than the DB
one sometirnes sees drops of water on the scarce temperature, except when the RH is 100 percent-
vegetation. In the afternoon, when the temperature that is, when the air contains the maximum amount
reaches its maximum, the air feels very dry and hot. of water it can hold at a given temperature. The
T1hesame amount of water is in the air in terms of WB depression line connects the points with the
kilograms of water per kilogram of dry air, but the same enthalpy-the same amount of energy-the
feeling it gives is completely different. sum of latent and sensible heat.
FigureAl.l. PsychrometricChartand Saturation FigureA1.2. CompletePsychrometricChart

Line
Humidity Ratio Humidity Ratio
kg water/kg air kg water/kg air
.030
J / 3 80% 60/ 4% .030
.025 /- .025
L < :3I' *. gi{ .020 25aDW Point Temperature

.020 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.02
Rain or Saturation Line .015 2 .015
100%Relative Humidity .010 X 7.010
1...
005 00 .005
5 iO 10i.005 1'5 3'5-- -45005
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Dry-Bulb Temperature °C Dry-Bulb Temperature °C
Source:The Munters Corporation. Source:The Munters Corporation.
53
Figure A.3. Wet-Bulb Depression of Ambient Air Figure A1.4. Saturation Effectivenessfor an 80
Percent Effective Evaporative Cooling Pad
5 s0J lc
15 25 30X 20d 40 40 5 s la2 t;1 23
3 25~~~~~
2 30
30/ 3351 43
fi,C A5 / 5
Dwy-5BdbThTh, C Dl-mmdTcn~ab sC
Source:The Munters Corporation. Source:The Munters Corporation.
Figure A1.4 explains the cooling effect of an The outgoing air thus has a DB temperature of 40°C
EAC.When water andtiuiai;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.U
dry air are mixed in an Lhgig,=.
EAC, - 16°C = 24°C. EbcdtRs
the air_; will

:
cool down following the WB depres-
~~~~~~~~25 FigureA1.5 explains2w
what happens in different
sion line. The efficiency of a certain EAC defines situations when an EAC is used. The arrows point
thiedegree of cooling.In this case, the dry air of 40°C at certain combinations of DB temperature and RH.
is led through a pad of corrugated paper, which is It is clear that not all these situations are "comfort-
constantly wetted20 with water. The appliance has. an 15 < able." Only certain
20 combinations of DB and RH are 1 <
efficiency of 80 percent, which means it cools the actually sensed as comfortable by human beings,
airwith O.80OXWB depressionof40°C-20°C = 16°C. .500
and this limits the use of the EAC technology -for .010
F'igureA1.5. SaturationEffectivenessof 80 Percent 1),Y-BWb T-M~~~ -C

FigureA1.6. Effectof IndirectEvaporativeCooling
Lty-BWb TDs-Bx bT C
for EvaporativeCoolingPadsat DifferentAmbient on Ambient Airstream

Conditions
S .C 0g = .C
O 15 30 c
15 13 25 40
20 10 IS 20 2Z 30 35 40 45 S0
Note: All are 80 percent effective; in drier conditions the Source:The Munters Corporation.
coolingeffect is more pronounced than in hu ecid
regions.
Source:The Munters Corporation.
Annex 1: Introduction to Evaporative Cooling 55
FigureA1.7. Effectof CombinedIndirectEvapora- FigureA1.8. Energy-SavingEffectof Usinga

tive CoolingCoupledwith DirectSection SmallerCoilCoupledwith Indirectand Direct
EvaporativeCoolingSections
025' wN- .000

co,,
.D05 25/ .025
10 /
no,o,2~3 .010 C'Il 04a0,
~~~~~5 ,.020 s %/17
5 10 1S 20 2 30 35 40 45 S0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 so
DQ-2oOT=00epaoDC y-Bo1bTon-p-:C
Note: This allows evaporative conmfort cooling to be applied in Source:The Munters Corporation.
more huumid regions, as compared wit- direct EAC alone.
Source:The Munters Corporation.
certain applications. In some cases, hovwever,such the effect that the direct cooling follows another
as greenhouses or cattle sheds, the RH can be in- (lower) WBdepression line. In this way the end of
creased without any problem. the arrow comes into the "comfortable zone" again.
EAC technicians have succeeded in reducing Figure A1.8shows the effectof adding a cooling
the amounts of water that are in the air, so as to coil after an indirect evaporative cooling section (us-
increase the possibilities for applying EAC in hu- ing the indirect as a precooler). This allows for a
mid areas also. Figures A1.6 ard Al .7 explain the smnaller-sized coil to be used, thus savingenergy over
effect in an indirect-direct air-conditioner. Before conventional systems. A direct section can be added
entering the wetting air stream, the air is first after this as well ifneeded. Other systems reduce the
cooled by a normal heat exchanger, in which wa- amounts of water by using desiccants,chemicalsthat
ter and air are also mixed. In this case, the DB tem- can remove the water from the air stream before it
perature of the entering air is reduced from 37.7'C enters the direct cooler.Withthese types of combined
to 26.1'C by the heat exchanger. After this, the processes, EAC can be made more efficient in more
26.1'C air is cooled in the direct cooler to a DB of humid areas.The price of these coolersincreaseswith
19.6 C. The indirect cooler in the beginning has the more complicated technology.
Annex 2
Suitability of Evaporative
Air-Conditioning in Different
Climate Zones
FigureA2.1. Suitabilityof EvaporativeAir-Conditioning:Africa(Shadedareasindicatesuitability)
IE3RD28834
axies,cTenwnin0f'tiwis
The400V,S )ow _ * d
th. ma .. .;n-tinl4. ;n 9h pa of
57
FigureA2.2. Suitabilityof EvaporativeAir-Conditioning:Asia (Shadedareasindicatesuitability)
f 4, * 9 2835
IBIRD
; Suitable Areas
-w-
Stigon
desinUnit ofTh World Bank.

