)

PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS W.J.MacMillan & A.Panteleyev

in: Ore Deposit Models, Roberts, R.G. & Sheahan, PA. (eds.) Geoscience Cana, Reprint Series 3, Third printing 1994 (Translation and Summary: A. Rivera-Gaviria, SWG)

GENERALIZED GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS

CARACTERISTICAS GEOLOGICAS GENERALESDELOSYAC~NTOSDE COBRE PORFIRITICOS

This term is applied to those deposits containing El termino se aplica a aquellos depositos copper, copper and molybdenum, or copper and conteniendo cobre, cobre y molibdeno, 0 cobre y

gold. oro.

YACIMIENTOS DE COBRE PORFIRITICO - RESUMEN

PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS - SUMMARY

DEFINITIONS:

DEFINICIONES:

1. Originally the term was applied to deposits with widely dispersed mineralization in acid porphyritic rocks.

mineral 1. Originalmente el termino se utilize en aquellos copper yacimientos con una amplia mineralizacion diseminada de cobre en rocas porfiriticas acidas.

2. Actually, the term combines engineering considerations with geologic features and refers to large, relatively low-grade, epigenetic, intrusionrelated copper deposits that can be mined using mass mining techniques.

2. En la actualidad el termino agrupa consideraciones ingenieriles con rasgos geologicos y se refiere a yacimientos epigeneticos cupriferos grandes, con leyes relativamente bajas, y relacionados a intrusivos, los cuales pueden ser explotados mediante tecnicas de mineria masiva 0 de gran escala.

1. Spatially and genetically related to igneous 1. Estan relacionados espacial y geneticamente

intrusions. con intrusiones igneas.

2. Felsic

composition.

intrusions ranging

widely

in 2. La composicion felsica de las intrusiones es muy variable.

3 . Intrusions are epizonal and invariably 3. Las intrusiones son epizonales e

porphyritic. invariablemente porfiriticas.

6. Intrusions and surrounding rocks are intensely 6. Tanto las intrusiones como las rocas que las

fractured. rodean se encuentran intensamente fracturadas.

7. Mineralization and alteration form large zones 7. Tanto las mineralizaciones como las that exhibit lateral zonation. alteraciones forman grandes zonas que exhiben zonaciones laterales.

Large size of intrusive-related porphyry copper Los sistemas hidrotermales de los cobres hydrothermal systems. porfiriticos estan relacionados con intrusivos de gran tamafio.

4. Multiple intrusive events:

a) Dyke swarms

b) Intrusive breccias

c) Pebble dykes

5. Host rock can be any type and range from unrelated country rocks to co-magmatic extrusive equivalents.

8. Supergene alteration can produce vertical zoning that results in leached capping and zones of secondary mineralization (critical to the mine economics).

PORPHYRY COPPER FEATURES

a) The deposits should have at least 20 million tonnes containing a minimum of 0.1 % copper to be called a porphyry copper.

b) A typical giant mine might contain 2 billion tonnes at 1.5% Cu and eventually produce 30 million tonnes of copper metal.

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4. Tienen eventos intrusivos multiples:

a) Enjambres de diques

b) Brechas intrusivas

c) Diques de guijarros

5. La roca de los respaldos puede ser de cualquier naturaleza y variar desde rocas de caja no relacionadas hasta equivalentes co-magmaticos extrusivos.

8. La alteraci6n supergenica puede producir zonaci6n vertical, la cual se traduce en cubiertas lixiviadas y zonas de mineralizaci6n secundaria (10 cual es critico para la economia de la mina).

RASGOS DE LOS COBRES PORFIRITICOS

a) Los yacimientos deben tener como minimo 20 millones de toneladas conteniendo un minimo de 0.1 % Cu, para ser llamados cob res porfiriticos.

b) Una tipica mina gigante debe contener 2 billones de toneladas con una ley de 1.5% Cu y eventualmente producir 30 millones de toneladas de cobre metalico.

c) the genesis became evident only when improved mmmg techniques and advanced equipment design lowered cut-off grades and enabled mining of the protore at depth.

c) La genesis de estos yacirmentos se torno evidente cuando las tecnicas mineras fueron implementadas y el disefio avanzado de equipo hizo posible bajar las leyes de corte y permiti6 la explotaci6n del protore en profundidad.

d) Taxation policies.

mSTORIA

mSTORY

Large, low-grade supergene copper deposits were discovered during the 19th century (USA, Canada, Chile, Peru, etc.). The grade was enriched by secondary processes and reached up to 2% Cu, but remained uneconomic until the development of mass rrurung and ore froth flotation recuperation.

Grandes yacimientos supergenicos de baja ley en cobre fueron descubiertos durante el siglo XIX (en Estados Unidos, Canada, Chile, Peru, etc.). La ley estaba enriquecida por procesos secundarios y alcanzaba hasta 2% Cu, pero permanecieron inecon6micos hasta el desarrollo de la mineria masiva y recuperaci6n metalurgica por medio de flotaci6n.

It took several decades to understand:

T om6 varias decadas comprender:

a) the relationship between the supergene deposits and the unweathered, generally uneconomic, primary mineralization (protore).

a) la relaci6n entre los dep6sitos supergenicos y la mineralizaci6n pnmana (protore) no meteorizada, y generalmente no econ6mica.

b) the significance of associated porphyry b) el significado de las intrusiones porfiriticas

intrusions. asociadas.

DEVELOPMENT OF Cu-PORPHYRY DEPOSITS DEPENDS ON:

EL DESARROLLO DE UN YACIMlENTO DE COBRE PORFIRITICO DEPENDE DE:

a) Advances in engineering and ore dressing a) Avances en las tecnicas de beneficio e

techniques. ingenieria.

b) World prices ofCu, Au, Mo.

b) Cotizaci6n mundial del cobre, oro y Mo.

c) Demand of those elements.

c) Demanda de estos elementos.

d) Politicas de impuestos.

e) Social-economic stability of the countries e) Estabilidad socio-econ6mica de los paises

possessing mines.

productores.

3

4. Quartz veinlets are generally multidirectional, but they appear locally as short, subparallel bundles following a single preferred direction (Marte, Chile).

4. Las venillas de cuarzo son general mente multidireccionales, aunque localmente se presentan como bundles(?) cortos y subparalelos, siguiendo direcciones unicas preferidas (Marte, Chile).

3. Quartz veinlets constitute 10-90 vol.% of Ksilicate zones, with coalescence of closely spaced veinlets leading to semi-pervasive silicification.

2. Los sistemas de venillas de cuarzo se encuentran esparcidos y los sulfuros principalmente aparecen como granos en manchas (=blebes?), parches 0 diseminados, posiblemente como consecuencia de la liberaci6n de fluidos hidrotermales posteriormente a la solidificaci6n com pi eta del magma, 0 en forma mucho menos vigorosa antes de esta.

2. Quartz veinlets systems are sparse and sulphides appear mainly as blebes, patches and disseminated grains, possibly as a consequence of hydrothermal fluids released either less vigorously or prior to complete solidification of the magma.

3. Las venillas de cuarzo constituyen, en volumen, entre el 10-90% de las zonas con silicato potasico conternporaneas or cercanamente espaciadas, con venillas influenciadas por una silicificaci6n semipenetrante.

Mineralization in the K-Feldspar Alteration Zone:

Mineralizaci6n en la Zona de Alteraci6n de Feldespato Potasico:

1. Sulphide assemblages are dominated by pyrite, chalcopyrite and bornite, with pyrite contents normally relatively low, i.e., {pyrite/(chalcopyrite + bornite) = 0.5 - 3}. Locally, however, pyrite is much less abundant: pyrite/(chalcopyrite + bornite) ratios as low as 0.1 (some expamples in the Phillipines).

1. Los ensambles de sulfuros estan dominados por pirita, calcopirita y bornita. El contenido de pi rita normalmente es bajo, r.e., {pirita!(calcopirita + bornita) = 0.5 - 3}. Sin embargo, localmente esta relaci6n con la pirita es mucho menos abundante: pirita! (calcopirita + bornita) puede bajar hasta 0.1 (existen algunos ejemplos en las Filipinas).

2. Chalcopyrite/bornite ratios generally exceed 3, an 2. La relaci6n calcopiritaibornita excede generalincrease outward from centres of deposits. mente a 3, un aumento hacia afuera desde los centros de los yacimientos.

3. Chalcopyrite and digenite are present as inclusions 3. Calcopirita y digenita estan presentes como of bornite, especially bornite-rich zones. inc1usiones de bornita, especialmente en zonas ricas en bornita.

4. Hydrothermal magnetite, attaining 5-10 vol.% in some deposits is typically associated with synchronous or later copper-Iron sulphides; it apperars as disseminated grains, patches and veinlets, with and without quartz.

4. La magnetita hidrotermal, la cual alcanza 5-10% en volumen dentro de ciertos yacimientos, se encuentra tipicamente asociada con sulfuros de cobre-hierro coetaneos 0 posteriores. Se presenta como granos diseminados, parches y venillas con 0 son cuarzo.

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2. Inter-mineral intrusive phases are subjected only 2. Las fases intrusivas intenninerales solamente estan

to the later hydrothermal events. sujetas a eventos hidrotermales posteriores.

a) Coexistence of chlorite, epidote, calcite, and a) Coexistencia de clorita, epidota, calcita, y local-

locally, albite. mente albita.

b) Chlorite increases at the expense of biotite as the b) La clorita aumenta a expensas de la biotita a

propylitic zone is approached. medida que se aproxima la zona propilitica.

5. Pyrrhotite, as well as magnetite, accompanies chalcopyrite in K-silicate alteration zone (Mamut).

Origin:

1. K-feldspar zones are products of multiple, superimposed hydrothermal events, which may be distinguished on the basis of different mineralogies and/or cross-cutting veinlet relatioships.

3. With relatively deep erosion, one or more early alteration events deficient in potassium and metals are recognizable.

PROPYLITIC ALTERATION ASSAMBLAGE

K-feldspar alteration grades outward to propylitic alteration characteristics.

Characteristics:

c) Pyrite, ranging from 3 vol.% to, locally, >20 vol. % accompanies propylitic assamblages that, with or without sericitic alteration, constitute pyritic haloes to copper-gold zones.

5. Tanto la pirrotita como la magnetita acompafian a la calcopirita en la zona de alteraci6n de silicato potasico,

Origen:

1. Las zonas de feldespato potasico se originan a consecuencia de eventos hidrotermales multiples y superimpuestos. Tales pueden diferenciarse en base a las distintas mineralogias y/o sus relaciones con las venillas que las cruzan.

3. En fen6menos erosivos profundos se pueden reconocer uno 0 mas eventos tempranos de alteraci6n deficientes en potasio y metales.

ENSAMBLE DE AL TERACION PROPILITICA

Las caracteristicas de la alteraci6n de feldespato potasico cambian gradualmente hacia afuera a una alteraci6n propilitica.

Caracteristicas:

c) La pirita varia de 3% en volumen hasta localmente >20% en vol. presente en los ens ambles propiliticos, los cuales con 0 sin alteraci6n sericitica, constituyen halos piriticos a zonas de cobre-oro.

5

Characteristics:

Caracteristicas:

This alteration is widespread, but often unrecognized. A pesar de ser una alteracion bastante difundida, a menudo no es reconocida.

ENSAMBLE DE ALTERACION ARGILICA INTERMEDIA

INTERMEDIATE ARGILLIC ALTERATION ASSAMBLAGE

a) It IS a pale-green overprint to K-feldspar a) Es una superimposicion verde palida de los assamblages, especially in the upper parts of the ensambles de feldespato potasico, sobretodo en las

stocks. partes altas de los stocks.

b) K-feldspar alteration is all but obliterated in the upper parts of some gold-rich porphyry deposits (Marte, Chile).

b) La alteracion de feldespato potasico puede estar completa pero puede estar escondida 0 en las partes altas de algunos yacimientos porfiriticos ricos en oro (Marte, Chile).

c) It varies, both in intensity and mineralogy.

c) Varia, tanto en intensidad como en mineralogia.

d) It includes: sericite, illite, smectite, chlorite and d) Incluye: sericita, illita, smectita, clorita y calcita

calcite {hence, sericite-clay-chlorite (SCC) {por ello se conoce como la alteracion SAC (en

alteration} . espanol) sericita-arcilla-clorita}.

e) Magnetite is variably martitized (hematized), and e) La magnetita se encuentra martitizada pyrite and specular hematite, with or without minor (hematizada) y son introducidas pirita y hematita

chalcopyrite, are introduced. especular con 0 sin calcopirita.

f) Pre-existing veinlet stockworks are not destroyed, f) Las venillas preexistentes de los stockworks no se although copper and gold may be partly removed. destruyen aunque puede haber una remoci6n parcial de cobre y oro.

