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The Role of Occupation in an Integrated Boycott Model: A Cross-Regional

Study in China
Malcolm Smitha; Qianpin Lia
a
School of Accounting, Finance and Economics, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia

Online publication date: 19 April 2010

To cite this Article Smith, Malcolm and Li, Qianpin(2010) 'The Role of Occupation in an Integrated Boycott Model: A
Cross-Regional Study in China', Journal of Global Marketing, 23: 2, 109 — 126
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/08911761003673421
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 Journal of Global Marketing, 23:109–126, 2010
Copyright
c Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0891-1762 print / 1528-6975 online
DOI: 10.1080/08911761003673421

The Role of Occupation in an Integrated Boycott Model:

A Cross-Regional Study in China
Malcolm Smith
Qianpin Li

ABSTRACT. The study examines the role of occupancy status in an integrated boycott model, which
synthesizes related theories that involve consumer animosity and five other constructs. The status of
occupancy introduced in this paper is determined by the real-life incidence of military occupation
imposed on China by Japan in the 1940s. The findings suggest that, regardless of the status of the
occupancy condition, the tendencies of animosity, efficacy, and prior purchase behavior play important
roles in attitudes toward participating boycott activities. The findings offer implications for marketing
Downloaded By: [TÜBTAK EKUAL] At: 09:25 7 June 2010

practice in that the management of multinational corporations that are concerned with increasing their
share in any specific country must be aware of that country’s history. In this regard, large companies
need to pay much more attention to the ingrained and explosive emotion derived from the legacy of
past conflicts (i.e., war, economic, political, etc.) between their host and home nations, regardless of a
difference in the status of past occupation.

KEYWORDS. Boycott, occupation, consumer animosity

BACKGROUND corresponding applications have been discussed

Introduction
As activism against foreign goods, the con-
sumer boycott phenomenon has existed for more
than a century. In recent years, researchers have
been motivated to explore its management value
in an era of globalization, and correspondingly
the study of consumer boycott behavior has be-
gun to move from prescriptive and anecdotal atti-
tudes to more descriptive and scientific stances.
Following the pioneering animosity model of
Klein, Ettenson, and Morris (1998), numerous
studies have sought to examine the leading mo-
tives behind protest activities. Other factors and
extensively in diversified contexts that embrace
consumer ethnocentrism, product judgment, and
willingness to be involved in boycott participa-
tion (Ettenson & Klein, 2005; Ettenson, Smith,
Klein, & John, 2006; John & Klein, 2003; Klein,
Smith, & John, 2002). However, most of these
studies have been conducted using consumers in
developed countries as subjects, and little em-
pirical research has been conducted in China.
With the reemergence of nationalism in the
context of the transformation of China’s civil
society, a large number of foreign firms have
been subjected to repeated local protests. As a
result, several famous brands were forced to quit
Chinese markets. One of the most striking recent

