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Osteoporosis risks can be reduced with lifestyle changes and sometimes medication; in
people with osteoporosis, treatment may involve both. Lifestyle change includes diet and
exercise, and preventing falls. Medication includes calcium, vitamin D, bisphosphonates
and several others. Fall-prevention advice includes exercise to tone deambulatory
muscles, proprioception-improvement exercises; equilibrium therapies may be included.
Exercise with its anabolic effect, may at the same time stop or reverse osteoporosis.
Osteoporosis is a component of the frailty syndrome.
Contents
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• 13 External links
[edit] Fractures
Fractures are the most dangerous aspect of osteoporosis. Debilitating acute and chronic
pain in the elderly is often attributed to fractures from osteoporosis and can lead to
further disability and early mortality.[3] The fractures from osteoporosis may also be
asymptomatic. The symptoms of a vertebral collapse ("compression fracture") are sudden
back pain, often with radiculopathic pain (shooting pain due to nerve root compression)
and rarely with spinal cord compression or cauda equina syndrome. Multiple vertebral
fractures lead to a stooped posture, loss of height, and chronic pain with resultant
reduction in mobility.[4]
Fractures of the long bones acutely impair mobility and may require surgery. Hip
fracture, in particular, usually requires prompt surgery, as there are serious risks
associated with a hip fracture, such as deep vein thrombosis and a pulmonary embolism,
and increased mortality.
Fracture Risk Calculators assess the risk of fracture based upon several criteria, including
BMD, age, smoking, alcohol usage, weight, and gender. Recognised calculators include
FRAX[5] and Dubbo.
The increased risk of falling associated with aging leads to fractures of the wrist, spine
and hip. The risk of falling, in turn, is increased by impaired eyesight due to any cause
(e.g. glaucoma, macular degeneration), balance disorder, movement disorders (e.g.
Parkinson's disease), dementia, and sarcopenia (age-related loss of skeletal muscle).
Collapse (transient loss of postural tone with or without loss of consciousness) leads to a
significant risk of falls; causes of syncope are manifold but may include cardiac
arrhythmias (irregular heart beat), vasovagal syncope, orthostatic hypotension (abnormal
drop in blood pressure on standing up) and seizures. Removal of obstacles and loose
carpets in the living environment may substantially reduce falls. Those with previous
falls, as well as those with a gait or balance disorder, are most at risk.[6]
[edit] Nonmodifiable
The most important risk factors for osteoporosis are advanced age (in both men and
women) and female gender; estrogen deficiency following menopause or oophorectomy
is correlated with a rapid reduction in bone mineral density, while in men a decrease in
testosterone levels has a comparable (but less pronounced) effect. While osteoporosis
occurs in people from all ethnic groups, European or Asian ancestry predisposes for
osteoporosis.[8] Those with a family history of fracture or osteoporosis are at an increased
risk; the heritability of the fracture as well as low bone mineral density are relatively
high, ranging from 25 to 80 percent. There are at least 30 genes associated with the
development of osteoporosis.[9] Those who have already had a fracture are at least twice
as likely to have another fracture compared to someone of the same age and sex.[10] A
small stature is also a non-modifiable risk factor associated with the development of
osteoporosis.[1]
• In general, immobilization causes bone loss (following the 'use it or lose it' rule).
For example, localized osteoporosis can occur after prolonged immobilization of
a fractured limb in a cast. This is also more common in active patients with a high
bone turn-over (for example, athletes). Other examples include bone loss during
space flight or in people who are bedridden or who use wheelchairs for various
reasons.
• Hypogonadal states can cause secondary osteoporosis. These include Turner
syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Kallmann syndrome, anorexia nervosa,
andropause,[25] hypothalamic amenorrhea or hyperprolactinemia.[25] In females, the
effect of hypogonadism is mediated by estrogen deficiency. It can appear as early
menopause (<45 years) or from prolonged premenopausal amenorrhea (>1 year).
A bilateral oophorectomy (surgical removal of the ovaries) or a premature ovarian
failure cause deficient estrogen production. In males, testosterone deficiency is
the cause (for example, andropause or after surgical removal of the testes).
• Endocrine disorders that can induce bone loss include Cushing's syndrome,[14]
hyperparathyroidism,[14] thyrotoxicosis,[14] hypothyroidism, diabetes mellitus type
1 and 2,[26] acromegaly and adrenal insufficiency. In pregnancy and lactation,
there can be a reversible bone loss.[24]
• Malnutrition, parenteral nutrition[14] and malabsorption can lead to osteoporosis.
Nutritional and gastrointestinal disorders that can predispose to osteoporosis
include coeliac disease,[14] Crohn's disease, lactose intolerance, surgery[25] (after
gastrectomy, intestinal bypass surgery or bowel resection) and severe liver disease
(especially primary biliary cirrhosis).[25] Patients with bulimia can also develop
osteoporosis. Those with an otherwise adequate calcium intake can develop
osteoporosis due to the inability to absorb calcium and/or vitamin D. Other micro-
nutrients such as vitamin K or vitamin B12 deficiency may also contribute.