6

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ALTA FLORESTA (V), BRASIL ALTO CHICAMA (M), La Libertad ANIMON (I-V), Pasco ANTABAMBA (M), Apurfmac ANTAMINA (I), Ancash ATALAYA (I), Cusco ATASPACA (I), Tacna ATOCONGO (I), Lima BANOS DEL INDIO (I), Tacna BARITINA (V), La Libertad BARMINE (I), Lima

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)OS~ ARCE - Cilofisicos de Explorociones

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APPLICATION OF ALTERNATIVE GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES FOR EXPLORATIONS OF LARGE METALLIC SULFIDE BODIES

DISSEMINATED (PORPHYRy). SKARN. STOCKVVORK TYPES

I am submitting the follov..;ng geophysical considerations v..;th the purpose of describing our experiences in similar situations during the last 34 years. Let me begin v..;th telling that I have personally been involved in geophysical surveys on 130 mineral deposits, employing EM, Mag, SP, Resistivity, Seismic and IP techniques; all of them v..;th our 0'Ml instrumentation.

The accompanying documents include names and other references of mineral surveys vve have completed in Peru, Chile, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia and Brazil.

Ground magnetometer surveys are always convenient as complement to other "sulfide

ection" te h i ues as the Self Potential, Resistivity and Induced Polarization. I strongly recommend to employ the IP method, >Mth resistivity c argeability measurements In the TimeDomain, v..;th any of the commonly used electrode arrays: Pole-Pole, Pole-Dipole, Gradient and Dipole-Dipole for constant spacing profiling. The Schlumberger and Wenner arrays for soundings. Frequency-Domain equipment can only be applied v..;th the Dipole-Dipole array.

We have done more than 10000 Km of IP/Resistivity/SP profiles and more than 15000 IP/Resistivity soundings, to date. Our experience shows that the Pole-Pole array is the best and the Dipole-Dipole array the least satisfactory pi the profile techniques. Either Wenner or Schlumberger are adequate for soundings.

IP Profiles

Dipole-Dipole IP/Resistivity profiling is common in North America, and I think that a strong reason for this is the higher labor cost of all the other arrays. On the other hand, it requires enormous amounts of energizing power, as compared to any of the other configurations. For a given "penetration" Pole-Pole needs the lowest energizing power of all although it is highly sensible to ambient noises, especially near industrial operations. Next in line are the Pole-Dipole and Gradient (especially for small targets). In areas v..;th high contact resistances at the electrode sites there is not a practical way to use a motor generator because Wlat it can be applied is really no more than 1000 volts (cable isolation problems) but only a sufficient current to obtain readings v..;th adequate signal to noise ratios. As compared to the Pole-Pole and Wenner arrays, that requires the lowest power, the Pole-Dipole needs tv..;ce as much, the Gradient up to 20 times more and the Dipole-Dipole up to 50 times. Of course, v..;th conducting soil, high humidity and low contact resistances the selection is easter, because the motor generator can be used v..;th good advantages.

We have done test lines v..;th the Pole-Dipole array and very high contact resistances (always more than 10 kilohms) and also high ground resistivities (more than 100 Ohm-meters) that indicated that no more than 1S0W of power is required for some 200 meters of depth penetration, v..;th less than 850 volts at the current line. Our 2.SKW IP transmitter can handle up to 1500 volts but some times vve attempted to use more than 1000 volts and obtained irregular readings. With the constant-spacing profiles there is no way to establish that a particular reading is spurious and so, we have to include all readings, v..;thout having the chance to assign a quality factor to each value.

With the above considerations in mind, we can arrive to the follov..;ng conclusions for an IP survey v..;th constant-spacing profiles:

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1. It is not convenient to apply more than 1000 volts to the current electrode circuit.

2. Less than 200W are needed to reach some 200 meters of depth penetration v-.;th Pole-Pole and Pole-Dipole. More than 1000W for Gradient and Dipole-Dipole.

3. Best array is the Pole-Pole (2-array), next the Pole-Dipole (3-array), then the Gradient and last the Dipole-Dipole. Pole-Pole and Pole-Dipole can also measure SP.

4. Apparent resistivity and apparent chargeability measurements are processed

as profiles, contour maps and pseudo-sections v-.;th no vertical scales. Profiles and contours are preferred. Pseudo-sections can be visually attractive but also misleading (pseudo=false). No possibility of deriving true parameters and depths.

5. As no normalization's can be applied to the individual readings, the field work can be executed by an experienced operator. All readings are then processed by computer programs and the graphic material is then automatically prepared. A geophysicist is not specifically required.

6. Surveys should be carried out along lines separated by no more than the expected maximum horizontal size of the mineral bodies. Stations along lines should be at intervals not longer than the minimum size of the expected mineral bodies. A 100m by 50m grid is usually appropriate (200 sUKm2).

7. Daily progress can be of 40-60 stations or 2000 to 3000 line-Km or to cover 20 to 30 hectares. A minimum of 400 stations is usually required to obtain sufficient information for map contours.

IP Soundings

They consist of series of IP/Resistivity readings taken for increasing current line lengths, 'Ivi1ich, in tum, determine increasing measuring depths. Each series is used to prepare a curve and so the normal survey irregularities are corrected. Both curves are then interpreted v-.;th computer programs, in order to establish the model columns that are representative of the true chargeabilities, true resistivities and depths of the ground.

Common arrays for IP soundings are the Wenner and the Schlumberger, v-.;th the former requiring less power but more helpers that the later. In areas v-.1th low contact resistances INEl prefer the Schlumberger, but the Wenner is usually applied under a v-.1de range of conditions.

Electrical soundings have a clear operational and interpretative advantage over the constant-spacing profiles, in the sense that the former are processed as curves that follow mathematically sound projections. An experienced geophysicist can eliminate spurious readings and determine the best conditions for computations, v-.;th the end result of availability of true physical and geometrical (depths) parameters in maps and sections v-.;th vertical scales.

The ideal geological setting for IP soundings is that of a layered structure, such as in porphyry copper and other disseminated deposits, for manto-type targets and for large irregular bodies. Soundings are not useful in vein-type situations, unless they are employed during preliminary reconnaissance surveys.

Under average conditions, a desired penetration should be possible v-.1th current field dimensions 2 to 5 times longer. In theory, any penetration is possible but there are geological and instrumental limitations. Computed depths are feasible to some one half to one fifth of the maximum current lengths, but indications of deeper conditions, although only qualitatively, are good to some one half to one third of the current-line length. The curves that are prepared for each station can be interpreted using automatic computer programs based on knO'Ml formulations, v-.;th the purpose to establish the electric column that best represents the geological structure at the sounding station.

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The followng conclusions can be derived:

1. It is not convenient to apply more than 1000 volts as energizing current.

2. Less than 200Ware needed to reach some 200 meters of depth penetration.

3. The Wenner array is best for dry areas wth highly resistive electrode contacts.

4. True resistivities, true chargeabilities and approximate depths are calculated and processed as contour maps or sections wth vertical scales. If desired, apparent values for any electrode separation can be extracted from the sounding curves to prepare graphic material similar to that indicated for profiles.

5. The field V\()rk can be executed by an experienced operator but all readings at every station have to be scrutinized and subject to a computer program that determines, by interactive progressive approximations, the resistivity and the chargeability models for each station. A geophysicist wth long experience is required for this job. True chargeabilities, true resistivities and depths are correlated to prepare contour maps.

6. Surveys can be canied out either on pre-determined gnds or discretionary, at any point y.,fiere there is a geological justification. Grids should have sizes similar to the expected maximum horizontal dimensions of possible targets. A 100m by 100m grid, or 100 stlKm2, is adequate for skarn and stockwork targets, longer intervals for disseminations.

7. Daily progress can be of 5-10 soundings or 5 to 40 hectares.

8. When more than 1 Km2 is to be surveyed, we usually start wth a reconnaissance senes of soundings wth stations not closer than 200 meters. This reconnaissance wll determine the number of additional detail soundings, if necessary.

Although IP-profile stations are cheaper than IP-soundings, because of differences in amount of information gathered (3 to 5 more readings at a sounding station), the higher cost of IP sounding surveys can be justified with their advantages in quality of data and of the interpretative usefulness of contour maps prepared with true geophysical parameters and depths.

As a profile grid (50m by 100m) has to be denser than a sounding grid (100m by 100m), generally in a 2/1 ratio, and as an IP sounding station costs 4 to 5 times more than an IP profile station, the geophysical cost for area coverage is certainly higher with soundings. However, at each IP sounding we take no less than 8-12 chargeability(M)-resistivity(R) readings, as compared to 3-4 at each profile station. Consequently, the final cost for each chargeability(M)-resistivity(R) reading is similar in soundings and in profiles, because for 1 Km2 the above indicated profile grid wll determine 200 stations and 400/800 M-R readings, y.,fiile the sounding gnd wll provide 100 stations and 800 to 1200 M-R readings.

When dOing reconnaissance ~rk we usually start executing wdely spaced IP soundings. Anomalous chargeabilities that are measured at a particular point mean that a target is in the vicinity and we calculate the distance (or depth in a layered situation) from the station to its nearest contact. As we usually do not know the subsurface structure, we have to execute a set of soundings in the surrounding area; after curve calculation and interpretation we can define the anomaly peak position in area and depth. With the same approach, an absence of anomaly at a given site 'M)uld mean that there are not targets nearby, wthin a radius that depends on the electrode separations; this radius is frequently of some 50-100 meters for current lengths of 400m-600m. In porphyry-type situations an approximately 200m by 200m gnd is applied.

In 1970 we started V\()rking wth Pole-Dipole and Dipole-Dipole IP profiles that were, then, the most commonly used arrays in Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain, respectively. After some time we tried the Pole-Pole, the Wenner, the Gradient and the Schlumberger. In my files there are thousands of measurements for each system. At first we attempted to ~rk as other people in the United States and in Canada, but a constant lack of satisfaction wth y.,fiat we were doing lead us to devise different ideas about geophysical V\()rk, in general, and IP, in

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particular. For Exploration 87 (Toronto) I prepared a paper by vJlich a proof was presented about our discovery of the Tintaya (Cusco) sulfide bodies (skarn-type) wth sparsely distributed IP soundings, comparing them wth our 000 profile survey. Since then we have applied this survey technique to many mineral deposits (disseminations, mantos, skarn-type) wth results that are certainly satisfactory. Most of this information is private but I am ready to analyze it v-Ath any interested person.

Magnetometer Profiles

Different rocks usually contain different amounts of magnetic particles, mostly magnetite. They can be "mapped" wth the magnetometric method, producing magnetic contour maps that can be used wth the surface geology to complete the information over covered areas and wth improvement knowledge about structures. Sometimes there are economically interesting bodies that have magnetic (pyrrhotite and others) minerals that can be detected wth this kind of measurements. We are now employing the latest state-of-the-art type of microprocessor-based total field proton magnetometers, either wth base-stations or wth tielines. A 100m by SOm grid of Total Field magnetic readings on a 1 Km2 area would add some $ 2000 to the survey cost, vJlich constitutes a reasonable expense for obtaining useful complementary information.

Geological considerations

- Oxidized Fe+Silica caps can be easily discriminated wth vertical IP soundings and, perhaps, also wth magnetometry. Masking of deeper sulfide targets can happen only for EM and for IP lateral profiling, because probable magnetic effects 'M>uld distort the EM fields and because IP profiles can not separate different materials in depth.

- Metallic sulfide manto-type targets may contain mixtures of minerals wth varying degrees of conductivity, including isolating gangue material. As such, they are probably intermediate electrical conductors, difficult to detect wth conductivity (EM) or wth galvanic resistivity, vJlile being good "capacitors" for the IP measurements.