Malcolm Smith and Qianpin Li are affiliated with the School of Accounting, Finance and Economics,
Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia.
Address correspondence to Prof. Malcolm Smith, School of Accounting, Finance and Eco-
nomics, Edith Cowan University, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia. E-mail:
malcolm.smith@ecu.edu.au
109
 110 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING
examples involved the Japanese prime minis-
ter of the time, Junichiro Koizumi, who con-
tinued to visit a controversial war shrine, the
Shintoist Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo, dedicated
to the spirits of those who died fighting on be-
half of the Emperor of Japan, and a long-time
symbol of Japanese imperialist aggression in the
eyes of China, each year during his tenure of of-
fice. Consequently, nearly all Japanese firms and
their goods (e.g., cars, departments, consumer
electronics, and cosmetics) became the target of
Chinese public criticism and purchase sacrifice.
We present the use of a multigroup structural
equation modeling (SEM) statistical technique
to validate an integrated model across multiple
groups of Chinese consumers. In this regard, the
role of occupancy status is introduced to deter-
mine if the boycott model would hold regardless
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of local status of occupancy during the Second
Sino-Japanese War in the 1940s. Accordingly,
the major research question to be addressed in
this study is whether occupancy status play a
role in distinguishing Chinese consumers’ atti-
tudes toward Japan and its firms.
Results of this study are important in explain-
ing the distributive characteristic of hostile atti-
tudes across contemporary China’s marketplace
and could further serve as the basis for a follow-
up study of consumer boycott in other contexts.
In addition to its theoretical contribution, the em-
pirical findings of this study will be of great inter-
est both for multinational corporations (MNCs)
and their home countries, so they can better un-
derstand the factors underlying purchase rejec-
tion in host nations and develop strategies to
address the issue.
Controversial Japanese Politicians’
Shrine Visits
With the memory of other historically signifi-
cant issues, such as revisionist textbooks, “com-
fort women,” and mustard bombs fading from
memory, the shrine visits by Japanese politi-
cians have stood out and become one of the
most controversial obstacles within contempo-
rary multilateral relations between Japan and
its Asian neighbors. In substance, the contro-
versy arises out of the enshrinement of World
War II war criminals: of the 2,466,532 peo-
ple included in the Yasukuni Shrine’s Book of
Souls, 1,068 were convicted of war crimes in
a post–World War II court. Of those, 14 are
convicted Class A war criminals (Japan Guide,
2008). Furthermore, the Yushukan War Memo-
rial Museum, the shrine’s history museum, con-
tains some accounts of Japan’s actions in World
War II that are perceived to be revisionist. A
more recent source of controversy—visits to
the shrine by cabinet members, and by various
prime ministers in particular—has been a cause
of protest in Japan and abroad. Mainland China,
North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan have all
protested against various visits since 1985. For
some Asian countries that suffered the most un-
der past Japanese imperialism, the shrine has
become a symbol for Japanese militarism and
ultranationalism, and many have taken the vis-
its by Japanese prime ministers as a sign that
Japan’s political leaders are not looking critically
enough at their country’s history in an attempt to
legitimize Japan’s past militarism (Japan Guide,
2008).
This issue first surfaced when Emperor Hiro-
hito refused to visit the shrine from 1978 until
his death in 1989 (Brasor, 2006). According to a
memorandum released in 2006 that was kept by
the Imperial Household Agency Grand Steward
Tomohiko Tomita, Hirohito stated that the rea-
son he stopped visiting the shrine was because
of the decision to enshrine Class A war criminals
such as Yosuke Matsuoka and Toshio Shiratori
(Japan Times, 2006). Since his 1978 decision,
no Japanese emperor has visited the Yasukuni
Shrine.
While an emperor has not visited the
shrine since 1978, Japanese politicians, in-
cluding Japanese prime ministers and other
Japanese Cabinet members, have caused consid-
erable controversy by visiting Yasukuni Shrine
(Figure 1). The controversy has been reignited
nearly every year since 1975, when Prime Min-
ister Miki Takeo first visited the shrine as a pri-
vate individual on August 15, 2006, the day on
which Japan commemorates the end of World
War II. The next year, his successor Fukuda
Takeo visited as a private individual, yet he
signed the visitors’ book as prime minister. Sev-
eral other Japanese prime ministers have vis-
ited the shrine since 1979—Masayoshi Ohira in
 Malcolm Smith and Qianpin Li
FIGURE 1. Japanese Prime Ministers’ Visits to the Yasukuni Shrine by Year (1945–2006). Source:
Adapted from Deans (2007)
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1979; Zenko Suzuki in 1980, 1981, and 1982;
Yasuhiro Nakasone in 1983 and 1985 (on the
latter occasion, he offered flowers that had been
paid for by the government); Kiichi Miyazawa
in 1992 (this visit was kept secret until 1996 [he
had paid a visit in 1980 before becoming prime
minister]); Ryutaro Hashimoto in 1996; and
Junichiro Koizumi, who visited six times (2001,
2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006) (China Daily,
2007; Japan Guide, 2008; Takenaka, 2007).
Of all Japanese prime ministers, Junichiro
Koizumi was one of the most outspoken and
controversial visitors. Koizumi’s annual visits
to Yasukuni continued to draw criticism from
around the world. On August 13, 2001, Japan’s
new prime minister, Koizumi, paid homage at
the Shintoist Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo, dedi-
cated to the spirits of those who died fighting on
behalf of the Emperor of Japan, and a long-time
symbol of Japanese imperialist aggression in the
eyes of China (He, 2007). While he claimed that
his visit to the shrine was intended to “convey
111
to all victims of the war my heartfelt repen-
tance and condolences” and “pledge for peace,”
it was immediately denounced by the Chinese
government as an “erroneous act that has dam-
aged the political foundation of Sino-Japanese
relations as well as the feelings of the Chinese
people and other Asian victims” (BBC, 2001).
Nonetheless, Koizumi continued his annual vis-
its to the shrine until shortly before stepping
down in September 2006. With much anger, the
Chinese leaders refused to hold summit meet-
ings with Koizumi, and Chinese mass protests
against Japan repeatedly erupted, first through
Internet petitions and later culminating in large-
scale anti-Japan demonstrations including the
2005 protest. During the Koizumi years, bilat-
eral relations reached their “lowest point since
diplomatic normalization in 1972” (He, 2007).
In addition to fierce criticisms from Asian
nations, Henry Hyde, chairman of the U.S.
House Committee on Foreign Affairs, argued
in 2006 that Koizumi would embarrass the
 112 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING
U.S. Congress and offend American veterans of
World War II if he was allowed to give a con-
gressional speech after paying another visit to
Yasukuni Shrine (Nakata, 2006).
Koizumi’s successor, Shinzo Abe, had vis-
ited the shrine in April 2006 before he took of-
fice. Although this visit affronted both Chinese
and South Korean societies (Kyodo News, 2006),
Abe remained vague as to whether he had vis-
ited or would visit the shrine in the future. Subse-
quent events have revealed that a compromise on
the shrine issue was reached with China (York,
2006). Abe publicly supported his predecessor’s
visits to the shrine, but he pledged not to visit the
shrine during his term as prime minister (BBC,
2007).
Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda, successor of