, he boustdariea
colorade nauonan and anotherinfo=ationshown
on this niap do wotkimply.
on the part ofTh ol az roup. any I t
judgment on th tegsal tus of any teffitory. or any endorsement or a >
| . - | ,, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J'-NE !997
Annex 2: Suitabilityof EvaporativeAir-Conditioningin DifferentClimateZones 59
FigureA2.3. Suitabilityof EvaporativeAir-Conditioning:Australia(Shadedareasindicatesuitability)
S~~~~~~~~~~~
FigureA2.4. Suitabilityof EvaporativeAir-Conditioning:Europe(Shadedareasindicatesuitability)
- 3
/S ,7 IBRD28837
17
~
I i '> / / S\, J
[ < ] Suitable Areas / -
tX A) a W / a / <s-
'I~~~~~~~'
J/ X 1)/ .
Tnis map was produced by the Map Design Unit of

The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations
and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on
the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment on the egal z
status of any territory, or any enaorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. JUNE 1997
Annex 2: Suitabilityof EvaporativeAir-Conditioningin DifferentClimateZones 61
FigureA2.5. Suitabilityof EvaporativeAir-Conditioning:NorthAmerica(Shadedareasindicatesuitability)
R8
1
Figure A2.6. Suitabilityof EvaporativeAir-Conditioning:South America(Shadedareasindicatesuitability)
2W89
WIRD
LaPazt
wN _B
k~~~~~~~
Th6 ' nUttiteci

ma y'wM*
>n ,f-< ~ ~~~~~~

*Bra ilia
'ain S tableAreas
'dto *gW 9anti
. g # v ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Leosie
olonia
C Sarrniento
Thima asm~cdb ha p esgnUiiit
9ithismaPdono ,on wo rt heWorld

ot
Vak Grup, aAyjUd -the
to legalstatusoff
any orny p
ora3epah
of such
bou ndoresJ
Annex 3
List of Manufacturers and Suppliers
Complete Evaporative Air-conditioners Baltimore Aircoil Company