- Electromagnetic methods are strongly affected by geometrical (relief) irregularities and by their dependence on only one physical property (conductivity). In that sense, they are equivalent to the galvanic resistivity, although v-Ath the operating advantage of not requiring grounded electrodes. In our experience, only powerful fixed-source techniques like the Turam are useful although we prefer to employ them as auxiliary to the Induced Polarization method that measures resistivity (conductivity) and chargeability (capacitance). EM instruments should operate only under 1000Hz in order to enable adequate discrimination of conductors and to reach acceptable penetration. EM techniques should not be used for Skarn-type deposits because of the interference of magnetite bodies.

- For any geophysical method, no more than 200 meters of useful penetration (or some 400 meters of maximum depth reach) should be expected, because of the high depth/size ratio of the probable targets of the skarn-type. More for disseminations. Although IP and Resistivity can be executed to very deep measurements (1000m or more), the averaging effect that is measured at a surface station 'M>uld tend to minimize the readings. In general, a body wth some 100m by 100m horizontal dimensions and no less than 25m of thickness and wth some 20% of combined metallic sulfides can be effectively detected by I P if it is covered by no more than 100 meters. EMIRes would not detect it. Disseminations provide much better detectability wth I P, even to 1000m, or more.

- Care should be given to the possibility of occurrence of graphite in dark sedimentary rocks that are affected by intrusives. Graphite is an enemy of any electrical (I PIRes) or EM technique because it usually produces strong anomalies. Good geological control is necessary.

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I would like to mention that, as part of the complete list of 142 mineral deposits we have studied until December 1995, and primarily using the IP method with eventual EM as auxiliary, have taken part in actively aiding the exploration of the following areas:

Disseminated and porphyry-type: 44 deposits, notably Santa Rosa (Cerro Verde), tunahuana, La Huaca, Quellaveco, Cerro Corona, Alta Floresta (Matto Grosso, Brasil), Domeyko (Chile). Candelaria (Chile). Atocongo, Yanacocha, Toquepala Norte, Cuajone NW, La Laguna (Bolivia). Candelaria (Arequipa), Zaruma (Ecuador), Las Lomas, Pistoro (Cusco) and others.

Irregular bodies: 47 deposits, notably Tintaya, Cerro Lindo, Chalcobamba, Ferrobamba, Sulfobamba, Antamina, Atalaya, Quenamari, EI Indio (Chile), Toachi (Ecuador), Tambo (Chile). Tambo Grande, Nevada (Chile), Santos (Copiap6, Chile), Katanga, Atocongo, Banos del Indio, Yanaorcco, Raura, San Antonio, Huini Huini, Chachacomiri (Bolivia) and others.

Manto-type: 26 deposits, notably Raul, Felicidad, San Crist6bal, Carolina, t.ohpan (Chile), Condestable and others.

Vein-type: 41 deposits, notably Anim6n, Poderosa. Atocongo, ltuanqo (Colombia), Rio Conde (Colombia), Palca XI, Zaruma (Ecuador) and others.

We can prepare proposals for geophysical surveys with any of our active methods, for which we own instruments and ancillary equipment. We have three complete IP units, three proton magnetometers (two microprocessor-based), two EM units (one fixed source), two seismic units (one digital, one analog) and one well-logging apparatus. Gravity is presently carried out with rental instruments. Field technique can be selected by the client and, in case of the IP method, we can work with profiles or soundings, with any electrode array, but it is my obligation to justify the reasons of our preference for a specific method in cases we feel they are more convenient.

We can operate with up to four field crews. Data processing facilities at our Lima office consist of five computers, four printers, two color plotters (including one 36" Hewlett-Packard DesignJet 650C) and other conventional equipment. We employ our own software for IP/Resistivity, Seismic and EM curve calculations. Rockworks, Geosoft and GTGS programs for map preparation.

Our sister company, A Electronics SRL, with plant located at our same address, is in charge of routine maintenance and repair. Two graduate electronic engineers work in design, modification and manufacture of electronic boards and the corresponding software. This company is also engaged in high-level electronic service to industry. Under some circumstances. the two engineers can also participate in geophysical field work.

We maintain close relations with prestigious companies specialized in airborne geophysics should this technique become necessary.

Jose E. Arce

Lima, January 1996

Exploration of porphyry copper lithocaps Richard H. Silliloc

27 \1/l'Sr II ill I'(lrk. IIiJh.t:,tIIl' Vil/IIX". lrnulon Nfl (,NJ). 1:·II.~/tIIl"

AllSTRACT

Liibocaps are potentially voluuunoux 1.1Hles of advanced argillic and associated argittic altcr.uion located above the suhvolcanic intrusive cnvin uuucru . The)' ~onstitlJtl' exploration objectives Ior epithermal and porphyry-type deposits. Iligh-slllpliidalioll epithermal (kposil!'. may he soughl within lilJlocap~. whereas low-sulphickuion deposils may cxixt Oil their edges. Porphyry Cu-Au/Au dcpos itxmay he accessible beneath lithocaps if systems an: telescoped sufficiently. Oxidation of the basal. pyritic parts of liihocaps may promote supergene sulphide enrichment under appropriate tectonic and climatic conditions.

KEYWORDS: Lit/IOClIp. porphyry copper/gold, high- and low-suiphidation epithermal, supergene enriclunent.

INTRODUCTION

Lithocaps arc large, lopographically prominent masses of J2Y!.iili: __ advanced argi!l ic and argi 11 ic alteration tha: arc located between the subvolcanic intrusive environment and the palcosurfacc. The subvolcanic intrusions may host porphyry Cu or Au deposits bUI, if of suitable chemistry. also may give rise to Mo or Sn deposits (Siltitoc, 19l)3). Hundreds of examples of the porphyry Cu/Au-lithocap association are present in arc terranes worldwide, hut were not appreciated by geologists from outside the Soviet bloc until the 1970s (Silliloe. IlJ73: Wallace, 1979).

This report summarizes the s:lIielll charactcr istics and origin of liihocaps preparatory to tocusing on their exploration potcut ial Inr high- and low-sulphidat iun epithermal precious-metal deposit», subjacent p()('pllyry Cu/;\ II dcposi IS and supcrgcuc ell cnr icluucut hlankct-,

LITll<)CAI' CIIARACTERISTICS

,=-ilhocaps arc developed typically ill volcanic roebll);J(_ arc co~nmonly coeval with underlying mineralized and ~:mi!leraIized,illlrllsions (Figure I). However. their deeper parts may encroach upon older rock units. The coeval volcanic rocks commonly constitute w.aloyolcanocsor [low-dome complexes. The bases of lithocaps may be taken as the lower limit Of the-highhl!1.Dllidalion epithermal environment. Lithocaps commonly exceed 20 km2 in oriuinat areal exte-;ll ;nd I krn in lll-kkness. bUI in most ~ases their dimensions have been reduccd'appreciably by erosion. Lithocaps may be, ~Qaralcd from underlying porphyry Custocks by zero 10 I tm, Slr mQ!e, or barren or poorly mineralized rock, bUI 10ci!.!!Y arc superimposed on. and therefore incorporate. the !lppt;r pans of stocks. The vertical scparauon. if any. between lithocaps and stocks reflects the degree or telescoping suffered by the hydrothermal systems (Figure 2). !elescoping is a product or syu-hydrothcrmat palcosurf'ace dcsradation due 10 hish el'~)sion rates and/or 'graiil~li,ollaJ coiiapse or volcanic clTIrices (SilliIOC. IlJl)4)

Advanced argillic ahcr.u ion (Hem lev and Jones. IlJ6-1l. termed see()lIdar~' quunzuc by Soviet worker» (Nakovnik

1941), is_t1!c h&lI!l<l!'.k_9f lilhoc~_m; ... and is present typically as numerous discrete bodies (ledges) localized by faults and, less commonly, permeable rock units. Advanced _arRillic alteration generally compri!ics(:p!!lc~,(J~mLc quartz and c~_ystalline_?lunite grading outwards to as~~mtJ!'!~ comprising one or more of 1aolinite,dic_~ile,_~ricits: (muscovite), pyrorhylIiteand diaspore. The alunite is iniergrown typically wl'tJl A-I phosphate-sulphate (APS) minerals (Stoffregen and Alpers, 1987). Zunyite and durnort ier itc, F-CI- and B-bearing AI siticares. respectively, as well as topaz, also may occur. This zone, in tum. is bordered by intermediate argillic alteration comprising illite, smectite and/or mixed-layer clays and, externally, by a chlor itic or, at deeper levels, pr opylitic (chloritc-cpidotc) zone. The deeper parts of lithocaps arc generated from hotter fluids and therefore contain more pyrophylliic and. at leas I locally, andalusite and corundum. <I~ documented at EI Salvador. Chile (Gustafson and HUill, 1')75) and Bur. Serbia (Jankovic. IlJl)Ol. Tile interiors of soinc 1C()ge~'. c~~_cial}Y..J.n theupper p_ansot litllocaps, are ch~lracleri:t.cd by vuggy silica, lhej1()r()us residue ol 9.trell~.e_t:>a~e Jeaching by fluids with pH <2 (Sloffregen. I (j87) or, more commonly, by chalcedonic srlicificauon caused by less acidic fluids. These sil ica rocks, termed monoquartzitc by Soviet workers (Nak ovnik , 1941), and quartz-alunite ledges commonly comprise hydrothermal breccias. The hydrothermal breccias display a broad range of characteristics, such as degree of clast rounding. proportion of hydrothermal cement. clast/matrix ratio and clast population.

Pyrile anLl_marcasi,le_are the dominant sulphides in Iithocaps, and -range in abundance from massive 10 semimaS-stve bodies through 5->20 \'01 (~ ill residual silica. silicification and quartz-alunite 10 1-5 vel % in the argillic :1l1d chloritic/propylitic haloes. Rutile is ubiquitous and spcculaiitc uncommon in ledges. G(llu-. 'A,g- and ClI- !learing sulphosalts and sulphides. cnaracterisricalty cnaruitc and luzonitc, are restricted 10 massive sulphides. resilj~al silica, brecciated chalccdonic quartz and. much lEss ':llll_linonly, quartz-alunite altcrauon.

SupergeIlc weathering causes lr.ulSr(lfillati_oll or tlJ.~Fe ... suTrGi~kslojan;)site. with the aLjdj)ll)(luced giving rise 10

Advanced argillic (+argillic)

. • lithocap

p

HS massive sulphide lode

p

SUB·VOLCANO . BASEMENT

Figure 1 Idealized lithocap and underlying porphyry Cut Au deposit. High-sulphidation (HS) mineralization in the shallow parts of Ole lithocap comprises hydrothermal breccias, stockworks and disseminations, which give way at deeper levels to massive sulphide lodes that may encroach on the porphyry environment. Low-sulphidation (LS) veins occur on the edge of the lithocap. A surficial acid-leached zone, formed in the steam-heated environment, is present above the palco-water table.

widesrrea_Q __ Is<l_ol~nizatioll of smectite and related clays, chlorite and remnant plagioclase ill the haloes 10 individual advanced argillic zones. Hence, at shallow depths, the boundary between internal hypogene and peripheral supergene kaolinite is blurred and difficult to define. However, the identification by X RD of dickite with the kaolinite favours a hypogene origin. Additional complication is introduced by the presence in some liLhocaps of supergene alunite as an' accompaniment to kaolinite; however, the porccllanous appearance and vein habit of supergene alunite permit its ready field distinction from the hypogene variety (Sillitoe, 1993).

The boundary between lithocaps and the underlying pOrphyry c()pper ellvironmenllS marked bythe transition, f[()Hl advanced argillic to scricitic and/or intermediate ,!rg!~lic alteration (Figure I). Peripherally, however, chloritic or propylitic alteration is more likely to underlie lithocaps (Figure I). Near the tops of lithocaps, above paleo-water tabies, a powdery advanced argillic assemblage composed of metal-deficient cristobalite, alunite and/or kaolinite may occur. Such acid-leached zones fonned under vadose conditions in the steam-heated environment, and arc essentially indistinguishable from the material developed at the tops of many low-sulphidation epithermal systems (Figure I: Sillitoc, 1993). In permeable rocks, massivc opal or chalcedony of replacement origin may have developed at paleo-water table sites (Sillitoe. 1993).