Abe, vowed never to visit the shrine before in-
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stallment in 2007, a commitment applauded by
Japan’s Asian neighbors (China Daily, 2007).
Fukuda’s open political opposition to the shrine
has helped improve relations with China and
South Korea (Economist, 2008). Nevertheless,
other influential politicians unceasingly visited
the shrine. A group of 62 Diet members from
the ruling Liberal Democratic Party and another
party visited the shrine on April 22, 2008. Its
members included the former farm minister and
a special adviser to the incumbent Prime Minis-
ter Fukuda (Ito & Fukada, 2008).
The Yasukuni Shrine therefore remains an is-
sue for both elite and mass levels of Chinese
society. Although Chinese leaders have in the
past used the Yasukuni issue in an instrumental
way to pursue other policy objectives, the visits
by Japanese senior officials, in particular prime
ministers, have undoubtedly generated genuine
resentment and concern. For the Chinese leader-
ship, the issue is a vital test of Japanese goodwill
and willingness to develop good relations with
other Asian nations including China. At the mass
level, the shrine visits also stir up strong anti-
Japan sentiment within civil society, which may
go beyond what the Chinese government finds
tolerable or acceptable. A pervading anti-Japan
emotion aroused by alleged defiant visits to the
shrine seriously challenges the Chinese leader-
ship regarding the development of a rational and
secular strategy toward its uppermost rival in
Asia—Japan (Deans, 2007).
Painful Memories for Chinese Since 1930s
The controversy from China over the Ya-
sukuni Shrine and visits by Japanese prime min-
isters can only be understood in the context of
the bitter history of conflict between Japan and
China from the late nineteenth century.
Most justifications for anti-Japan sentiment in
China can be directly traced to the Second Sino-
Japanese War, which was one theater of World
War II. As a direct consequence of the war, China
sustained more than 20 million civilian deaths
and 3 million military casualties (Johnson,
2005), as well as an additional 23 million eth-
nic Chinese civilian deaths in Southeast Asia
(Johnson, 2003). In addition, the war caused an
estimated US$383.3 billion in damage and cre-
ated 95 million refugees. Manchuria came under
Japanese control in 1931 as a puppet state named
Manchukuo. Many major cities thereafter, in-
cluding Nanjing, Shanghai, and Beijing, were
occupied in 1937 by the Japanese. Notable atroc-
ities committed by the invading Japanese forces
included the Rape of Nanking. In Manchuria,
Unit 731, a medical unit of the Japanese army, re-
searched biological warfare using Chinese civil-
ians as test subjects, who were referred to as
human “logs” in the medical journals. Women
from many Asian countries, including China,
were forced to serve as sex slaves in military
brothels under Japanese occupation.
This was compounded by the arrogance
and contempt, fed by the ideology of pre-
war Japanese nationalism, with which many
Japanese in this period regarded China and
the brutality of discipline within the Imperial
Japanese Army.
PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON
CONSUMER FEELINGS OF
HOSTILITY
International tensions may stem from territory
disputes, economic arguments, diplomatic dis-
agreements, or religious conflicts leading to cool
relations between countries or even armed con-
flicts. The potential impacts of such bilateral dis-
putes on consumer behavior has attracted more
research attention in recent years (Ang et al.,
 Malcolm Smith and Qianpin Li
2004; Klein, 2002; Klein et al., 1998; Nijssen &
Douglas, 2004).
Origin of the Concept
In their pivotal research, Klein et al. (1998)
studied the diversifying tensions between two
nations pertaining to the manner of consumer
purchasing, focusing on consumers’ intention
to buy products directly or indirectly associated
with a nation which was believed to be hos-
tile. Consequently, Klein et al. (1998) introduced
the concept of consumer animosity against
an extreme context of the Nanjing Massacre
and probed into persisting anger against Japan
among (local) Chinese consumers. Their mail
survey and SEM revealed that the feeling of
animosity had a negative impact on Chinese
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consumers’ willingness to buy Japanese prod-
ucts. Simultaneously, however, they also found
that this kind of unfavorable feeling did not dis-
tort consumers’ quality evaluations of Japanese
products of interest; there appeared to be no di-
rect connection between a high evaluation of a
product from a specific country and their emo-
tion of dislike against the same country.
In addition, Klein et al. (1998) were able
to provide evidence of a direct impact of
country-of-origin (COO) on consumers’ buying
decisions, independent of product judgments.
This finding challenged conventional arguments
(Bilkey & Nes, 1982; Liefeld, 1993; Papadopou-
los & Heslop, 2003; Peterson & Jolibert, 1995;
Verlegh & Steenkamp, 1999). More important,
consumer animosity was empirically validated
to have an independent effect on consumer
intent to purchase, as well as on consumer
ethnocentrism, defined by Shimp and Sharma
(1987) as the beliefs held by “moral” consumers
with regard to the appropriateness and morality
of purchasing imported goods. Thus, consumer
animosity and consumer ethnocentrism were
specified as a pair of distinct factors that
have distinguishable effects on foreign-made
product preferences (Hinck, Cortes, & James,
2004; Klein & Ettenson, 1999; Witkowski,
2000). In contrast with so-called “ethnocentric
consumers” who would avoid buying any
foreign goods, consumers holding emotions of
animosity may find it appropriate to buy foreign
113
products in general but refuse to purchase
products associated with a specific nation that
is deemed as opposed to their home countries.
In more recent years, follow-up studies to that
of Klein et al. (1998) and pertaining to consumer
animosity have reported largely consistent find-
ings. Most of these provide replications in differ-
ent contexts (Klein, 2002; Nijssen & Douglas,
2004; Shin, 2001). Nevertheless, other re-
searchers have begun to extend the applicabil-
ity of the construct (Hinck et al., 2004; Shimp,
Dunn, & Klein, 2004) or to refine its conceptual-
ization (Ang et al., 2004; Jung et al., 2002). For
example, other authors, notably Amine, Chao,
and Arnold (2005), have examined the manage-
rial implications of consumer animosity, rather
than its operationalization and measurement. In
addition, existing approaches to the measure-
ment of the animosity construct have been the
subject of critical review in terms of both com-
prehension and inconsistency with the concep-
tual characteristics of the factor.
Theoretical Contributions
Evolutionary Development
According to their unique contributions to
the theoretical foundation of the animosity con-
struct, relevant studies can be classified into two
distinct groups. The first group consists of the
seminal works of Klein et al. (1998) and Klein
and Ettenson (1999), each of which establishes
the discriminant validity of the conventional
construct of consumer ethnocentrism and exam-
ines the impact that animosity has on willing-
ness to buy foreign products. Another six studies
(Kesic, Piri Rajh, & Vlasic, 2005; Klein, 2002;
Nijssen & Douglas, 2004; Russell, 2003; Shin,
2001; Witkowski, 2000) are essentially replica-
tions of those of Klein et al. (1998) and Klein and
Ettenson (1999). These studies attempt to vali-
date the behavioral influence of the animosity
emotion in different contexts, such as different
origins, different target countries, and different
product categories.
A second group of seven papers can be
categorized as extensions because they either
extend the scope of applicability or refine the
construct in general. For instance, the original
spectrum of animosity has been redefined from a
 114 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING

FIGURE 2. Original Measurement Model of TABLE 1. Matrix of Animosity Classification

Animosity Construct. Source: Klein (1998) and
Petra and Adamantios (2007) National Personal

Stable War Economy

X8
1 Nijssen and Douglas Jung et al. (2002)
∗
X7 (2004) Klein (2002)
∗
Economic Shimp et al. (2004) Shin (2001)
X6 ∗
Shin (2001) Witkowski (2000)
Animosity ∗
Klein et al. (2002; 1998) Klein et al. (1998)
X5 Economy
X4 Jung et al. (2002)
∗
Klein (2002)
∗
Shin (2001)
Animosity X9 ∗
Witkowski (2000)
∗
Klein et al. (1998)
Situational Politics/diplomacy Economy
1 X3 Ettenson and Klein (2005) Jung et al. (2002)
∗
Russell (2003) Klein (2002)
War ∗
X2 Witkowski (2000) Shin (2001)
Animosity Economy ∗
Witkowski (2000)
X1 Cicic et al. (2005) ∗
Klein et al. (1998)
Jung et al. (2002)
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Hinck et al. (2004)

country–country relation to a region–region
setting of tensions (Cicic, Brkic, Husic, &
Agic, 2005; Hinck, 2004; Hinck et al., 2004;
Shimp et al., 2004; Shoham, Davidow, Klein,
& Ruvio, 2006). This implies that if hostilities
exist between regions in a domestic context, the
integrated scale of animosity may be applicable
whether it is termed “domestic animosity”
(Hinck, 2004) or “regional animosity” (Shimp
et al., 2004). In addition, interethnic animosities
become another significant topic given instances
of extreme nationalism around the world, such
as animosities between Jewish and Arab Israelis
(Shoham et al., 2006) and Bosnians with Serbs
and Croats (Cicic et al., 2005).
Inducement of the Construct
Overall, feelings of animosity are assumed to
be diverse according to the relevant literature.
Klein et al. (1998) argued that the animosity
stemmed mainly from war in the past or eco-
nomic conflicts between two nations (Figure 2).
This result has been seized on by all succeeding
authors with the exception of Jung et al. (2002),
who proposed a different statement in their ty-
pology (Table 1).
The specific underlying motives of consumer
animosity and economic-related animosity
are generally deemed to derive from business
activities perceived as unfair, unreliable, and
Hinck (2004)
Nijssen and Douglas (2004)
Klein and Ettenson (1999)
War
Shoham et al. (2006)
Kesic et al. (2005)
Cicic et al. (2005)
∗
This research involves more than one variable.
Source: Adapted from Jung et al. (2002).
coercionary to the home country. In contrast,
reasons for war-related animosities are con-
sidered to be more country specific in nature
(Petra & Adamantios, 2007). As Klein et al.
(1998) argue, a large number of studies of
interest are relevant to wartime atrocities or
historic occupations. In addition, diplomatic
incidents are often specified as the trigger for an
animosity event in the context of, for instance,
Australia (Ettenson & Klein, 2005), France, and
United States (Russell, 2003; Witkowski, 2000).
Based on the dichotomy of economic-related
and war-related animosities (Klein et al., 1998),
Jung et al. (2002) develop a neoteric typology
intended to classify and simplify various forms
of animosity attitudes (Table 1).
Table 1 reveals the dominance of national-
level animosities in the literature; fewer re-
searchers have paid attention to personal-level
animosities. Perceptibly personal experiences,
unpleasant in general, associated with another
country or people are very likely to influence
 Malcolm Smith and Qianpin Li
private attitudes toward that country as a whole.
Therefore, it is rational to differentiate national-
level animosities from personal-level ones and
especially rational for animosity research in
China, with regard to Japanese occupation dur-
ing World War II. This provides the historical
background for this paper.
Another academic contribution offered by
Jung et al. (2002) is an additional division of
types between stable animosity and situational
animosity. As Table 1 shows, stable animos-
ity overlaps with war-related animosity because
they are analogically affiliated with specific his-
toric conflicts in World War II (e.g., Klein et al.,
1998; Nijssen & Douglas, 2004). As a result,
most studies of interest confuse war-related and
stable animosity issues, although situational an-
imosity feelings were addressed in recent years
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by Cicic et al. (2005), Kesic et al. (2005), and
Shoham et al. (2006). Any incident that may
evoke painful memories of past wartime (such
as the uninterrupted visits to a controversial war
memorial by Japanese senior politicians, as in
this study) is hypothesized as a situational factor
that has the potential to trigger hostility against
Japan by Chinese consumers.
Although the sort of classification proposed
by Jung et al. (2002) seems to be a sound typol-
ogy, one should not overlook potential evolution
over time. The borderline between stable and sit-
uational animosities, for example, is likely to be
blurred. Bitter experiences, especially during a
war, might be expected to fade over the years.
Thus, stable animosity that derives from unfa-
vorable conflicts historically may wear off grad-
ually and finally disappear completely. How-
ever, situational or issue-specific aggressive pos-
tures can be upgraded and eventually inherited
through one generation to another (Ettenson &
Klein, 2005; Jung et al., 2002).
A brief review of the major theoretical contri-
butions made by other researchers to the knowl-
edge system of the animosity concept suggests
that methodological achievements also need to
be discussed, including operationalization of the
construct.
Methodological Contributions
A sound arrangement is required for scaling
the animosity construct both theoretically and
115
empirically. According to the known literature
concerned, methodological problems incorpo-
rate two dimensions in general—namely, the un-
derlying measurement models and item genera-
tion processes.
Measurement Models
The original model of measurement devised
by Klein et al. (1998) comprises two independent
constructs and one item (see Figure 2). War-
related attitudes are measured by three items
(i.e., X1∼X3 ), while economic-related feelings
are measured by five items (i.e., X4∼X8 ). On
the whole, most recent studies pertaining to ani-
mosity are concerned with these two constructs
as a whole or respectively (Klein, 2002; Shin,
2001; Witkowski, 2000).
As shown in Figure 2, the construct of con-
sumer animosity is prescribed as a causal intent
and affects the two constructs of war concerns
and economic concerns and a manifest variable
X9 (Petra & Adamantios, 2007). Thus, this
model is a reflective second-order measurement
model (Edwards, 2001; Jarvis, MacKenzie, &
Podsakoff, 2003; Klein et al., 1998). In view of
the original intention of animosity, its rationality
as a reflective model is suspect, and a formative
model might be perceived to be more consistent
with its conceptual definition (Bollen & Lennox,
1991; Diamantopoulos & Winklhofer, 2001;
Petra & Adamantios, 2007). Two subconstructs
(i.e., war-related and economic-related con-
cerns) may control the variation of consumer
animosity as a whole, while two subconstructs
would be determined by the respective reasons
underlying various observations. Thus, the
original measurement model (Klein et al., 1998)
is modified into a formative model (Figure 3).
In addition, Klein et al. (1998) also proposed
an alternative model (Figure 4) to their origi-
nal one (see Figure 2). The alternative model
explicitly designated two subconstructs as for-
mative variables that determine the overall level
of consumer animosity. Consistent with the re-
vised model (see Figure 3), those subconstructs
evolve into causal factors that directly control
the overall negative feeling toward the alleged
hostile nations.
Such a configuration poses measurement dif-
ficulties (as noted by Bagozzi & Baumgartner,
 116 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING

FIGURE 3. Formative Measurement Model of Item Generation

Animosity Construct. Source: Klein et al. (1998)
and Petra and Adamantios (2007) The selection of an integrated set of items is
critical to the reliable measurement of the ani-
X8 mosity construct. While only a small-scale sur-
vey was conducted for item generation in sem-
X7
Economic
inal research studies (e.g., Klein et al., 1998),
X6 this approach was complemented by an expert
Animosity
X5 screening to justify its rationality. This flaw
was partially overcome in subsequent research
X4
(Klein, 2002), with in-depth interviews con-
Animosity X9 ducted to explore U.S. consumers’ attitudes to-
ward Japan. Shimp et al. (2004) consolidate this
preceding research in the context of U.S. re-
X3 gional animosity. However, earlier works high-
War
X2
light the importance of an incremental approach
Animosity to the development of an improved animosity
X1
measurement model and illustrate the need for
a set of more concrete items based on well-
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designed empirical work. This study makes a

significant contribution in this regard, as detailed
1994; Bollen, 1984). Based on earlier stud- in the Appendix.
ies (e.g., Jarvis et al., 2003; Law & Wong,
1999; MacCallum & Browne, 1993), Petra and
Adamantios (2007) emphasize the danger of MODELING AND HYPOTHESES
model misspecification and suggest that esti-
mates be treated with caution. Thus, care is taken The purpose of this study is to examine the
in this study to avoid misestimating correlations role of Japanese occupancy during World War II
among key constructs of the research model. in an integrated boycott model, which comprises
six constructs in total. This model is adopted
to explain consumers’ willingness to protest
against Japanese goods in some Chinese cities,
FIGURE 4. Alternative Measurement Model of which are selected to explore their specific re-
Animosity Construct. Source: Klein et al. (1998) sponses in the context of anti-Japan sentiment.
and Petra and Adamantios (2007) Figure 5 shows the hypothetical relationships
between the variables.
X8 The present study provides a country-specific
analysis of consumer protest behavior, to inves-
X7
tigate the extent to which Chinese consumers’
Economic
Animosity
X6 attitudes or willingness differ geographically
X5 according to local status of occupation during
World War II.
X4
The boycott model is proposed to be verified
Animosity X9 with multiple groups of samples of Chinese con-
sumers. Consumers who live in a region where
the atrocities of the Japanese invaders occurred
X3 during World War II are believed to be more
War
X2
hostile toward Japan and their products than are
Animosity other consumers and are also more likely to
X1 participate in a consumer boycott (Ettenson &
 Malcolm Smith and Qianpin Li 117

FIGURE 5. The Integrated Model of Boycott Participation. Source: Smith and Li (2009)

x1
x2
Animosity
x3
x4

x5
x6 y9
Efficacy
x7 y10
x8 Boycott
y11
Participation
y12
y1 y13
Prior
y2
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Purchase

y3

x9
x10
x11 Product
Ethnocentrism
x12 Judgment

x13
y4 y5 y6 y7 y8
x14

Klein, 2005; Ettenson et al., 2006; John & Klein,
2003; Klein et al., 1998). This study therefore
tests whether the boycott model can be gener-
alized to Chinese consumers and the degree to
which participation in a consumer boycott is mo-
tivated by hostile feeling.
The present study aims to extend our under-
standing of consumer feelings of hostility toward
a specific nation by examining the possible dis-
tinction between two areas—namely, free area
and occupied area. In this study, therefore, we
hypothesize that:
H0: There is no significant difference in the
factor structure of the boycott model be-
tween two groups of Chinese consumers.
And it may be tested through the following
six subhypotheses:
H1: Across two groups of Chinese consumers,
there is no significant difference in struc-
tural load between two constructs of con-
sumer animosity and willingness to partic-
ipate in boycotts.
H2: Across two groups of Chinese consumers,
there is no significant difference in struc-
tural load between two constructs of con-
sumer efficacy and willingness to partici-
pate in boycotts.
H3: Across two groups of Chinese consumers,
there is no significant difference in struc-
tural load between two constructs of con-
sumers’ prior purchase and willingness to
participate in boycotts.
H4: Across two groups of Chinese consumers,
there is no significant difference in struc-
tural load between two constructs of con-
sumer ethnocentrism and willingness to
participate in boycotts.
 118 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING
H5: Across two groups of Chinese con-
sumers, there is no significant difference in
structural load between two constructs of
consumer ethnocentrism and consumers’
product judgment.
H6: Across two groups of Chinese consumers,
there is no significant difference in struc-
tural load between two constructs of con-
sumers’ product judgment and consumers’
prior purchase.
METHODOLOGY AND DATA
ANALYSIS
Survey and Data Collection
The mail questionnaire survey was chosen as
the most appropriate method of data collection in
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this study. The survey selected consumers using
a two-stage (double) stratified systematic ran-
dom sampling scheme. In the first stage, cities
were stratified by the status of occupation by
the Japanese during World War II. Based on a
map of China during the Japanese occupation
in the 1940s (United States Military Academy,
2005), all 71 cities on the map were classified
into two groups: the occupied group and the free
group. The occupied group of cities in this re-
search covers the eastern coastal region, which
comprises 36 cities; the free group of cities in-
cludes the other 35 cities, which are scattered
about the middle and west regions. In the sec-
ond stage, given the selected 71 cities, 2 cities
were randomly selected from each group to fur-
ther reduce the burden of data collection. Next, a
list of 200 potential participants in each city was
compiled from a local census record database
maintained by the local Bureau of Public Se-
curity (BPS). Each list of participants, with a
corresponding address, was automatically pro-
duced by local BPS computers with use of the
systematic random sampling techniques. In to-
tal, 800 urban citizens in 4 cities were selected
as a sample pool for this survey.
Two cities (i.e., Harbin, Jinan) were randomly
selected from the pool of “occupied” cities,
whereas two other cities (i.e., Chengdu, Kun-
ming) were selected from the “free” cities. Af-
ter data trimming, eventually 241 eligible par-
ticipants remained, a sample size adequate for
multigroup SEM analysis (Fang-Ming, 2006;
Hancock & Mueller, 2006). The entire survey
process took place over the period of November
2007 to March 2008.
Preliminary Analysis
In terms of the distribution of the data, the
sample surveyed in both regimes of interest vary
in terms of breadth and depth of Chinese con-
sumers. The samples vary in size: 126 partic-
ipants for “occupied cites” versus 115 partici-
pants for “free cities.” The sample for the “free
city” of Chengdu, for example, is relatively small
(n = 51), and the all “free city” samples slightly
underrepresent female consumers—in particular
for Chengdu female consumers (48.1%). How-
ever, it is difficult to acquire an equal number
of male and female consumers in cross-regional
studies, as female members of a family are of-
ten reluctant to attend social activities in many
developing areas or countries like those of this
sample (Lin, 2001).
As a pivotal premise of undertaking the SEM
technique, it was important to test whether the
means of the variables were equivalent between
the two groups (occupied group versus free
group) (Blunch, 2008). Results of independent-
sample t-tests shown in Table 2 revealed that
there were no significant differences between
the two groups for most variables. The respon-
dents who were in the occupied condition were
no more likely than those in the free condition
to report high scores for the items representing
animosity, ethnocentrism, and boycott participa-
tion. In addition, there were no significant dif-
ferences between the two groups in terms of the
items representing consumer efficacy, prior pur-
chase, and product judgment.
Measurement Assessment
The analyses of the measurement models
across two sample groups suggested that the
scales used in the study adequately captured the
latent variables (Table 3). Specifically, the fit in-
dices for all six measurement models adequately
meet the criteria established for good model fit.
There was statistical evidence for reliability and
construct validity on the level of measurement
model applied to the two groups respectively.
 Malcolm Smith and Qianpin Li 119