America: P.O.Box7322
Baltimore, MD 21227
AdobeAir, Inc. 7595 Montevideo Road
500 S. 15th Street Jessup, MD 20794, USA
Phoenix, Arizona 85034,USA Tel. 410-799-6262,Fax. 410-799-6461
Tel. 602-256-4714,Fax. 602-257-1349 Producesa line ofindirectevaporativeair-conditioners.
Leading USA manufacturer of a wide range of di-
rect and indirect direct evaporative air-conditioners. Champion Cooler Corporation
5800 Murray Street
Air & RefrigerationCorporation Little Rock, Arkansas 72209,USA
P.O. Box 565126 Voice501-562-1094,Fax. 501-562-9485
Dallas, Texas 75653,USA Full line of residential evaporative air-conditioners.
Voice 214-747-0214,Fax. 214-747-0812
Evaporative air-conditioners and humidification Convair Cooler Corporation
equipment for industrial applications. 2007 Texoma Parkway
Suite 114
Alton Manufacturing Company Sherman, TX 75090,USA
4830Transport Dr. Voice903-463-7191,Fax. 903-463-9627
Dallas, TX 75247,USA Marketing a range of whole of house evaporative
Tel. 214-638-6010,Fax. 214-905-0806 air-conditioners and portable evaporative air-con-
Standard indirect-direct evaporative units with a ditioners (by Seeley).
choiceof drip media in a variety of sheet metal and
stainless steel cabinets. Cool Tower Systems, Inc.
8611N. Polk Canyon, Suite 216
Aztec International,LTD Phoenix, AZ 85021,USA
2417Aztec Rd. NE Tel. 02-995-2101,Fax. 602-995-9272
Albuquerque, New Mexico 87107,USA Manufacturers of evaporative air-conditioners
Voice 800-545-8306,Fax 505-881-5391 equipment.
Indirect and direct air-conditioners standard and
custom units and makeup air units. Cool-Fog Systems
26 Pearl St. #Bldg.
Bacchus Industries, Inc Norwalk, CT 06850,USA
P.O. Box 465, Sunland Park Manufacturers of evaporative sprayers/misters.
New Mexico 88063,USA
Tel. 505-589-5431 Engineered Commercial Concepts,Inc.
Manufacturer of a range of fiberglass cabinet air- P.O. Box 29734 - 2356 Glenda La.
conditioners from 85 to 180m3/min. Dallas, Texas 75229,USA
Voice214-484-0381,Fax. 214-620-9880
63
Industrial and commercial direct and indirect Manufacturer of industrial and commercial evapo-
evaporative air-conditioners equipment. Stainless rative air-conditioners systems across a broad
steel construction with evaporative media, indirect range of applications. Products include: evapora-
and direct gas heating. tive air-conditioners, pre-coolers, cell-cool units,
air washers.
Essick Air Products and Champion Cooler
Corporation Modine Manufacturing Company
5800 Murray Street 1500De Koven Ave.
Little Rock, Arkansas 72209,USA Racine, WI 53402, USA
Voice 501-562-1094,Fax. 501-562-9485 Voice414-636-1200,Fax. 414-636-1665
Portable, residential and commercial evaporative Indirect-fired and direct-fired heating and ventilat-
air-conditioners. ing equipment with optional evaporative air-con-
ditioners sections in capacities.
EvapcoWest, Inc.
P.O. Box 959 Norsaire Systems, Inc.
Madera, CA 93639,USA 1314West Evans Avenue
Tel. 209-673-2207,Fax. 209-673-2378 Denver, CO 80223,USA
Evaporative air-conditioners products. Voice 303-937-9595,Fax. 303-937-0774
Description: Indirect/Direct evaporative air-condi-
Gustafson E.H. & Company tioners units with a wicked aluminum exchanger
5115Suffield Terr. or a standard efficiencyplastic exchanger.
Skokie, IL 60077,USA
Voice708-966-6155,Fax. 708-966-5662 Phoenix Manufacturing,Inc.
Manufacturer of air washers utilizing spray coils, 3655E.Roeser Road
evaporative media, and coil sections to provide hu- Phoenix, Arizona 85040,USA
midificationand dehumidification for air-condition- Tel. 602-437-1034,Fax. 602-437-4833
ing or industrial apparatus. Full line of residential air-conditioners, air-condi-
tioner pumps, air-conditioner parts and the 'Power
Hastings IndustriesNVari-Cool cleaning pump system"
P.O.Box548
Hastings, Nebraska 68901,USA Pneumafil Corporation
Tel. 402-463-9821,Fax. 402-462-8041 226 Westinghouse Boulevard, Suite 309
Manufactures Vari-Cool, an indirect-direct evapo- P.O. Box 16348 (28297-8804)
rative air-conditioner and direct evaporative air- Charlotte, NC 28273, USA
conditioners. Direct air-conditioner capacities from Voice 704-399-7441,Fax. 704-588-7346
60m3 /min to 400m3 /min. Sheet metal manufacturer of evaporative air-con-
ditioners/filtration systems for the gas turbine co-
ICC Technologies generation industry; automotive humidifiers, i.e.
441 North Fifth Street media type, spray coil, and spray air washers (high
Philadelphia, PA 19123,USA and low velocities). Filtration systems consisting
Tel. 215-625-0700,Fax. 215-592-8299 of static self-cleaning barrier type and cartridge
Manufacturer of commercial desiccant assisted pulse type.
evaporative air-conditioners equipment.
RainmakerCooling, Inc.
JanecoInc. dba International Energy Saver 945 Rutland
Doug Howard Houston, TX 77008,USA
2017S. Cutler Tel. 713-869-2894
Tempe, AZ 85282,USA Evaporative spray roof cooling manufacturer.
Voice602-968-3066,Fax. 602-968-5788
Annex 3: List ofManufacturersand Suppliers 65
Rey Industries, Inc. Tradewinds