The marked differences in hardness between residual silica, silicification and quartz-alunite and their argillized haloes causes the former alteration types to crop out as

lopographically prominent ledges, even in tropical environments. In contrast, the argillized and jarositestained rocks that may be exposed between the ledges arc more prominent visually, and hence on air photographs and false-colour TM images, especially in arid environments like the central Andes and western U.S.A. However, in the tropics, lands I ide scars typify t.hese argillizcd rocks.

ORIGIN OF LlTHOCAPS

Lithocaps are we products of Ole interaction of highly acidic and relatively oxidized fluids and rocks located above one or more, commonly mineralized subvolcanic stocks. Steep Iaults and fracture sets act as the principal conduits for fluid ascent, The acidic fluids are mixtures of S02- and HCI-bearing volatiles exsolved from underlying magmas and meteoric water in fault zones and porous rocks (Sillitoe, 1983). Low-pH solutions are generated by disproporticnation of S02 to produce H2S04Which, along with HCI, then dissociates (e.g. Hedenquist, 1987). The pH of the ascending fluids falls due to cooling, and leads eventually to residual silica formation once the neutralization capacity of the rocks lining the conduits has been overcome. Progressive neutralization of the much smaller volumes of outward-moving fluids gives rise to the characteristic alteration zoning around ledges. Sulphatedominated fluids generate alunite, whereas high conccnu auons of halogen acids arc less common and Cavour zunyite and topaz formation. Brines condense from the ascending volatiles as temperatures and pressures decrease, and both the resulting brine and, to a lesser degree, the remaining 'VOlatiles are capable of transporting a variety of metals, including Cu and Au (Hedenquist et al, I YY4a; Hedenquist, 1995).

A contribution to the large areal extents of Iithocaps is made by lateral flow of the acidic solutions down the hydraulic gradients typical of volcanic edifices (Henley and Ellis, 1983). Near-neutral and reduced, lowsulphidation fluids exist beyond lithocaps, and comprise con vecti vely circulating meteoric waters to which magmatic components, including metals, may have been added at depth (Hedenquist, 1987).

EXPLORATION FOR HIGH-SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS

High-sulphidation mineraliza lion in lithocaps is divisible into two broad, albeit transitional categories (Figure 1; Silluoc, 1995). First. steep and commonly tabular, but also less regular, massive to semi-massive sulphide lodes rich in pyrite with enargite, luzonite and/or bornite. Second, hydrothermal breccias, stock works and disseminations of more varied form, which commonly comprise residual silica, silicified rock !bat was brecciated hydrothermally or, less commonly, quartz and alunite, all characterized by lower IOLaI sulphide contents. TIle latter category tends to be richer in Au and/or Ag but distinctly poorer in Cu.

The sulphide-rich lodes arc clearly Iault controlled, and typiry the lower parts of lithocaps (Figure I'). In fact, the veins or this type at EI Indio, Chile (Siddclcy and Arancda, 1986) and La Mcjicana, Argentina (Losada-Calderon and Bloom, 19(0) even extend downwards beneath the bases or their respective lithocaps. In telescoped systems, such sulphidic lodes, bordered by advanced argillic assemblages that arc transitional downwards to sericitic alteration, may overprint porphyry copper-type mineralization (Figure I), as at BUlle, Montana, U. S. A. (Meyer et al, 1968) and Collahuasi, Chile (Dick et al, 1(94). There is a tendency for the advanced arg i llic-scr icitic transition to be accompanied by a change or the dominant Cu-bcaring sulphide from cnargite lO bornite. Some of these sulphiderich veins have yielded fluid-inclusion .evidencc for formation from brines (c.g. Losada-Calderon and Bloom, 1990), which may be condensates from ascending acidic volatiles (Hcdcnquist, 1995: Sillitoc, 1995),

The high-sulphidation deposits with lower sulphide contents characterize the shallower parts or lithocaps and locally, as at La Coipa, Chile, may approach paleo-water table positions (Figure 1; Oviedo et 01,1991) or, as at Paradise Peak, Nevada, U.S.A., display the effects or overprinting by supra-water table acid leaching during water table descent (Sillitoc and Lorson, 1994). The sulphide-poor deposits also arc controlled structurally, but their dispersed, commonly upward-flared forms may mask the positions of the Fault conduits at shallow levels. There arc Icw observable examples or downward transitions [rom relatively sulphide-poor to sulphide-rich mineralization within single bodies, although Cbclopcch, Bulgaria, is an example. Telescoping within lithocaps may result ill overprinting or sulphide-rich by relatively sulphide-poor mincraliz.arion, as at EI Indio, Chile (Siddeley and Araneda, 1986). Supergene oxidation 01 the upper parts of massive to semi-massive sulphide bodies results in friable, siliceous and commonly limonite-poor material, as at Bor, Serbia (Jankovic, (990) and Paradise. Peak, Nevada, U.S.A. (Srllitoe and Lorson, 1994), that could be confused with the shallow sulphide-poor deposits. Supergene rather than hypogene oxidation is preferred as the means or fonning these sulphide-depleted siliceous bodies.

The vertical zoning in high-suiphidation deposits and their enclosing J ithocaps provides a useful exploration guide. Particularly valuable arc downward changes from enargue to bornite and from alunite through pyrophyllite lO sericite. However, the location of high-sulphidauon mineralization within commonly extensive 'Iithocaps may prove more difficult because the hypogene alteration haloes around residual silica, siliceous brecciaand quartzalunite ledges arc typically narrow and may be wholly or partly obliterated hy supergene knol inization. Reliance generally must be placed on the topographic prominence of the potentially metal-bearing ledges combined with their geochemical expressions. These arc dominated by As. Cu, Au and/or Ag, hut commonly include .Bi , Sn, W, Mo andlor Te (Hcdcnquist et al, 1994b; Sitlitoc and Lorson, 1994). Massive or semi-massive sulphide lodes create subdued topographic expressions, but scorodite-bcaring limonitic gossan and, in arid regions. gypcrete may mark their surface positions. Elcctromaguctic gcopnysica!

techniques offer a lillie-emrloycd means of detccung these massive to semi-massive sulphide lodes in lithocaps.

Many lirhocaps appear to be barren of potentially economic Au, Ag and/or Cu mineralization. Although this condition may he due in some cases to either inadequate exploration or advanced erosion, elsewhere it may be concluded that ore simply was not formed. Lithocaps arc believed to lack ore where through-going faults accessible to magmatic fluids are absent. This situation is observed at Guinaoang, Philippines, where only low-grade dispersed cnargitc-Au mineralization is present above a concealed porphyry Cu-Au deposit (Sillitoc and Angeles. 1985). However, the possibility that an appropriate metal-bearing volatile or brine was not made available cannot be discounted (cf Hedenquist et at, 1994b). In summary, geological mapping, sUPPOrLed by air photo and TM image imcrprcrations, is cruical for assessing the highsulphidation epithermal potential or lithocaps.

EXPLORATION FOR LOW-SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS

l.ow-sulphidation precious-metal mineralization is not often considered as a target during lithocap exploration. However, it may exist beyond or immediately beneath the outer edges or lithocaps (Figure 1), as in the EI Indio and Choquelimpie districts, Chile, the M ankayan district, Philippines and the Nevados del Famatina district, Argentina. In these four districts, the low-sulphidation veins arc subordinate economically to the highsulphidation deposits. At Baguio, Philippines (Aoki et ai, 1993), Emperor, Fiji (Anderson and Eaton, 1990) and Madjarovo, Bulgaria (Velinov and Nokov, 1991), however, the premier Au deposits arc low-sulphidation veins, which contrast with the poorly mineralized nature of the contemporaneous lithocap remnants.

All these examples of low-sulphidarion mineralization possess crustiforrn quartz and carbonates containing minor amounts or pyrite and Zn and Pb sulphides, in common with many low-sulphidation deposits unassociated with lithocaps. Vein selvages typically contain only a few percent pyrite and are restricted in width. Supergene kaolinization of the host rocks tends therefore to be either absent or extremely limited in extent, Consequently, these low-sulphidation deposits give rise to minor, if any, visual anomalies, even in arid environments. 111ey may be missed easily where present alongside liuiocap colour anomalies, unless their geochemical expressions are recorded.

EXPLORATION FOn. CONCEALED PORPHYRY DEPOSITS

Tile principal parameter controlling the economic viability of 'porphyry Cu-Au or Au-only porphyry deposits beneath lithocaps, besides tonnage-grade characteristics and lithocap thickness, is depth beneath the base or the iuhocap. This depth depends on the degree of telescoping undergone by the hydrothermal system, and ranges from 600 m at Red Mountain, Arizona, U.S.A. (Figure 2a; Com,

.'

1975) lO csscnuarly zero at Lepanto (Garcia. 1991) anti Guinaoang (Sitlitoc ami Angeles, 19X5) in thc Mankayan district, Philippines and ru Batu Hijau, Indonesia (Meldrum et al, 1994). The lithocap may even be superimposed 011 the porphyry stock and its associated K-silicate zone. as at Wall. Papua New Guinea (Figure 2b: Andrew, 1995), a situation which permits rcmobilizauon of pre-existing Cu and/or Au contents leading to either increases or decreases of metal grades.

~

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b

Figure 2 Schernatizcd porphyry deposits and overlying lithocaps showing: a. minor telescoping, and b. extreme telescoping due to degradation of the volcanic paleosurface. The economic potential of the porphyry deposit in b. would he greater than that in a. given any equal amount of post-mineralization lithocap erosion.

The presence of andalusitc, corundum and pyrophyllite in extensive advanced argillic zones or bornite- and enargite-r ich massive sulphide lodes as the contained mineralization provides evidence for exposure of the deeper parts of lithocaps and, therefore, the potential proximity to the porphyry-type environment. III such cases. a porphyry deposit may have been unroofed and occur ill outcrop or subcr op somewhere around the liihocap remnant, as exemplified by the Frieda River district, Papua New Guinea (Asami and Britten, 1980). If textural evidence for either a porphyry intrusion or a stockwork of translucent quartz vcinlctx or A·type (Gustafson and Hunt. 1975) developed during Kvsilicate alteration is discernible in an advanced argillic lithocap, then extreme telescoping is confirmed (Si llitoe. 1994). Such situations guarantee the existence of porphyry-type mineralization at the base of th e Ii theca p.

If a porphyry stock or an A-type quartz-veinlet stockwork is absent, then the position of concealed porphyry-type mineralization with respect to the lithocap is speculative given the likelihood of a lateral component of transport of magmatic volati les and derivative fluids. Nevertheless, faults that control high-sulphidation mineralization are likely to intersect the porphyry-type mineralization somewhere at depth, thereby providing an exploration vector. This situation is exemplified by the enargite-Au and associated porphyry Cu-Au deposits in the Mankayan. Philippines (Garcia, 19l) I) and Tombulilato, Indonesia (PereI16: 1994) districts .. which both also emphasize that more than one porphyry deposit may form beneath a single lithocap.

An alternative means of detecting concealed porphyrytype mincraliz .. arion is available where lithocaps are cut by relatively deep-seated hydrothermal breccias or diatremes. which may tr anspor: clasts of porphyry Cu-Au ore to

shallower levels. The positions of Some of the porphyry ClI-Au deposits in the Mankayan district are revealed in this way (Si llitoe and Angeles. 1985). If the concealed porphyry-type mineralization is rich in hydrothermal magnetite, as in many Au-rich 'deposits (Sillitoc, 1990), then a magnetic response may be obtained if the lithocap, which is magnetitc-free, is not too thick. However, the high pyrite contents of lithocaps are likely to preclude the induced- polarization technique as a means of locating porphyry deposits concealed beneath them. Lithogeochemistry possesses potential for pinpointing the parts of lithocaps above porphyry-type deposits. Although the data base is far from complete, Mo "plumes" may help explorationists to focus on sites of concealed porphyrytype mineralization.