TABLE 2. Results of Independent-Samples TABLE 3. Summary of Measurement

t-test Between Two Groups Assessment

Levene’s test t-test Occupied Free

Item Index Group Group
Indicator F Sig. t Sig.
Reliability test Cronbach’s alpha .766 .773
X1 0.628 .429∗ −.364 .717∗
Cronbach’s alpha (SD) .786 .790
X2 0.120 .729∗ .077 .939∗
Model fit CMIN/df .791 0.823
X3 0.209 .648∗ −.276 .783∗
RMR 0.187 0.156
X4 0.092 .762∗ .033 .974∗
GFI 0.876 0.863
X5 0.203 .653∗ .246 .806∗
NFI 0.913 0.906
X6 0.020 .889∗ −.099 .921∗
PRATIO 0.906 0.906
X7 0.333 .565∗ .171 .864∗
NCP 0.000 0.000
X8 0.074 .786∗ −.085 .933∗
FMIN 2.013 2.296
X9 0.502 .479∗ −.058 .954∗
RMSEA 0.000 0.000
X10 0.016 .899∗ −.144 .885∗ PCA KMO 0.896 0.884
X11 0.375 .541∗ −.145 .885∗ Bartlett’s 2668.651 2535.631
X12 2.133 .145∗ .318 .750∗
X13 0.084 .772∗ .009 .993∗ Source: Adapted from AMOS 16.0.
X14 0.084 .772∗ .570 .569∗
Y1 0.236 .628∗ .002 .999∗
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Y2 0.191 .662∗ .061 .951∗ groups of Chinese consumer samples. The usual
Y3 0.163 .687∗ −.014 .989∗ approach used to compare such models is to
Y4 0.013 .908∗ .220 .826∗
Y5 0.214 .644∗ .047 .962∗
estimate the model separately for the groups, ap-
Y6 0.600 .439∗ −.143 .886∗ plying maximum likelihood (ML) procedures to
Y7 0.001 .976∗ .128 .898∗ analyze the covariance matrix and to obtain the
Y8 0.152 .697∗ .163 .871∗ structural parameter estimates (Byrne, 2001).
Y9 0.047 .828∗ .067 .947∗
Y10 0.006 .939∗ .064 .949∗
A comparison of the corresponding parameter
Y11 0.237 .627∗ −.111 .912∗ estimates can then be made by progressively
Y12 0.004 .948∗ .335 .738∗ applying equality constraints and examining
Y13 0.215 .644∗ −.197 .844∗ the likelihood-ratio χ 2 statistic for evidence of
∗
p > .05 indicates the assumption of equal variances assured. deterioration in the fit of the model. There is
Source: Adapted from SPSS 16.0. one prerequisite before carrying out the ML
procedure—that the observed variables have a
multivariate normal distribution. Finally, all the
Given the similarity of these results for model observed variables or items in the combined
fit analysis across the two groups of the sample, sample (or total sample) were validated to be
the multigroup analyses were undertaken as the consistent with the requirement of normality:
next step of statistical analysis in order to ex- The multivariate kurtosis value (5.964) was
amine proposed invariance between two sample lower than 25 and multivariate critical ratio
pools (i.e., occupied area group and free area (CR) value (1.170) was lower than 2.
group). The summary of multigroup model compar-
isons is shown in Table 4. First, the configu-
Invariance Analysis ral invariance principle states that the pattern of
salient (nonzero) and nonsalient (zero) loadings
In general, multigroup analysis tests whether defines the structure of the measurement instru-
components of a measuring instrument are ment (Horn, McArdle, & Mason, 1983).
equivalent across different populations (Byrne, Second, weak (or metric invariance) invari-
2001). To determine whether the intention of ance provides for a stronger test of invariance
participating in consumer boycott activities after by introducing the concept of equal metrics or
the Japanese prime minister’s visit to the shrine scale intervals across groups (Rock, Werts, &
was the same for two groups, the structural Flaugher, 1978). If an item satisfies the require-
portion of the model was compared across two ment of metric invariance, difference scores on
 120 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING

TABLE 4. Summary of Model Comparisons (Multigroup)

Hypotheses Model CMIN df p CMIN/DF CFI TLI NFI RMSEA

Configural invariance Unconstrained 513.393 636 1.000 0.807 1.000 1.027 0.909 .000
Weak invariance Measurement weights 526.132 657 1.000 0.801 1.000 1.028 0.907 .000
Structural weights 526.738 663 1.000 0.794 1.000 1.029 0.907 .000
Strong invariance Measurement intercepts 516.919 657 1.000 0.787 1.000 1.030 0.909 .000
Structural intercepts 517.086 660 1.000 0.783 1.000 1.031 0.909 .000
Structural means 517.525 663 1.000 0.781 1.000 1.031 0.909 .000
Structural covariances 526.936 666 1.000 0.791 1.000 1.029 0.907 .000
Strict invariance Measurement residuals 546.084 696 1.000 0.785 1.000 1.030 0.904 .000
Structural residuals 528.049 669 1.000 0.789 1.000 1.030 0.907 .000

Source: Adapted from AMOS 16.0.