218 W. 36th 616 So. 55th Ave.
Boise, Idaho 83714,USA Phoernx, AZ 85043,USA
Voice 208-336-4821,Fax. 208-343-0433 Tel. 602-278-1957,Fax. 602-272-9544
High-velocityspraybank air washers forplant cooling. Residential and small commercial evaporative air-
conditioners units.
Reznor EL.
McKinley Avenue United Metal Products, Inc.
Mercer, PA 16137,USA 127 S 43rd St.
Voice412-662-4400,Fax. 412-662-4412 Phoenix, AZ 85034, USA
Description: Manufacturer of commercial/indus- Voice602-275-7622,Fax. 602-275-2428
trial heating equipment including an evaporative Industrial, Commercial evaporative Cooling Equip-
air-conditioners section. ment, Direct, Indirect & Heating type units.
Space-Aire Co.
158 No. Graham Rd. Tipton Australia:
P.O. Box 888, Pixley,CA 93256,USA Bonaire Pyrox
Tel. 209-752-2222 26 Nylex Ave, Salisbury
Manufactures of a range of fiberglass down draft South Australia, 5108
air-conditioners from 80 to 400 m 3 /min. Tel.61-8-282-3110, Fax. 61-8-283-0401
Manufacturer, importer and wholesaler of evapo-
SPEC-AIR rative air-conditioners equipment.
7249Bosque Rd.
Canutillo, Texas 79835,USA Celair-Malmet
Voice915-877-3136,Fax. 915-877-1538 P.O.Box373
Indirect/Direct evaporative air-conditioners mod- Leeton NSW 2705
ules and packaged air-conditioners; custom air han- Australia
dlers for institutions and industries; make-up air Tel. 011-69-532455, Fax. 011-69-532656
systems with evaporative air-conditioners; air Manufactures a range of evaporative air-condition-
washers utilizing rigid media; packaged air-condi- ers under the trade mark of CELAIR.Product range
tioners with refrigeration and indirect evaporative starts from 40m3 /min to 1600m3 /min.
air-conditioners; pre-coolers.
Seely International-ConvairCooler Corporation
Sprinkool Systems, Inc. 1-11Rothesay Ave.,P.O. Box 140
P.O. Box 326 Saint Marys Adelaide
Killeen, AL 35645,USA South Australia, 5042,Australia
Evaporative spray roof cooling manufacturer. Tel. 011-618-276-2355,Fax. 011-618-374-2315
Manufacturer of a range (410-250m3 /min) of poly-
Southern Equipment Co. mer cabinet, whole of house evaporative air-condi-
4550 Gustine Ave. tioners and portable evaporative air-conditioners.
St. Louis, MO 63116,USA Brand names Convair and Breezair.
Voice314-481-0660,Fax. 314-481-8107
High efficiency evaporative air-conditioners to be Southernair
used as stand alone or package with blowers, and 29 Aldershot Road
furnaces (unit heaters and duct furnaces). Lonsdale, South Australia 5160,Australia
Tel. 08 326-3551,Fax. 08 326-3552
Titon Inc. Manufacturer of a range of axial fan, roof mounted
P.O. Box 6164 evaporative air-conditioners with low profile fiber-
South Bend, IN 46660,USA glass cabinet.
Tel. 219-271-9699,Fax. 219-261-9771
India: Flippen Valve Company

AmbassadorAir-conditioners Private Lmtd. 4127 Temple City Blvd.
HA6mbassMohadr
Ar-copnditonrArivate LmtdEl Monte, CA 91734,USA
H-6 B-I Mohan Co-op nd. Area Voice 818-575-1411,Fax. 818-575-1549
New Delhi Manufactures extensive line of heavy duty evapo-