EX('LORATION FOR SUPERGENE ENRICHMENT BLANKETS

Cumulative sulphide enrichment of copper deposits, as exemplified by the major chalcocite blankets in the porphyry copper deposits of northern Chile and southern Peru, is optimized during tectonic uplift under semi-arid climatic conditions (e.g. Alpers and Brimhall, 1988). However, the most fundamental requirement is sufficient acid-generating pyrite to promote the leaching and enrichment processes. The acid-generating capacity of porphyry systems is at a maximum in the pyrite-rich lower parts of lithocaps, which also help to maintain acidity because of UlC low neutralization capacity of advanced argillic assemblages. The presence of an extensive lithocap al EI Salvador (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975), advanced argillic remnants and massive enargite veins at Escondida (Ojeda, 1990) and sericitic alteration around an overprinted swarm of cnargite- and bornite-bearing veins at Chuquicamata (Alvarez et ai, 1980) are believed to show that the basal parts of lithocaps were instrumental in the cumulative enrichment of these three Chilean deposits. Lateral now of Cu-char ged , acidic solutions from oxidizing porphyry Cu systems into piedmont gravel sequences may give rise to exotic oxide Cu deposits, as it did at EI Salvador and Chuquicarnata.

Hematitic leached cappng

Jarositic

--;~--;--!.::::d4~iiI ... rt~-;~~p~Sericitic

alteralion

Eigur-e 3 Hematitic leached capping and supergene enrichment blankeL, developed in sericitic-altered porphyry at the roots of the lithocap, are concealed by alluvial gravels. The nearby low hill is underlain by more distal parts of the advanced argillic lithocap displaying jarositic leached capping and giving way downwards to propylitic alteration lacking chalcocite enrichment and hypogene Cu mineraliz .. ation,

The cx istcucc of cumul.u ivc chalcocite curichmcnt at depth is uonually charted. "" at EI Salvador. Escoudid« and Chu qu icam ata , by the hc mat it ic charncter of outcropping leached capping (Figure ~: Anderson. 19~2). but this technique is inapplicable where local topography is subdued anu ;1I111vial material conceals bedrock. Indeed. any undiscovered enrichment blankets in the central Andes arc likely to be present beneath alluvial cover. The best positions for such concealed targets arc believed to lie alongside liihocap remnants that are not themselves underlain hy appreciable enrichment. ;IS shown hy the jarositic rather than hematitic character of their contained limonite (Figure ~). In such situations. exemplified by the enriched Chimborazo porphyry copper deposit. Chile (Petersen et (II. 1994), the outcropping pan or the lithocap is located beyond the porphyry copper mineralization that underwent enrichment (Figure 3). Scout drilling is probably the most cost-effective method. of testing for concealed enrichment blankets alongside outcropping jarositic lithocap remnants, given that bothchargcability and magnetic responses arc likely to be nondescript.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Lithocaps are one of the exploration frontiers in arc terranes of Phanerozoic and. especially. Cenozoic age because they may be associated with subtle high- or lowsulphidarion epithermal deposits as well as concealed porphyry Cu- A u/ A u deposits and :>urcrgcne enrichment blankets. Every effort should therefore be made to recognize l i th ocaps during grass-roots exploration programmes. Liihocaps arc likely to givc rise to (I) hills or moumnins because of tile abundance or siliceous alteration; (2) extensive 110at trains ill drainages for the same reason: 0) colour anomalies r ccoguizablc by overflying and interpretation of air rllOtograrhs and ralsecolour TM iJJl,lges: (4) vegetation anoma: ics because of uicir highly siliceous, aluminous and pyritic (acidic) nature: (5) phoxphorux anomalies in regional. drainage geochemical surveys because or the abundance of APS minerals associated with alunite. in addition to the geochemical response stemming from any contained mineralization: (6) magnetic lows because of magnetite destruction during advanced argillic and argillic alteration: and (7) chargeability highs caused by large contents of dispersed pyrite. assuming that supergene' oxidation is 1I0t unduly deep.

Successful appraisal of identified lithocaps must be based on detailed geological and alteration mapping complemented by rock. soil and/or talus-fines geochemical sampling. Alteration mapping must be accomplished in the field and not be reliant on. but may be assisted by. thinsection. XRD and PIMA studies. For example. only field mapping can distinguish effcctivcty between alunite formed in the high-sulrhidation. steam-heated and supergene environments (Sit l itoc. 1<.193). Drainage sampling in and around lithocaps, employing minus-SO mesh. pan concentrate and/or BLEG approaches, may provide an initial indication of the All potential.

ACKNOWLEDGEl\1ENTS

I)i~cussillll~ Oil lithocaps with numerous geologists over the last 25 years arc acknowledged with pleasure: those with Hal Bonham. Jeff Hcdcnquist ,U1U Parvan lgnatovski were or particular value. Thanks arc due to John Thompson for an official review of this report and to the Pacrim commiucc for the invitation to present it in Auckland. New Zealand.

REFERENCES

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Evidence from supergene mineralization at La Escondida. Geol Soc Am Bull, 100: 1640-56.

Alvarez, C 0, Miranda, M J and Guzman, V P, 1980.

Geologia del complejo Chuquicamata, in Mineria de cobres porfidicos, pp 314-63 (Santiago: Institute de Ingcnicros de Minas de Chile).

Anderson. J A, 1982. Characteristics of leached capping and techniques of appraisal, in Advances in geology of the porphyry copper deposits. southwestern North America (Ed: S R Titley). pp 275-95 (Tucson:

University of Arizona Press).

Anderson. W B and Eaton. P C, 1990. Gold mineralisation at the Emperor mine. Vatuk ou la , Fiji. J Geochem Explor. 36:267-96.

Andrew, R [~, 1995. Porphyry coppcr-gnld deposits of the southwest Pacific, MiTling Engng, 47:33-8.

Aoki. M. Cornsu. E C. Law. F Band MalSuhisa. Y. 1993.

Advanced argillic alteration and geochemistry of alunite in an evolving hydrothermal system at Baguio, northern Luzon. Philippines. Resource Geol, 43: 155- 64.

Asami, Nand Briuen, R M. 1980. The porphyry copper deposits at the Frieda River prospect. Papua New Guinea. Mining CeDI Spec issue 8: 117-39.

Corn. R M, 1975. Alteration-mineralization zoning, Red Mountain, Arizona. Econ Ceo I. 70: 1437-47.

Dick. L, Ossandon, G, Bisso, C, Eggers, F and Chavez, W. 1994. Cu-Ag-As-(Au) vein systems at Collahuasi and their relationship to porphyry copper mineralization:

Historically mined deposits and new discoveries, in Aetas 7th Cong Ceol Chileno. 2. pp 1547-8 (Concepcion).

Garcia, J S. Jr. 199\. Geology and mineralization characteristics of the Mankayan mineral district. Benguct, Philippines, CeDI Sun' Japan Rept 277:21- ~O.

Gustafson, L B and Hunt, J p. 1975. TIle porphyry copper deposit at El Salvador. Chile. Econ Ceol. 70: 857-912.

Hcdenquist, J W. 1987. Mineralization associated with volcanic-related hydrothermal systems in the circumPacific basin. in Trans 41h Circum-Pacific Energy and

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1>1 ill (',.(/1 Res co« (1:<1: M K. l luru), pp 5n·24 (Singapore).

. Hcdcuquist, J W, 11)1)5. Tile axccur of mugmat«: fluid:

Discharge versus mineralization. Mill Auoc Call Short Course Sci 23:263-1\\}.

Hcdcnquist, J W, Aoki, M and Shinohara, H, IlJ94a. Flux of volatiles and ore-forming metals from the magmatichydrothermal system of Satsuma lwojirna volcano, Geologv, 22:SX5-8.

Hcdcnquist. J W, Matsuhisa, Y. lzawa, E. While, N C.

Giggenhach, W F and Aok i, M, IlJ94b. Geology. geochemistry. and origin of high sulfidation Cu-Au mineralization in the Nansatsu district, Japan, Econ Ceo I. 89: 1-30.

Hcmlcy, J J and Jones, W R, 196LL Chemical aspects of hydrothermal alteration with emphasis on hydrogen metasomatism, /:'COIJ Geol, 59:538-69.

Henley, R Wand Ellis, A J, IlJ83 .. Geothermal systems ancient and modem: A geochemical review, Earth-Sci Rev, 19: I-50.

Jankovic, S. 1990. Types of copper deposits related to volcanic environment inthe Bor district, Yugoslavia. Ceol Rund. 79:467-78.

Losada-Calderon, A and Bloom, M S, 1990. Geology, paragenesis and fluid Inclusion studies of a high sulfidation epithermal/porphyry system, Ncvados del Famatina district, La Rioja province, Argentina, in Prot: Pacific Rim Cang 90, 2, liP 457-64 (Gold Coast).

Meldrum, S J, Aquino, R S, GOllzales, R I, Burke, R J, Suyadi, A, lrianto, I3 and Clarke, D S, 1994. 1lle Galll Hijau porphyry copper-gold deposit, Sumbawa island, Indonesia, J Geochcm Explor, 50:20:\-20.

Meyer. C. Shea, E P, Goddard. C C. Jr and Slaff, IlJ6X Ore deposits at BUltC. Montana. in Ore deposits of the UnitedStates, /933-67, 2(Ed: J D Ridge), pp 1373-416 (New York: AIME).

Nakovnik , N I. IlJ41. Secondary quartzites of Kazakhstan and their mineral resources.: Bu] Uspech» CeDI Nau):

Katak fil AN SSSR (in Russian).

Ojeda F J M, 1990. Geology of the Escondida porphyry copper deposit. II Regi6n. Chile, in Proc Pacific RiJII Cong 90, 2, pp 473-83 (Gold Coast).

Oviedo, L. FOster, N, Tschischow. N. Rihba. L, Zucconc, A. Grez. E and Agui lar, A.. 191} I. General geology of La Coipa precious metal deposit; Atacama, Chile, Econ Ceo/, 86: 1287-300.

Pere llo, J A. 1994. Geology, porphyry Cu-Au and epithermal Cu-Au-Ag mineralization of the Tornbulilato district, North Sulawesi, Indonesia, .I Ceocflelll Explor, 50:221-56.

I)elerscn. C R. Rivera. S 1_ and Peri .. M A, 1994.

Chimborazu copper deposit. II Rc~i()n, Chile. Geology and geochemistry, in AC/{/s 7th CO/!g Geol Chileno. 2. pp 161:\ (Concepcion).

S iddclcy, G and Arancda, R, IlJX6. The EI Indio- T;unho gold deposits, Chile. in Proc Cold '86 (Ed: J A MacDonald). pp 445-56 (Toronto).

Si II itoc, R H. 1973. The tops and bottoms of porphyry copper deposits, Econ Geol. 6ll:7lJl)·815.

Sitl itoc. R H, 1983. Enargitc-bcaring massive sulfide deposits high in porphyry copper systems, Econ Geot, 78:348-52.

Sitliroe, R H. 1990. Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits of the circum-Pacific region - an updated overview. in Proc Pacific Rim COl1g 90, 2. pp 119-26 (Gold Coast).

Sillitoe. R H, 1993. Epithermal models: Genetic types, geometrical controls and shallow features. Ceol Assoc Call Spec Paper 40:403-17.

Sillitoe, R H. 1994. Erosion and collapse of volcanoes:

Causes of telescoping in intrusion-centered ore deposits, Ceology, 22:945-48.

Siltitoe, R 1-1, 1995. lnflucnce of magmatic-hydrolhennal models on exploration strategies in volcano-plutonic arcs, Min Soc Can Short Course Ser 23: 511-25.

Sillitoe, R H and Angeles, C A. Jr, 1985. Geological characteristics and evolution of a gold-rich porphyry copper deposit at Guinaoang, Luzon, Philippines, in Asion Mining '85, pp 15-26 (London: Institution of Mining & Metallurgy).

Sill i roc, I~ H and Lorson, R C, I ')')4. Epithermal go Idsilver-mercury deposits .u Paradise Peak, Nevada: Ore controls, porphyry gold association, detachment faulting, and supergene oxidation, Econ Geot, 89: 1228-48.