the item can be meaningfully compared across
groups; this assumes equality constraints on the
factor-variable regressions (i.e., factor pattern,
factor loadings) across groups while ensuring
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Fourth, strict invariance includes invariant
unique variances as well as unique means, fac-
tor loadings, and factor patterns. Strict invari-
ance tests whether there are differences in the

the factor variances and covariances are free to
vary (Horn et al., 1983). The factor loadings are
proportionally equivalent to corresponding load-
ings in other groups because the factor variances
and covariances in each group must be free to
vary across groups (Horn et al., 1983). The re-
sult showed that constraining these factor load-
ings yielded a χ 2 difference of 526.132/526.738
with 657/663 degrees of freedom. These model
restricting factor loadings were not statistically
significant (p > .05), suggesting that the scaling
of the proposed model is indeed measuring the
same underlying concepts for occupied and free
groups.
Third, strong invariance (or Scalar invari-
ance) implies that group differences in the
means of the observed items are due to dif-
ferences in the means of the underlying con-
structs. It addresses the question of whether
there is consistency between group differences
in latent means and group differences in ob-
served means (Horn et al., 1983). Strong fac-
torial invariance requires the additional con-
straint of invariant means/intercepts across
groups. The results showed that CMIN had
516.919/517.086/517.525 with 657/660/663 de-
grees of freedom. The model’s structural co-
variances were not significant (p > .05), with
a CMIN difference of 526.936 and 666 degrees
of freedom. These results indicated that the two
groups (occupied area and free area) have the
same invariant mean intercepts.
amount of specific/error variance. This model
forces the combined specific and random error
components of each variable to be equivalent
across groups such that differences in variance
across groups are permitted only at the latent
variable level (Horn et al., 1983). The results
showed that the hypothesis was not rejected
at the 0.001 level. The CMIN difference was
546.084/528.049 with 696/669 degrees of free-
dom, suggesting that there was no difference in
the amount of error variance.
Overall, the above multigroup analysis indi-
cated that occupied area group and free area
group had the same factor loadings, invariant
means/intercepts, and error variances.
Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis 1 suggests that consumer animos-
ity plays the same important role in Chinese
consumers’ willingness to participate in boycott
activities regardless of the status of occupancy
during World War II. Hypothesis 1 was con-
firmed from the equivalent regression weights
between consumer animosity and boycott par-
ticipation, across the two groups, as shown in
Table 5. The effect of animosity on boycott par-
ticipation in the occupied area was not signifi-
cantly stronger than that in the free area: 0.430
(occupied) versus 0.436 (free).
Hypothesis 2 suggests that consumer effi-
cacy plays the same important role in Chinese
 Malcolm Smith and Qianpin Li 121

TABLE 5. Standardized Regression Weight (Multigroup)

Estimate
Hypothesis Path Occupied Free

H1 Animosity → Boycott participation 0.430 0.436

H2 Efficacy → Boycott participation 0.388 0.376
H3 Prior purchase → Boycott participation 0.275 0.285
H4 Ethnocentrism → Prior purchase −0.368 −0.394
H5 Ethnocentrism → Product judgment −0.337 −0.390
H6 Product judgment → Prior purchase 0.324 0.319

Source: Adapted from AMOS 16.0.

consumers’ willingness to participate in boycott alent regression weights between ethnocentrism

activities regardless of the status of occupancy
during World War III. Hypothesis 2 was con-
firmed from the equivalent regression weights
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and product judgment. The effect of consumer
ethnocentrism on product judgment in the oc-
cupied area was not significantly stronger than
that in the free area: −0.337 (occupied) versus