India rative air-conditioner valves for residential and
Tel. 91-11-683-3258,Fax. 91-11-683-6903 commercial use.
Manufacturer of commercial direct evaporative air-
conditioners equipment and of evaporative air-con- Cer-Cor
ditioners media. ~~~~1149
Central Avenue
University Park, IL 60466,USA
Tel.708-534-6595or 800-323-9161,Fax.708-534-7581
Kobli andaCoManyiPaharganjManufacturer of cellulose evaporative air-condi-
New Delhi 110 055, India tioners pads for agricultural, horticultural, commer-
New. De442i110055,Indiacial, industrial and residential applications.
Tel. 524428
Manufacturers of a range of spot air-conditioners Goettl Enterprises Inc, Amoy Industries
and wall mounted evaporative air-conditioners. P.O. box 20246
2301 E. Buckeye Rd, Phoenix AZ 85036,USA
Solar Air-conditioners: Tel. 602-273-7483,Fax. 602-275-2881
Blower wheels and associated items for the evapo-
Jade Mountain Import-Export Company rative air-conditioning industry. New product de-
P.O. Box 4616, Boulder CO 80306, USA velopment programs involving cooling and air
Tel. 303-449-6601, Fax. 303-449-8266
Mail order of solar powered direct and indirect-direct movng equipment.
evaporative air-conditioners from 20 to 100m3 /rnin. Little Giant Pump Company
Solar Energie Technik P.O.Box 12010

Postfach 1180,D 68801Altluszheim Oklahoma City,OK 73157-2010,USA
Tel. 06205-3525, Fax. 06205-3528, Germnany. Tel. 405-947-2511, Fax. 405-947-8720
Mail order of a solar powered evaporative spot air- Line of non-submersible evaporative air-condi-
conditioner. tioner pumps.
Munters Corporation
Component Manufacturers: Evaporative cooling division
Air Moving Market 108 Sixth Street,SE
GE Motors Fort Myers, FL 33907, USA
P.O. Box 2205 Tel. 813-936-1555, Fax. 813-936-2657
2000 Taylor Street Leading manufacturer of rigid pads
Fort Wayne, IN 46801, USA
Voice 219-428-4685, Fax. 219-428-4660 Scott Motors Company
Fan motors for evaporative air-conditioners Al do NM88310 USA
applications. Tel. 505-434-0633, Fax. 505-434-4895
Dial Manufacturing, Inc. Manufacturer of evaporative air-conditioner motors.

25 South 51st Avenue
Phoenix, AZ 85043, USA Manufacturer's Representatives
Tel. 602-278-1100, Fax 602-278-1991 A K S Sales, Inc.
Manufacturer of evaporative air-conditioner replace- 606 Northstar
ment parts such as pumps, motors, float valves etc. San Antonio, Texas 78216, USA
Annex 3: List of Manufacturers and Suppliers 67
Voice 512-344-1845 U.S. Representatives for Southernair evaporative

Manufacturer's representative for evaporative air- Air-conditioners. High efficient axial fan residen-
conditioners, Sno-Bresefor Texas. tial and commercial air-conditioners.
Barnhart-Taylor, Inc. Consulting Engineering:

1602A E. Yandell
El Paso, TX 79902,USA Anderson, De Bartolo and Pan
Tel. 915-533-1231,Fax. 915-533-8942 2480N. Arcadia Ave.
Manufacturers representatives for evaporative air- Tucson AZ 85712,USA
conditioners equipment sold in the Southwest U.S. Tel. 602-795-4500,Fax. 602-881-0413
and northern Mexico. Consulting engineering specializing in evaporative
air-conditioners design
Engineered Air Systems
720 12th Street McCartney, Jerome J.
Richmond, CA 94802,USA Water Treatment Consultant
Tel. 510-234-9322 P.O. Box 498874
Cincinnati, Ohio 45249, USA
FryEquipment Co., Inc. Voice 513-489-5547
2600 W. 2nd Ave. Suite 7 Specializing in chemical water treatment for boil-
Denver, Colorado 80219,USA ers, cooling towers, evaporative condensers, and
Voice 303-922-8442,Fax. 303-922-8445 closed circuit evaporative air-conditioners.
Sales and design engineering desiccant cooling, in-
direct evaporative air-conditioners systemswith hy-
Meckler, G. PE
brid desiccant and compressorized components. President
Gershon Meckler Associates, P.C.
Lincoln Associates 590 Hemdon Parkway, Suite 100
540 Powder Springs St. SW Hemdon, VA22070,USA
Suite 29E Voice 703-478-9552,Fax. 703-478-9446
Marietta, GA 30064,USA E conservation, utilization, and management. D of
Manufacturers Representative for evaporative air- mechanical and electrical systems for buildings, en-
conditioners products for Georgia and Alabama. ergy utilization analysis in system design, energy
conserving retrofit design for existing facilities, and
Mestek Dallas life cycle economnicanalysis.
4830 Transport Drive
Dallas, TX 75247, USA Foster, R.
Project Engineer, Southwest Technology Develop-
Mountain Air Sales, Inc. ment Institute
8282 So. State #28 College of Engineering, New Mexico State University
Midvale, UT 84047, USA P.O. Box 30001, Dept. 3SOLAR
Tel. 303-937-9595, Fax. 303-937-0774 Las Cruces, NM 88003-8001, USA
Voice 505-646-1846, Fax. 505-646-2960
Robert E. Jones Co. Analysis and design of direct and indirect evapo-
P.O. Box 1129 rative air-conditioning systems, performance test-
Newcastle, CA 95658, USA ing, building simulation modeling, research and de-
velopment, training and workshops, solar energy
Wright-Castillo& Associates, Inc. applications.
1268-BAuto Parkway #506
Escondido, CA 92029,USA
Voice619-743-6128,Fax. 619-738-9045
NM Energy,Minerals and Natural Resources Tecogen,Inc.