Stoffregen, R, 1987. Genesis of acid-sulfate alteration and AlI-ClI-Ag mineralization at Summitville, Colorado, Econ Ceol, 82: 1575-91.

Stoffregen. R E and Alpers, C N. 1987. Woodhouseiie and svanbergite in hydrothermal ore deposits: Products of apatite destruction during advanced argillic alteration, Call Mineral. 25:201-11.

Velinov, I and Nokov, S, IYI} I. metallogenic significance of hydrothermally altered Oligocene rend Acad Bulg Sci, 44:65-8.

Wallace, A B, 1979. Possible si gnatures of buried porphyry-copper deposits in middle and late Tertiary volcanic rocks of western Nevada, Nevada Bur Mines and Ceol Rept 33:69-76.

Main types and the Madjarovo volcanics, Compt

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Vol. 75, 1980, pp. 97-)06

The Paz de Rio Oolitic Inland-Sea Iron Formation

]\lJCHAEL M. KIMBERLEY

Abstract

I ron-rich chemical sedimentary rock. ironstone, occurs as an extensive bed an iron ~ormation, o_f Eocen~ age near Paz de Rio, Colombia. This deposit is fairly ~ypical of Iron ~orn~atlOns which have formed throughout the past 2,200 m.y. in shallow inland seas rich In sandy, clayey, and oolitic sediment. The iron formation is only a few meters t~ick .and its iro~stone is oolitic, chert-poor, aluminous, and phosphatic. Similar Tertiary Iron formations occur elsewhere in northwestern South America.

Introduction

THE term, ironstone, is applied to any chemical sedimentary rock with more than 15 percent Fe and the term, iron formation, is applied to any mappable rock body dominantly composed of ironstone. The Eocene Paz de Rio iron formation near Paz de Rio Colombia, is typical of a paleoenvironmental type termed "Sandy, Clayey, and Oolitic Shallow-inlandsea Iron Formation" (SCOS-IF) (Kimberley, 1978, p. 221), except for a lack of calcareous fossils. Examples of other iron formations of this type include the Silurian Clinton and Jurassic minette deposits. Characteristic features of this type of iron formation are reviewed elsewhere (Kimberley, 1978, 1979a and b).

SCOS iron formations of Eocene to Miocene age occur in at least four areas of northwestern South America, i.e., Sabanalarga, Paz de Rio, Cucuta, and Lagunillas, and are spread over a distance of 650 km (Fig. 1). The ironstone is similar-in all four areas but the thicknesses of the iron formations vary considerably. In the Middle Cretaceous, north-central Colombia and western Venezuela formed a northward-sloping continental shelf on which marine limestone and shale accumulated (Young et al., 1956). Commencing at the end of the Maestrichtian, uplift ?ccurred a!ong th~ present Caribbean coast. resulting 111 alternating fluvial environments and epicontinental sea-lacustrine environments through the Tertiary in

the interior. .

In the Paz de Rio-Sabanalarga region of Colombia, Maestrichtian coal swamps were followed in the Paleocene by fluvial sandstone which became interbedded with increasing proportions of red-mottled, light gray mudstone and minor coal as the epoch progressed. Uplift of the central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes in the middle Eocene brought locally deep erosion of the upper mudstone-sandstone beds and deposition of fluvial conglomerate and sandstone which became increasingly interbedded upward with red-mottled, light gray mudstone (Irving, 1975).

In the late Eocene, a landlocked or shallow marine sea transgressed bleached and mottled coastal sand s~ that" with numerous subordinate fluvial regressions, more than a kilometer of sediment accumulated before the Miocene. At least two, possibly correlative, iron formations up to about 8 m thick formed during the first transgressive-regressive cycle. Several thin ironstone beds formed in similar transgressiveregressive cycles about 700 m stratigraphically higher in the Paz de Rio area.

Near Cucuta, Colombia (Fig. 1), goethitic and charnositic ironstones are interbedded with deltaic mudstone and sandstone of late(?) Miocene age (James and Van Houten, 1979). As many as 34 beds of oolite and ooid-bearing sandstone formed during transgressions caused by decreases in detrital sedimentation. Intervening regressions ended with soil formation on deltaic mudflats (James and Van Houten, 1979).

In the Lagunillas area of Venezuela (Fig. 1), lower or middle ~I iocene marine oolite transgressed over "a. thin series of bleached and mottled clays, san.ds" lignites and black carbonaceous sticky clays which probably originated as swamp muck" (Sutton, 1946, p. 1698; Hedberg, 1928). Existing literature and oil company core logs describe this ironstone as dark green oolitic glauconite. However, H. D. Hedberg (pers. comrnun .. 1972) notes that this mineral iden~ification was based only on visual inspection; partially weathered samples provided by him texturally r~semble typical chamositic-goethitic oolite. Only goethite and quartz were detected in the samples by X-ray powder diffractometry. The thickness of the iron formation is about 30 m,

The Paz de Rio Iron Formation

The only commercially exploited oolitic, iron formation in northwestern South America is mined n~ar Paz de Rio, Colombia (6° 11' N, 72° 43' \\7; FIgs. 1 and 2). The Paz de Rio iron formation var ies from 0.5 to about 8.0 m in thickness and is

97

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98

MICHAEL M. KIMBERLEY

NORTHWESTERN SOUTH AMERICA

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FIG, 1. Location map of northwestern South America.

found near the base of the 1,400-m-thick Concentracion Formation (Fig. 3). The Concentracion and other Tertiary formations extend for a maximum of 57 km in a topographically depressed outcrop belt which trends N 30 E within the eastern Cordillera (Cordillera Oriental) of the Colombia Andes (I rving, 1971). The iron formation is missing in only one exposure of basal Concentracion Formation beds (Alvarado and Sarmiento-Soto, 1944).

Northwest of Paz de Rio, within the northeastern third of the outcrop belt (Fig. 2), the Tertiary formations are in fault contact with metamorphosed pre-Devonian and unmetamorphosed Mesozoic rocks along a high-angle reverse fault with a maximum of over 3,400 m of vertical displacement. Such reverse faults are characteristic of the eastern Cordillera (Julivert, 1970). Northeast of Paz de Rio and in the southwestern two-thirds of the belt, the Tertiary. formations are bordered only by Cretaceous formations. The Tertiary outcrop belt is ubiquitously block faulted, with most fault planes striking N 20--40 E and vertical displacements commonly exceeding 100 m. Cretaceous formations are faulted up within the Tertiary belt. Underground mapping at Paz de Rio of faults with a few tens of centimeters of displacement also reveals mostly N 20--40 E orientations. The dip of the Paz de Rio iron formation varies considerably among major fault blocks. from 0° to 70°. Maximum east-west outcrop width of the iron formation near Paz de Rio is 8 km. The iron formation is thickest near a faulted edge of the

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outcrop belt and so the original extent probably was significantly greater than the preserved extent.

Stratigraphy of the Pas de Rio area

Epoch boundaries within the Tate Cretaceous and Tertiary in the Paz de Rio area are largely based on palynological studies (Van der Hammen, 1954, 1957, 1958). The Late Cretaceou, (Maestrichtian) to Oligocene section consists of the Cuaduas, Socha, Picacho, and Concentracion Forr""tions. These formations were initially defined by Alvarado and Sarmien to-Soto ( 1944 ; Sarmiento-Soto, 1946; Van Houten, 1967). The lithostratigraphic boundaries subsequently adopted by the local iron-, coal-, and limestone-mining company, Acerias Paz del Rio (Reyes, 1966), differ only in that the lower contact of the Concentracion Formation with the underlying Picacho Formation is placed at the base of the sandstone bed most closely underlying the iron formation (Fig. 3). This modification is endorsed here because the middle(?) Eocene Picacho Formation then becomes comparable to the underlying Paleocene Socha Formation, both representing a fluvial sandstone-conglomerate unit which ranges in thickness from 100 to 200 m and which contains an increasing proportion of interbedded red-mottled, light gray, overbank mudstone toward the top of the for-

GEOLOGY AROUND PAZ DE RID. COLOMBIA

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Middle Oligocone P Picacho Formation

Middle (7) hcene

US Upper Sacha Form.tion Paleocone

LS Lawer Socha Formation Paleocone

G Guaduas FOmLItion E Ermitano ForR1ltion

Maaslrichtlln Campaniln

Modified from Aceria. Paz del Ria Maps

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FIG. 2. Geologic map of the Paz de Rio area, Colombia.

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99

mation (Kimberley, 1974). Underlying the Socha Formation is the coal-bearing Guaduas Formation, largely composed of gray shale.

Type sections of the Picacho and Concentracion Formations occur near and along the Soapaga River (Figs. 2 and 3). In the lower 50 m of the lower picacho, fluvial conglomerate and cross bedded sandstone are equally represented, grading upward to a predominance of sandstone. In the lower Picacho, Illtldrock is present only as abundant mudstone clasts in the fluvial conglomerate. The base of the 80-111- thick upper Picacho is the base of the lowest mudrock bed, generally red-mottled, light to medium gray siltstone which is interbedded with sandstone. Fossil tree leaves and wood fragments increase in abundance upward through the upper Picacho and the 1Ippermost siltstone contains abundant limonitic veins.

The Picacho Formation is conformably overlain by the Concentracion Formation which consists of 1,400 m of shallow water mudstone and sandstone. The basal sandstone bed contains abundant fossil logs, more highly compressed than those within the overlying ironstone. Above 3 m, the basal sandstone grades to a 22-m-thick bed of siltstone which is red mottled only in the lower portion and which decreases in sand upward. Pellet-filled burrows are common in this probable beach-lagoon sequence. The siltstone grades upward to equally burrowed, ferriferous oolite which probably accumulated as a sand bar. The oolitic iron formation, named the Paz de Rio iron formation, is 5 m thick in the type section and grades upward to basinal carbonaceous mudstone.

About 10 111 above the Paz de Rio iron formation, carbonaceous mudstone grade~ to highly burrowed, regressive sandstone. Drab transgressive mudstone and subordinate sandstone are interbedded through a thickness of 460 m above the iron-formation. This is followed in the type section by 170 m of lithologically more variable transgressive-regressive sequences which include beds of red-mottled mudstone, white sider itic mudstone, conglomerate. lignite, pyritic mudstone, and chert-concretion-rich sandstone (Reyes, 1966). This is overlain by a 60-m-thick transgressive sequence of medium gray mudstone and subordinate carbonaceous sandstone. Some of the sandstone displays flaser bedding and probably formed on a tidal flat (Reineck and Wunderlich. 1968). However. calcareous fossils are absent. as in virtually all of the Concentracion Formation, possibly due to diagenetic dissolution. The only shelly fossils reported from the formation resemble a contemporary nonmarine Colombian assemblage (Berry and Walthall .. 1961: Pilsbry and Olsson, 1928).

The succeeding 40-111 thickness of the type section

I

t

I

!

burrowed sandstone pyritic mudstone

oolitic ironstone

STRATIGRAPHIC SECTION OF THE PICACHO FORMATION AND BASAL CONCENTRACION FORMATION

burrowed siltstone

sandstone sandy siltstone

conglomeratic sandstone

mottled siltstone

sandstone and claystone

sandstone and siltstone

cross-bedded sandstone

covered

conglomerate

conglomerate

erosional base

Bottom of

FIG. 3. Stratigraphic section of the Picacho Formation and basal Concentracion Formation along the Soapaga River, Paz de Rio area, Colombia.

Con centra cion

Formation

Upper

Picacho

formation

Lower

Picacho

Formation

includes four lenticular beds of oolitic ironstone gradational to fer rifer ous, ooid-rich sandstone. These oolitic beds average about 0.5 111 in thickness and occur in transgressive-regressive mudstone-sandstone sequences, each a few meters thick. The ironstone is chamositic and typical samples average 36 percent Fe and 17 percent Si02• The remainder of the Concentracion Formation is dominantly shallow-water mudstone and subordinate sandstone.

Veins of gypsum and/or limonite are ubiquitous in weathered exposures of the Concentracion Formation. probably due to oxidation of the authigenic pyrite and siderite which are commonly observed in fresh mudstone. If the fresh rocks are representative, at least one-fifth of the iron in the entire formation occurs in these authigenic minerals. The ac-

~

I

11

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I I

100

MICHAEL M. KIMBERLEY

FIG. 4. Photographs and photomicrographs of ironstone and adjacent rocks in the Paz de Rio area, Colombia.