between consumer efficacy and boycott partici-

pation. The effect of efficacy on boycott partici-
pation in the occupied area was not significantly
stronger than that in the free area: 0.388 (occu-
pied) versus 0.376 (free).
Hypothesis 3 suggests that consumers’ prior
purchase plays the same important role in
Chinese consumers’ willingness to participate
in boycott activities regardless of the status of
occupancy during World War III. Hypothesis 3
was confirmed from the equivalent regression
weights between prior purchase and boycott par-
ticipation. The effect of prior purchase on boy-
cott participation in the occupied area was not
significantly stronger than that in the free area:
0.275 (occupied) versus 0.285 (free).
Hypothesis 4 suggests that consumer eth-
nocentrism plays the same important role in
Chinese consumers’ prior purchase behavior
regardless of the status of occupancy during
World War III. Hypothesis 4 was confirmed
from the equivalent regression weights between
ethnocentrism and prior purchase. The effect of
consumer ethnocentrism on prior purchase in
the occupied area was not significantly stronger
than that in the free area: −0.368 (occupied)
versus −0.394 (free).
Hypothesis 5 suggests that consumer eth-
nocentrism plays the same important role in
Chinese consumers’ product judgment regard-
less of the status of occupancy during World War
III. Hypothesis 5 was confirmed from the equiv-
−0.390 (free).
Hypothesis 6 suggests that consumers’ prod-
uct judgment plays the same important role in
Chinese consumers’ prior purchase behavior re-
gardless of the status of occupancy during World
War III. Hypothesis 6 was confirmed from the
equivalent regression weights between product
judgment and prior purchase. The effect of prod-
uct judgment on prior purchase in the occu-
pied area was not significantly stronger than that
in the free area: 0.324 (occupied) versus 0.319
(free).
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Hypotheses 1 through 6 provide powerful ev-
idence that the full model comprising six con-
structs can be reliably and validly operational-
ized through China as a whole regardless of its
status of occupancy during the Second Sino-
Japanese War (1937–1945). In addition, the
full SEM model was shown to be a good fit
and generalizable across the two areas/groups
sampled.
Contributions and Implications
The study demonstrates, both hypothetically
and empirically, how differences in the nature
of Chinese consumers’ attitudes toward Japan
 122 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING
and its global firms might be examined. Tests of
differences across regions are undertaken so as
to reveal real differences or effects of a sound
model of consumer boycotts. Thus, the role of
occupancy status is first introduced, discussed,
and examined for the purpose of distinguishing
its possible impact on consumers’ willingness to
engage in boycott participation.
To the best of our knowledge of consumer at-
titude research, the SEM statistical technique is
adopted here for the first time within a multi-
group invariance study. Thus, this study makes
a significant contribution in multigroup research
methodology in two ways: first, the study pro-
vides a theoretical understanding of the nature
and generalizability, namely, construct compa-
rability or measurement equivalence, of latent
constructs; second, it adopts a practical and pow-
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erful quantitative-analytic technique (SEM) to
ensure construct comparability, and it can de-
tect possible regional nuances on the constructs
underlying attitude across multiple groups. In
this study, a series of SEM analyses provide ro-
bust tests of the validity of construct compara-
bility among six constructs; all six constructs are
shown to be generalizable to each region distin-
guished by its past occupancy status. Another
benefit derived from construct comparability is
directed to the generalization of the research
model of this research. The integrated boycott
model is validated as tenable and invariant across
the full spectrum of occupancy status in China’s
context.
In sum, the major advantage of introducing
the SEM technique in the present study has been
to provide a statistically theoretical basis by
which quantitative cross-area comparisons can
be executed. This arrangement of the SEM tech-
nique allowed the authors of this study to estab-
lish construct comparability, to detect possible
and systematic cross-area influences on the con-
structs and, subsequently, to hypothesize cross-
regional differences on Chinese consumers’ at-
titudes (i.e., animosity) and behavior (i.e., prior
purchase, boycotts) independent of pervasive de-
pendent influences.
From the perspective of practical contribu-
tions, the findings strongly imply that hos-
tile feeling and even boycott intentions against
Japan and their firms are pervasive throughout
mainland China as a whole, regardless of local
status of occupancy during World War III.
For other countries, however, one could not
expect similar outcomes as for China’s market-
place. Therefore, the multigroup invariance test
would likely provide directors of companies with
a reliable and valid analytical tool for the mea-
surement of local consumers’ perceptions of ani-
mosity, efficacy, and ethnocentrism provided by
the case of Japanese prime ministers’ visits to
the shrine. In other words, the scale can be used
for performance evaluation from the consumers’
viewpoint. This allows the management of firms
to identify a region, or a city, where hostile at-
titudes need to be carefully manipulated in their
own favor.
LIMITATIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
The major limitation relates to the represen-
tativeness of sampling. The samples are limited
to four cities with various statuses of occupancy,
not just the occupied area and the free area. For
instance, some cities were once temporarily oc-
cupied by the Japanese army for a relatively short
time; thus, it is not easy to allocate them accord-
ingly to a certain category in practice. In addi-
tion, the occupied region is limited to Harbin
and Jinan in this study, while the free region is
limited to Chengdu and Kunming. Other large,
medium-sized, or small cities, with similar status
of occupancy, such as Beijing, Tianjin, Lanzhou,
and Guilin, are not included in the samples. Ac-
cordingly, it is important to overcome this limita-
tion in future research regarding any significant
sociocultural or economic differences between
these diversified regions.
Even though the status of occupancy in this
study emerged as expected, a much more de-
tailed classification of this criterion is open for
future research. This may be due to the fact
that there are various aspects of classifying oc-
cupancy conditions, which differ from the ap-
proach adopted in this research project. Fur-
ther research should focus on alternative criteria,
such as consumer samples in rural areas.
This study is limited to the background
of the Chinese consumer market. In modern
 Malcolm Smith and Qianpin Li
history, however, numerous countries were ex-
posed to foreign invasion. Other Asian coun-
tries, for instance, were subjected to Japanese
invasion during World War III, including North
and South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, India,
and Philippines. This suggests that the full boy-
cott model might be replicated for these nations
where other differences (i.e., culture, history, and
politics) may exist.
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APPENDIX. Constructs and Items
1. Animosity toward Japan
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X1: I feel angry toward Japan.
X2: Junichiro Koizumi’s recent visit to
the Yasukuni Shrine was an act of ag-
gression against Asian people’s sen-
timent.
X3: Japan does not care what China or its
other neighbor countries think of this
visit.
X4: I will never forgive Japan for this visit
by its prime minister.
(Modified from Ettenson & Klein, 2005.)
2. Consumer Efficacy
X5: By refusing to buy Japanese goods,
Chinese consumers can have an ef-
fect on the policies of the Japanese
government.
X6: What Chinese consumers buy has no
effect on the policies of the Japanese
government.
X7: Refusing to buy Japanese products is
an effective way to influence the poli-
cies of the Japanese government.
X8: Japanese firms doing business in
China can have an influence over the
policies of the Japanese government.
(Modified from Ettenson & Klein, 2005.)
3. Consumer Ethnocentrism (Six-Item
CETSCALE)
125
X9: Only those products that are unavail-
able in China should be imported.
X10: Chinese products, first, last, and
foremost.
X11: A real Chinese should always buy
Chinese-made products.
X12: Chinese should not buy foreign
products, because this hurts Chinese
business and causes unemployment.
X13: It may cost me in the long run but I
prefer to support Chinese products.
X14: Chinese consumers who purchase
products made in other countries are
responsible for putting their fellow
Chinese out of work.
(Modified from Ettenson & Klein, 2005,
Klein, Ettenson, & Krishnan, 2006, and
Shimp & Sharma, 1987.)
4. Prior Purchase
Y1: I often bought Japanese products be-
fore Junichiro Koizumi’s recent visit
to the Yasukuni Shrine.
Y2: I went shopping in local Japanese de-
partments regularly before the shrine
visit occurred.
Y3: In past year, my family bought at least
a kind of household appliance under
a Japanese brand.
(Developed for this study [experts’ recom-
mendation].)
5. Judgments of Japanese Products
Y4: Products made in Japan are carefully
produced and have fine workman-
ship.
Y5: Products made in Japan show a
very high degree of technological ad-
vancement.
Y6: Products made in Japan usually show
a very clever use of color and
design.
Y7: Products made in Japan are usually
quite reliable and seem to last the de-
sired length of time.
Y8: Products made in Japan are usually a
good value for the money.
 126 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING
(Modified from Darling & Arnold, 1988;
Darling & Wood, 1990; and Ettenson &
Klein, 2005.)
6. Boycott Participation (Willingness to Pur-
chase Japanese Products)
Y9: I would feel guilty if I bought a
Japanese product.
Y10: I would never buy a Japanese car.
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Y11: Whenever possible, I avoid buying
Japanese products.
Y12: Whenever possible, I would prefer
to buy products made in Japan.
Y13: I do not like the idea of owning
Japanese products.
(Modified from Darling & Arnold, 1988,
and Darling & Wood, 1990.)