Department P.O. Box 9046/45 First Avenue
Harold Trujillo,Energy Conservation and Manage- Waltham, MA 02254,USA
ment Division Tel. 617-622-1323,Fax. 617-622-1252
2040South Pacheco Street, Santa Fe,NM 87505,USA Desiccant air-conditioning systems.
Tel.505-827-5900,Fax 505-827-5908
Educating and assisting organizations on the imple- Services: LegalLicensing
menting of evaporative air-conditioners, cosponsor-
ing workshops on theory and design. Ian G. Fierstein
Attorney at Law
Noble, John M. PE Miller Faucher Chertow Cafferty & Wexler
P.O. Box 2615 30 North LaSalle St.
Taos, NM 87571,USA Suite 3630
Voice505-758-2240,Fax. 505-758-2240 Chicago, IL 60602,USA
Design and analysis of indirect and direct evapora- Voice312-332-3400,Fax. 312-782-4485
five air-conditioning systems. Representing developer of industrial process for
molding complex and detailed fiberglass parts to
produce evaporative air-conditioners.
Bibliography
Brown, W. K. 1991. "Application of Evaporative Nationwide, Commercial Applications for

Cooling Concepts to Save Energy while Imnprov- Evaporative Cooling Systems." Washington
ing the Indoor and Outdoor Environment. State Energy Office, ASHRAE Inland Empire
ASHRAE Transactions97(Pt. 2), IN-91-11-1 Chapter, Spokane, Washington, March 21.
Brown, W. K. 1989. "Humidification by Evapora- McClellan,C. H. 1988."Estimated Temperature Per-
tion for Control Simplicityand Energy Savings." formance for Evaporative Cooling Systems in
ASHRAE Transactions95(Pt.1), Atlanta, GA. Five Locations in the United States." ASHRAE
Evaporative Cooling Institute. 1992a. "Commercial Transactions.Atlanta, Georgia.
Applications for Evaporative Cooling Systems: McClellan, C. H. 1989. "Evaporative Cooling Ap-
Workshop Manual." Governors Energy Office, plication Handbook." Sun Manufacturing, El
Texas Energy Extension Service,Energy Center, Paso, Texas.
ASHRAE-El Paso, University of Texas at El Muller, M. J., 1987. "Handbuch ausgewalter
Paso, El Paso, Texas,June 16. Klimastationen der Erde." University of Trier,
Evaporative Cooling Institute. 1992b. "Sizing and Forschungsstelle Bodenerosion Mertensdorf,
Maintaining Evaporative Cooling Systems: Ruwertal, Germany.
Workshop Manual." Governors Energy Office, Peterson, J. L. and B. D. Hunn. 1992."Performance
TexasEnergy Extension Service, Energy Center, Evaluation of an Indirect Evaporative Cooler."
Evaporative Cooling Institute, ASHRAE-El Conservation and Solar Research Report No. 11,
Paso, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Center for Energy Studies, University of Texas,
Texas,June 16. Austin, Texas, January.
Evaporative Cooling hinstitute.1995."Commercial
Applcations for Evaporative Cooling Systems."I Puckorius, P.R., P.T. Thomas, and R. L. Augspurger.
WApplingonstaterEneprgyatffieCoolingSHRAems 1995. "Why Evaporative Coolers Have Not
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land Empire Chapter, Spokane, Washington, nall995qanuary): 29-33.
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Foster, R. E. 1991. 'Evaporative Air-Conditionin Supple, R., 1982. "Evaporative Cooling for Com-
FostechnoloiEand1.CvapontributiAlrons tioo*g fort." ASHRAEJournal. 1982(August).
Technologies and Contributions to Reducing
Greenhouse Gases." Proceedings of the Watt, J. R. 1986.EvaporativeAir-ConditioningHand-
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69
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Recent World Bank Technical Papers (continued)
No. 390 Foster, Lawrence, and Morris, Groundwater in Urban Development: Assessing Management Needs and
Formulating Policy Strategies
No. 391 Lovei and Weiss, Jr., Environmental Management and Institutions in OECD Countries" Lessonsfrom
Experience