A. Well-preserved tree seeds from basal oolitic ironstone.

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THE PAZ DE RIO OOLITIC INLAND-SEA IRON FORMATION

101

cumulation of 1,400 m of shallow water sediment is Suggestive of an epicontinental or landlocked sea rather than a fresh water lake. However, the scarcity of shelly fauna precludes determination of average paleosalinity.

General features of the Paz de Rio iron formation

The Paz de Rio iron formation is normally just one bed of oolitic ironstone, but two beds separated by sandstone occur in a fault block 2 km west of Paz de Rio (Fig. 2). Where just one bed of ironstone occurs, both the uppermost and lowermost portions of the iron formation are consistently poorest in ferric minerals and range from dark greenish gray (5G4/l) to brownish black (5YR2/l), whereas the central and thickest portion of the bed ranges from dark reddish brown (lOR3/4) to moderate red (5R4/6). Complete gradations exist among these three portions, but each is described separately in this report. The proportion of quartz sand decreases markedly upward through the lower dark ironstone and the lowermost part of the central red ironstone. Quartz sand increases slightly through the upper dark ironstone.

Trace fossils and fossil wood are the only macroscopic record of life in the iron formation and adjacent beds. However, the iron formation is highly burrowed and fossil logs and tree seeds together constitute up to 5 percent of the basal dark ironstone (Fig. 4A). The fossil wood displays excellently preserved carbonaceous cell walls lined with hematite and cells filled with siderite, except where replaced by pyrite. All portions of the iron formation display irregular burrows a few millimeters in diameter. Some burrows are lined with hematite and some are filled with the only quartz sand present within the area of a thin section.

The Paz de Rio iron formation is underlain by massive, light olive gray (5Y6/l) to dark greenish gray (5GY 4/1) sandstone or siltstone and overlain by black pyritic mudstone. Sandstone beneath the iron formation locally displays scours, but elsewhere

the contact is gradational and the sandstone displays burrows filled with chamositic ooids (Fig. 4B). Locally, irregular hematitic veins less than 1 mm wide permeate subjacent sandstone and gradually decrease in abundance downward. The upper contact is generally gradational through mudstone with sideritic nodules.

Petrography of the Paa de Rio iron [ormation

Eighty-three polished thin sections have been studied from three sets of core through the iron formation and adjacent beds, boreholes 98, 165, and 173 of Acerias Paz del Rio. All of the ironstone displays ooids, although not all of the ironstone is oolite. Following Bathurst (1975), oolite is defined to be sediment or sedimentary rock dominantly composed of ooids. Like the ooids of all other sandy, clayey, oolitic, shallow inland-sea (SCOS) iron formations examined by the author, those of Paz de Rio closely resemble Recent aragonitic ooids and are unlike any other chemical sedimentary grains (Rohrlich, 1974) . Like aragonitic ooids, chamositic ooids of Paz de Rio display an extinction cross in cross-polarized light due to tangential crystal orientation (Berg, 1942). However, some ooid layers now composed of siderite may have grown radially. Ooids with just a few oolitic layers (superficial ooids) constitute less than 5 percent of all Paz de Rio ooids, unlike some Recent oolite (Bathurst, 1975). Unlike ancient calcareous ooids, many chamositic ooids surrounded by quartz grains have been extremely compacted. Also unlike recrystallized calcareous ooids, the Ierriferous ooids display no pervasive radial structure.

Paz de Rio ooids are distinct from spherules in bauxite in that the latter locally show differences of a few orders of magnitude in diameters of adjacent, concentrically layered spherules. Another, unmistakable difference is that bauxite spherules commonly grow within older spherules and are enveloped within earlier formed concentric layering. This was not observed at Paz de Rio or in any other sandy, clayey, oolitic, shallow inland-sea (SCOS) iron for-

B. Sandstone containing dark burrows filled with chamositic ooids. The sandstone directly underlies basal chamositic ironstone. Length of bar is 10 mm.

e. Slightly compacted hematite-goethite ooid partially replaced by sparry siderite and surrounded by siderite and subordinate chamosite. Ooid core is an ooid fragment. Transmitted and reflected light; crossed nicols; length of bar is 0.1 mm.

D. Deformed pyritic ooid containing chert (dark), within gradational ironstone-mudstone overlying uppermost ironstone. The ooid is surrounded by kaolinitic mud (dark) and disseminated pyrite (white). Holes in the polished thin section are black. Reflected light; length of bar is 0.1 mm.

E. Sideritic ooid with patchy remnant layers of hematite-goethite. Ooid had intersecting cracks before sideritization and hematite-goethite (black) is preferentially preserved in one quadrant Siderite growth in this quadrant has deformed hematite-goethite layers. Crossed nicols ; length of bar is 0.1 mm.

F. Intraclast of gradational limestone (white) -ironstone (dark) in core of basal ironstone.

The intraclast is surrounded by dark massive siderite and indistinct dark chamositic ooids. Scattered white grains are quartz sand, quartz granules, and small sandstone pebbles. Length of bar is 10 mm.

102

MICHAEL u. KIMBERLEY

mation. Thus, Schellmann's (1969) suggestion that ferriferous oolitic structure forms diagenetically may be rejected. One-fifth to one-third of the ooids in all parts of the Paz de Rio iron-formation contain fragments of ooids as cores. Ooid fragments without secondary growth are rare.

Hematite, goethite, siderite, chamosite, and pyrite are. the only ferriferous minerals observed in Paz de Rio polished thin sections. All observed ferriferous minerals occur both within ooids and interstitially and all ferriferous minerals occur in both the central red and marginal dark ironstone. However, pyrite is rare in red ironstone. The red ironstone is mostly hematite and goethite with subordinate siderite and chamosite. The dark ironstone is largely siderite with subordinate chamosite, hematite, and goethite. Hematite and goethite commonly occur so finely intergrown as to be indistinguishable optically and this intergrowth is here called hematite-goethite.

The central red ironstone contains relatively undeformed. well-sorted ooids which average 0.7 to 0.9 mm in thin section diameter and range up to 1.3 mm. An average thin section diameter of 0.8 mm would correspond, for uniform spheres, to a true diameter of 1.0 mm (Krumbein, 1935). Most ooids in red ironstone contain very thin layers of hematite, goethite, intergrown hematite-goethite, and chamosite. Some ooids are partially replaced by siderite (Fig. 4C and E) and interstices are filled with intergrown siderite-hematite-goethite and subordinate quartz silt. Locally, growth of siderite has deformed hematitegoethite oolitic layers, a feature unobserved in chamositic layers. All chamositic layers are exceedingly thin but hematite-goethite layers are commonly patchy, suggestive of at least a partial origin by oxidation of chamosite. Some veinlets transecting ooids contain hematite-goethite but not chamosite. Authigenic chert and apatite partially replace both hematite-goethite and chamosite within ooids. Pyrite constitutes 0.03 percent or less of red ironstone in the polished thin sections, but gypsum, an oxidation product, is apparent in outcrop.

Ooids comprise less than one-quarter of the volume of lower dark ironstone. Most of the lower ironstone is structureless siderite with subordinate quartz grains and minor goethite. Patches of replacement pyrite constitute 0.5 to 1 percent of the rock. The proportion of detrital quartz generally ranges from 10 to 50 percent and thin interbeds of ferriferous sandstone occur locally, Coarse sand grains are well rounded. but grains less than 0.8 mm in diameter are subangular to angular and nonspherical. Some quartz grains are partially replaced by siderite. The principal detrital heavy mineral is zircon. Sorting of lower dark ironstone is locally poor, with

adjacent ooids ranging from 0.1 to 1.8 mm in diame . ter and quartz grains ranging from 0.15 to 1.6 mm. \ Vood fragments and interstitial hydrocarbon are most abundant in areas of poor sorting.

The ooids in lower dark ironstone are composed largely of chamosite and are locally rimmed by siderite. Where not enclosed by interstitial siderite, chamositic ooids have been highly compacted, unlike little-deformecl hematite-goethite ooids in red ironstone (Fig. 4C). All gradations exist from spherical ooids to those flattened to the limit of recognition. Angular quartz grains form nuclei within about 10 percent of the ooids and also occur within some oolitic sheaths. Ooids and quartz grains have been concentrated around burrows ami within the central portions of burrows. These burrows average 7 to 10 rnm in diameter and are rimmed locally by hematite-goethite.

Upper dark ironstone contains siderite and chamosite as the predominant Ier riferous minerals but differs from lower dark ironstone in most other respects. Quartz grains constitute less than 1 percent of the upper ironstone and ooid sorting is fairly good: ooid diameters average about 0.8 mm and range to 1.4 mm. Most ooids contain chamosite, largely to almost completely replaced by sparry siderite and apatite. Even some quartz cores of ooids are partially replaced by siderite. Residual chamosite commonly appears to be as finely layered as aragonite in the freshest Recent ooids. Hematite and goethite are generally absent whereas pyrite constitutes 0.5 to 5 percent of the rock, in irregular patches and as pseudomorphous replacements of ooids (Fig. 4D). Oolitic portions of the rock grade through portions with ooid-sized spheres devoid of internal structure to massive, finely intermixed chamosite, siderite, and apatite. Locally, there are lenticular, interlaminated oolitic and nonoolitic bands parallel to bedding, both types averaging 5 rnrn in thickness. N onoolitic bands contain thin laminae of chamosite between thick laminae of siderite. In oolitic bands, ooids of sparry siderite are surrounded by finely intergrown chamosite and apatite. An intraclast composed largely of calcite was found in one core of upper dark ironstone (Fig. 4F). No other calcite has been found in the Paz de Rio iron formation. Upper dark ironstone and associated sandstone locally contain irregular concretions of chert several decimeters long.

Mineraloqy and chemical composition

;\lineralogical study of the Paz de Rio iron formation has been conducted for Acerias P:lZ del Rio by Rau (1963) and Gruner (1946). The two stu<i.ies markedly disagree on whether hematite or goethite.

Samp from irons

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THE PAZ DE RIO OOLITIC INLAND-SEA IRON FORMATION

103

TABLE 1. Chemical Variation in Tunnel II, EI Banco Orebody, Paz de Rio Iron Formation'
Sample interval Loss on
from top of red
ironstone (rn) SiO, AI.O~ Fe Mn P S CaO MgO calcination
0-1 7.22 6.50 49.71 0.19 1.23 0.05 0.70 0.18 11.01
1-2 12.55 7.04 44.84 0.10 1.40 0.05 1.35 0.45 11.00
2-3 13.55 5.24 44.14 0.04 1.02 0.03 1.36 0.27 13.45
3-4 8.95 6.55 48.79 0.04 1.16 0.Q1 0.90 0.09 11.05
4-5 12.64 6.57 43.91 0.14 l.33 0.01 1.36 0.58 12.23
5--6 13.59 5.06 44.84 0.25 0.98 0.04 0.91 0.09 12.81
6-7 32.54 5.00 33.11 0.28 1.05 0.Q3 0.76 0.09 11.14
7-7.5 47.70 5.09 25.21 0.35 0.98 0.06 0.45 0.09 7.74 1 All samples were dried at 110°C before analysis. Loss on calcination is the weight loss on heating at I,OOO°C for 75 minutes.

r~spectively, is the predominant ferric mineral. Detailed X-ray powder diffractometry by Kimberley ( 1974) has shown that hematite and goethite are nearly equally abundant in about half of the red oolite and that hematite predominates or is exclusively detected in the other half.

Siderite is the only carbonate detected by diffractometry and chamosite is the only silicate. Diffraction peak heights for these minerals correspond well with relative abundances visualJy estimated in thin sections. Chlorapatite is sporadically detected throughout the iron formation and quartz peaks decrease upward through the lower third with the decrease in quartz sand. Only quartz and kaolinite are detected in overlying mudstone.