No. 392 Felker, Chaudhuri, Gy6rgy, and Goldman, The Pharmaceutical Industry in India and Hungary: Policies,
Institutions, and Technological Development
No. 393 Mohan, ed., Bibliography of Publications: Africa Region, 1990-97
No. 394 Hill and Shields, Incentivesfor Joint Forest Management in India: Analytical Methods and Case Studies
No. 395 Saleth and Dinar, Satisfying Urban Thirst: Water Supply Augmentation and Pricing Policy in Hyderabad City,
India
No. 396 Kikeri, Privatization and Labor: What Happens to Workers When Governments Divest?
No. 397 Lovei, Phasing Out Leadfrom Gasoline: Worldwide Experience and Policy Implications
No. 398 Ayres, Anderson, and Hanrahan, Setting Prioritiesfor Environmental MAnagement: An Application to the
Mining Sector in Bolivia
No. 399 Kerf, Gray, Irwin, L6vesque, Taylor, and Klein, Concessionsfor Infrastructure: A Guide to Their Design and
Award
No. 401 Benson and Clay, The Impact of Drought on Sub-Saharan African Economies:A Preliminary Examination
No. 402 Dinar, Mendelsohn, Evenson, Parikh, Sanghi, Kumar, McKinsey, and Lonergan, Measuring the Impact of
Climate Change on Indian Agriculture
No. 403 Welch and Fremond, The Case-by-Case Approach to Privatization: Techniquesand Examples
No. 404 Stephenson, Donnay, Frolova, Melnick, and Worzala, Improving Women's Health Services in the Russian
Federation:Results of a Pilot Project
No. 405 Onorato, Fox, and Strongman, World Bank Group Assistancefor Minerals Sector Development and Reform in
Member Countries
No. 406 Milazzo, Subsidies in World Fisheries:A Reexamination
No. 407 Wiens and Guadagni, Designing Rulesfor Demand-Driven Rural Investment Funds: The Latin American
Experience
No. 408 Donovan and Frank, Soil Fertility Management in Sub-Saharan Africa
No. 409 Heggie and Vickers, Commercial Management and Financing of Roads
No. 410 Sayeg, Successful Conversion to Unleaded Gasoline in Thailand
No. 411 Calvo, Options for Managing and Financing Rural Transport Infrastructure
No. 413 Langford, Forster, and Malcolm, Towarda Financially Sustainable Irrigation System: Lessonsfrom the State of
Victoria, Australia, 1984-1994
No. 414 Salman and Boisson de Chazoumes, International Watercourses: Enhancing Cooperation and Managing
Conflict, Proceedings of a World Bank Seminar
No. 415 Feitelson and Haddad, Identification of Joint Management Structuresfor Shared Aquifers: A Cooperative
Palestinian-Israeli Effort
No. 416 Miller and Reidinger, eds., Comprehensive River Basin Development: The Tennessee Valley Authority
No. 417 Rutkowski, Welfare and the Labor Market in Poland: Social Policy during Economic Transition
No. 418 Okidegbe and Associates, Agriculture Sector Programs: Sourcebook
No. 420 Francis and others, Hard Lessons: Primary Schools, Community, and Social Capital in Nigeria
No. 422 Peter Quaak, harrie Knoef, and Huber Stassen, Energyfrom Biomass: A Review of Combusion and Gasification
Technologies
No. 424 Jaffee, ed., Southern African Agribusiness: Gaining through Regional Collaboration
No. 425 Mohan, ed., Bibliography of Publications: Africa Region, 1993-98
No. 426 Rushbrook and Pugh, Solid Waste Landfills in Middle- and Lower-Income Countries: A Technical Guide to
Planning, Design, and Operation
No. 427 Marifio and Kemper, Institutional Frameworks in Successful Water Markets: Brazil, Spain, and Colorado,USA
No. 428 C. Mark Blackden and Chitra Bhanu, Gender, Growth, and Poverty Reduction: Special Program of Assistance
for Africa, 1998 Status Report on Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa
No. 431 Severin Kodderitzsch, Reforms in Albanian Agriculture: Assessing a Sector in Transition
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10 - World Bank Report On Evap Cooling

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Libraryof Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Evaporative air-conditioning: applications for environmentally

Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning Recommended Air Change Rate

4.6 Cutaway of a Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning ................................................................... 27

Temperature, dry-bulb: the air temperature measured by a dry temperature sensor.

Temperature, wet-bulb: the temperature measured by a temperature sensor covered by a water-moist-

* Utilities.Dissemination of EAC appliances can serve as a significant demand-side management

Benefits of Evaporative Cooling

Opportunities and Limitations

Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning

Figure1.1. TypicalDirect EvaporativeAir-Conditioner

Figure1.2. Roof-MountedDowndraftEvaporativeAir-ConditioningUnit, El Paso,Texas

Table 1.1. Vapor-Compression versus Evaporative Air-Conditioning

Basic characteristics Vapor compression AC Evaporative AC

Coolant CFCs/HFCs Water

Figure 1.3. DirectEvaporativeAir-ConditionerforTransportUse

Note he EAC unit(onthe forklift at right) wasbut by imatran andisbeinginstalledontoatytransitbusinDenverColorado.

Table 2.1. Effectivenessof EvaporativeCoolingby ClimateType

Box 2.1. Relative Humidity and Wet-Bulb Temperature

Wet-bulb Typical supply air temps

15-210 C Direct 17-230 C Real comfort

TheModified Comfort Standard for Evaporative Air-Conditioning

Figure2.1. ModifiedEvaporativeAir-ConditioningComfortZone Takinginto Account IncreasedAirflow

7.2 12.7 18.3 23.9 29.4 35.0 40.6

Expected Performance of Evaporative Air-Conditioning

Table 2.3. EvaporativeAir-ConditioningPerfornancein SelectedLocationsat 1 PercentCoolingDesign

a. Temperatures in °C, 1%Dry-bulb/Mean Coincident Wet-bulbdesign conditions (ASHRAE).

Advantages of Evaporative Versus Vapor-Compression Air-Conditioning

Table 2.4. Benefitsof EvaporativeAir-ConditioningVersusVaporCompressionAir-Conditioning

Economics of Residential Coolers

Figure 3.1. TypicalInvestment Costsfor EvaporativeAir-Conditioningin the United States

20 EAC 20 AC 60 EAC 60 AC 100EAC 100 AC

Figure 3.2. Typical Investment Costs for Evaporative Air-Conditioning in India

Figure3.4. TypicalLife-CycleCosts:EvaporativeAir-Conditioningversus Air-ConditioningforIndia

20 EAC 20 AC 60 EAC 60 AC 100EAC 100 AC

Saturation effectiveness = DBI - DB2

Figure 4.1. Simplified Evaporative Air-Conditioning Process

Dry air Water Moist air

You feel 35°C Sensible and You feel 21°C

Sensible heat in the air is used to evaporate water

Figure 4.2. Psychrometric Processfor Direct Evaporative Cooling, Mexico

20.70 CDB for

Cd. Jukrez, Mexico i

Source: Munters Corporation.

Figure 4.4. Close-up of Rigid Cellulose Pad Made of Corrugated Paper

Fan and Motor

Figure4.5. CommonCabinetsforResidentialCoolersin India

Figure4.6. Cutawayof a DirectEvaporativeAir-Conditioning

Figure 4.7. Plate-Type Indirect-Direct Evaporative Air-Conditioning

Conditioned SecondaryOutside Air

Source:Norsaire Systems, Inc.

Figure 4.9. Indirect-DirectEvaporativeAir-ConditioningProcess

Figure 4.10. Ventilation Cycle Desiccant Cooling System

Outside cooler ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Supply

Box 5.1. A SimpleSizing Example

Direct EvaporativeAir-Conditioning Recommended Air Change Rate for Design Wet-Bulb

For Comfort Cooling:

For Relief Cooling

Table 5.2. UsefulCoolingChart: Percentageof UsefulCoolingforDirectEvaporativeAir-Conditioning

Washedair temperaturegain in rooms