Chemical compositions of minerals were determined qualitatively by wave length profiling with an electron probe microanalyzer (Kimberley, 1974). AlJ siderite contains substantial calcium and manganese. ~ 0 other manganiferous phase is present. Apatite is the only other calcareous phase detected and its chlorine content was proven. Chamosite is the only aluminous silicate encountered and it contains minor potassium. All goethitic and hematitic areas contain a little aluminum and silicon. This could be

disseminated chamosite or disseminated quartz in aluminous goethite and hematite (Janot et aI., 1971). Pyrite is found throughout all dark ironstone and, within interstitial hydrocarbon, either native sulfur or some nonferriferous sulfide appears locally.

Stratigraphic variability in chemical composition within the central red and lower dark portions of the iron formation is revealed in several thousand analyses performed by Acerias Paz del Rio, all made available for this study. Three of the most complete sets of analyses, two from opposite ends of the region of orebodies, 10.5 km apart (Tables 1 and 3), and one from the center of the region (Table 2), exhibit the upward decrease in SiOz content found in all intervening areas, largely due to upward decrease in detrital quartz. The interval of most marked Si02 decrease normally corresponds to the transition from basal dark to central red ironstone. Other chemical trends only appear locally. The most common of these is a decrease in manganese and/or sulfur upward from basal to central ironstone, corresponding to a decrease in siderite and/or pyrite. These two elements generally range up to 0.5 percent Mn and 0.15 percent S.

Iron, silicon, and oxygen constitute about 95 per-

TABLE 2. Chemical Variation in Drill Hole 162, Salitre Orebody, Paz de Rio Iron Formation'
Sample interval
from top of red Loss on
ironstone (rn) SiO. Al.Oa Fe Mn P S CaO MgO calcination
0.00-0.50 7.09 5.32 45.85 0.30 1.19 0.05 2.86 1.00 14.64
0.50-1.00 5.18 4.30 50.04 0.18 1.01 0.01 1.61 0.95 12.31
1.00-1.50 5.59 4.69 50.04 0.24 1.01 0.02 1.47 0.53 12.27
1.50-2.00 5.21 4.68 49.26 0.18 0.97 0.06 1.32 0.79 13.51
2.00-2.50 7.92 5.72 44.54 0.31 1.37 0.06 3.15 0.90 14.23
2.50-3.00 7.52 5.49 48.83 0.19 0.90 0.07 1.76 0.21 12.08
3.00-3.50 5.65 5.55 49.02 0.21 0.99 0.08 2.21 0.84 11.98
3.50-3.75 9.89 5.83 45.23 0.14 1.04 0.09 2.65 0.53 12.24
3.75-4.00 10.72 6.33 41.63 0.26 1.53 0.06 6.03 1.37 11.74
4.00-4.15 19.98 5.85 37.52 0.42 0.41 0.08 1.62 0.53 15.24
4.15-4.40 27.45 3.47 33.67 0.39 0.25 0.09 1.18 0.63 17.46
4.40-4.65 26.50 3.67 34.18 0.39 0.29 0.10 1.18 0.74 16.80
4.65-4.75 29.85 4.41 31.35 0.33 0.29 0.14 1.18 0.63 16.30 1 All samples were dried at 110°C before analysis. Loss on calcination is the weight loss on heating at l,OOO°C for 75 minutes.

104

MICHAEL M. KIMBERLEY

TABLE 3. Chemical Variation in Drill Hole 119, Sativa Orebody, Paz de Rio Iron Formation'

Loss on
Ab03 Fe Mn P S CaO MgO calcination
5.60 49.42 0.23 1.30 0.11 1.20 0.86 12.84
5.54 48.56 0.31 1.88 0.08 2.25 0.43 11.97
5.72 49.34 0.17 1.15 0.08 1.35 0.54 11.92
5.43 45.72 0.16 1.02 0.09 1.80 0.43 9.20
4.36 36.64 0.25 0.99 0.09 1.80 0.65 10.39
4.99 28.97 0.25 0.70 0.09 1.13 0.86 9.74 Sample interval from top of red ironstone (rn)

0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-<6

5.40 5.63 6.48

15.07 26.40 39.24

1 All samples were dried at llOoC before analysis. Loss on calcination is the weight loss on heating at 1,000°C for is minutes.

cent of the ironstone and so there is an obvious antipathetic relationship between iron and silicon (Tables 1, 2, and 3). The element most closely correlative with iron is phosphorus. Its range is fairly narrow, from 0.7 to 1.4 percent P, except where aluminum is scarce (Table 2). Aluminum content is remarkably constant throughout the iron formation, rarely lying outside the range of 4.0 to 7.5 percent Al203 in either red or dark ironstone. Magnesium fluctuates from 0.02 to 1.4 percent MgO and is irregularly distributed. Calcium is commonly correlative with phosphorus because of their coexistence in apatite; local antipathetic relationships may be due to Incorporation of calcium in siderite.

The Sabanalarga Iron Formation

Another sandy, clayey, oolitic shallow-inland sea (SCOS) iron formation which may be correlative with the Paz de Rio iron formation occurs 128 km south of Paz de Rio, 4 km east of Sabanalarga, Boyaca. The two iron formations are separated by about 70 km. The intervening region is mostly uplifted Cretaceous rocks. Possibly contemporaneous, "dark gray conglomerate containing black oolites" occurs 50 krn farther south-southwest of Sabanalarga (Segovia, 1967, p. 1021).

The Sabanalarga iron formation reaches 4 m in thickness and extends for a maximum of 15 km along strike, grading laterally to sandstone. The iron formation is underlain conformably by a rock unit like the Picacho Formation in the Paz de Rio area, i.e., interbedded conglomerate and sandstone which fines upward through 120 m and grades to the iron formation through a few meters of interbedded sandstone and mottled mudstone (Camacho et al., 1969). Conformably overlying the iron formation is a thick Concentracion-like unit of interbedded mudstone and sandstone.

One of the freshest outcrops of the iron formation is in Quinchalera Creek where almost 3 m of ooidrich sandstone and ironstone overlie scoured fine sandstone and underlie dark gray shale. Scours up to 3 cm deep are filled with coarse oolitic sandstone

which grades upward to finer grained, sandy, chamositic oolite. The scoured fine sandstone is grayish yellow-green (SGY7 /2) and becomes red mottled more than 1 m below the oolite. This red mottling was also apparent in cores drilled 1 km south of Quinchalera Creek. Along the creek, dark gray shale overlying the iron formation becomes sandier and Raser-bedded upward through 30 m, but this thickness may have been tectonically augmented because deformation is apparent and the shale bed is normally 10 m and rarely up to 18 m thick elsewhere. Fossil leaves are extremely abundant in the upper gray shale. The unit overlying the shale varies laterally within a few meters fr0111 1 to 3.4 m in thickness and contains crossbedded, mediumgrained sandstone in beds 2 to 30 cm thick, interbedded with 0.5 to 3 cm of siltstone. Trace fossils cover the sandstone bedding planes, but shelly fossils are absent. A massive sandstone bed over 10 m thick caps the sequence. The sedimentary environment of the iron formation in this sequence is not obvious but may have been a transgressive beach.

Thin sections of fresh core samples of the Sabanalarga iron formation reveal a gradual upward increase in chamositic ooids relative to subangular and subrounded quartz sand. The proportions of goethite and siderite relative to chamosite also increase upward. As in the Paz de Rio iron formation, the lowermost, purely chamositic ooids are the most highly deformed but, where undeformed, display extremely delicate oolitic layering. The proportion of ooids with ooid fragments as nuclei is also similar. one-fifth to one-third, and the range is uniform throughout. Although goethite and siderite increase upward, both remain subordinate to chamosite. Goethite appears to be an oxidation product of selected oolitic layers whereas siderite occurs mainly as rhombs crosscutting all primary structures. Apatite occurs as interstitial radiating fibers. The upper portion of the iron formation was weathered wher.e drilled and the lowermost oxidation affected chamosl' tic ooids but not interstitial chamosite.

Chemical analyses of Sabanalarga ironstone reveal

pi

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11.9i 11.92

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reveal

THE PAZ DE RIO (iOU/Ie iNLAND·SEA IRON FOl<.MATJON

105

a smaller average concentration of iron and phosphorus than in Paz de Rio ironstone. Twelve ~amples from an area recently exposed by a landslide average about 30 percent Fe, 33 percent Si02, 0.6 percent P, and 0.1 percent S (Camacho et al., 1969) . One of these samples was analyzed for several elements: 35 percent Fe, 24 percent Si02, 3.8 percent Ab03, 7.7 percent CaO, 2.5 percent ]\lg0, 0.24 percent Ti02, 0.17 percent Mn, 0.04 percent P, 0.01 percent S, and 8.3 percent loss on ignition (Camacho et al., 1969).

Conclusions

The Paz de Rio and Sabanalarga iron formations are interpreted to have been transgressive, nearshore, bar and beach deposits which were covered by basinal mud. At Paz de Rio, the poorly sorted pebbly sand and wood fragments of the basal dark ironstone appear to have been trapped in highly burrowed lagoonal sediment along with ooids eroded landward from a nearshore bar of oolite. Upper dark ironstone appears to represent ooids eroded seaward, increasingly mixed basinward with carbonaceous mud. A subsequent regression lacking oolite is represented by the gradation from mudstone to burrowed sandstone about 10 m stratigraphically above the iron formation.

A similar fluvial-beach-basin sedimentary sequence, but lacking ferriferous oolite, was found around and under a modern epicontinental sea, the Gulf of Uraba, in northwestern Colombia (Fig. 1). A major river, the Atrato, is building a bird-foot delta into this protected Caribbean gulf. Large lakes connected to channels of the Atrato are continually filtering fluvial mud (Vann, 1959) and forming beds comparable to mudstone beds in the upper part of the Picacho Formation. The delta is well forested and decay products from buried plant matter induce dissolution of iron from surrounding mud, hence limonitic mottling occurs upon oxidation. The beach is rich in shells and tree seeds, is thoroughly burrowed by crabs, and is narrow because the tidal range is less than 50 ern. Core sampling in the gulf reveals areas of wood accumulation within about a kilometer of shore, partly due to breakup and waterlogging of the abundant vegetation rafts supplied by the Atrato River. Average grain size in cores regularly diminishes away from shore and color darkens. Gypsum crystals about 1 mm long are locally abundant in dark clay of the brackish gulf. These are possible oxidation products of authigenic ferrous sulfide (e.g., Wall and Reed, 1976), given their 8S34 of -6 per mil (Kreuger Enterprises Laboratory). Sediments comparable to 1110St Concentracion Formation rock types were found by coring in and around the Gulf of Uraba ..

I

I

I

One process by which oolitic sediment could form in the Gulf of Uraba would be sedimentation of calcareous oolite, as along the present shoreline of Laguna Madre, Texas, a terrigenous sediment-dominated area (Rusnak, 1960). The required supersaturation with respect to aragonite could only be achieved if the Atrato River were to bypass the gulf and local salinity were to rise substantially. Continuing subsidence of this gulf would lear: to a transgression, possibly including beach or bar oolite. If carbonate supersaturation were to become extreme as in Laguna 1\T adre, a subordinate number of asymmetrical ooids could form in quiet water lagoons, but most of these atypical ooids probably would remain scattered through predominantly terrigenous sediment (Freeman, 1962). Reentry of the Atrato into the gulf would terminate sedimentation of calcareous oolite and result in burial of oolite under prograding deltaic mud and sand. Soil formation on this delta could then induce ferruginization of underlying oolite, according to the model of Kimberley (1979a).

Acknowledgments

I thank Professor F. B. Van Houten who supervised the doctoral dissertation which initiated this study and Dr. Francesco Triana of Acerias Paz del Rio who made all company information available. Hollis D. Hedberg kindly provided core samples and well logs from the Lagunillas area. Travel to Sabanalarga was arranged by the Geological Survey of Colombia (Instituto N acional de Investigaciones Ceologico-Mineras ). Financial assistance has been provided through an N.S.F. grant to Professor Van Houton and by the National Research Council of Canada. Michel Hermelin assisted in coring the Gulf of Uraba.

ERINDALE COLLEGE AND DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

~lISSISSAUGA, CANADA L5L 1C6

PRESENT ADDRESS:

DEPARTMENT OF GEOSCIENCES

NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY RALEIGH, NORTH CAROLIJI.'A 27650 October 19, 1976; September 17, 1979

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