• Patients with rheumatologic disorders like rheumatoid arthritis,[25] ankylosing
spondylitis,[25] systemic lupus erythematosus and polyarticular juvenile idiopathic
arthritis are at increased risk of osteoporosis, either as part of their disease or
because of other risk factors (notably corticosteroid therapy). Systemic diseases
such as amyloidosis and sarcoidosis can also lead to osteoporosis.
• Renal insufficiency can lead to osteodystrophy.
• Hematologic disorders linked to osteoporosis are multiple myeloma[25] and other
monoclonal gammopathies,[26] lymphoma and leukemia, mastocytosis,[25]
hemophilia, sickle-cell disease and thalassemia.
• Several inherited disorders have been linked to osteoporosis. These include
osteogenesis imperfecta,[25] Marfan syndrome,[25] hemochromatosis,[14]
hypophosphatasia, glycogen storage diseases, homocystinuria,[25] Ehlers-Danlos
syndrome,[25] porphyria, Menkes' syndrome, epidermolysis bullosa and Gaucher's
disease.
• People with scoliosis of unknown cause also have a higher risk of osteoporosis.
Bone loss can be a feature of complex regional pain syndrome. It is also more
frequent in people with Parkinson's disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease.
[edit] Medication
Certain medications have been associated with an increase in osteoporosis risk; only
steroids and anticonvulsants are classically associated, but evidence is emerging with
regard to other drugs.
[edit] Pathogenesis
Osteoclast, with bone below it, showing typical distinguishing characteristics: a large cell
with multiple nuclei and a "foamy" cytosol.
The underlying mechanism in all cases of osteoporosis is an imbalance between bone
resorption and bone formation. In normal bone, there is constant matrix remodeling of
bone; up to 10% of all bone mass may be undergoing remodeling at any point in time.
The process takes place in bone multicellular units (BMUs) as first described by Frost in
1963.[34] Bone is resorbed by osteoclast cells (which derive from the bone marrow), after
which new bone is deposited by osteoblast cells.[9]
The three main mechanisms by which osteoporosis develops are an inadequate peak bone
mass (the skeleton develops insufficient mass and strength during growth), excessive
bone resorption and inadequate formation of new bone during remodeling. An interplay
of these three mechanisms underlies the development of fragile bone tissue.[9] Hormonal
factors strongly determine the rate of bone resorption; lack of estrogen (e.g. as a result of
menopause) increases bone resorption as well as decreasing the deposition of new bone
that normally takes place in weight-bearing bones. The amount of estrogen needed to
suppress this process is lower than that normally needed to stimulate the uterus and breast
gland. The α-form of the estrogen receptor appears to be the most important in regulating
bone turnover.[9] In addition to estrogen, calcium metabolism plays a significant role in
bone turnover, and deficiency of calcium and vitamin D leads to impaired bone
deposition; in addition, the parathyroid glands react to low calcium levels by secreting
parathyroid hormone (parathormone, PTH), which increases bone resorption to ensure
sufficient calcium in the blood. The role of calcitonin, a hormone generated by the
thyroid that increases bone deposition, is less clear and probably not as significant as that
of PTH.[9]
[edit] Diagnosis
Conventional radiography is useful, both by itself and in conjunction with CT or MRI, for
detecting complications of osteopenia (reduced bone mass; pre-osteoporosis), such as
fractures; for differential diagnosis of osteopenia; or for follow-up examinations in
specific clinical settings, such as soft tissue calcifications, secondary
hyperparathyroidism, or osteomalacia in renal osteodystrophy. However, radiography is
relatively insensitive to detection of early disease and requires a substantial amount of
bone loss (about 30%) to be apparent on x-ray images.
The main radiographic features of generalized osteoporosis are cortical thinning and
increased radiolucency. Frequent complications of osteoporosis are vertebral fractures for
which spinal radiography can help considerably in diagnosis and follow-up. Vertebral
height measurements can objectively be made using plain-film x-rays by using several
methods such as height loss together with area reduction, particularly when looking at
vertical deformity in T4-L4, or by determining a spinal fracture index that takes into
account the number of vertebrae involved. Involvement of multiple vertebral bodies leads
to kyphosis of the thoracic spine, obvious to the clinician as "dowager's hump."
[edit] Clinical decision rule
A number of clinical decision rules have been created to predict the risk of osteoporotic
fractures. The QFracture score was developed in 2009 and is based on age, BMI,
smoking status, alcohol use, rheumatoid arthritis, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes,
asthma, use of tricyclic antidepressants or corticosteroids, liver disease, and a history of
falls in men. In women hormone replacement therapy, parental history of osteoporosis,
gastrointestinal malabsorption, and menopausal symptoms are also taken into account.[36]
A website is available to help apply this score.[37]
Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA, formerly DEXA) is considered the gold
standard for the diagnosis of osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is diagnosed when the bone
mineral density is less than or equal to 2.5 standard deviations below that of a young
adult reference population. This is translated as a T-score. The World Health
Organization has established the following diagnostic guidelines:[2][14]
When there has also been an osteoporotic fracture (also termed "low trauma-fracture" or
"fragility fracture"), defined as one that occurs as a result of a fall from a standing height,
the term "severe or established" osteoporosis is used.[2]
The International Society for Clinical Densitometry takes the position that a diagnosis of
osteoporosis in men under 50 years of age should not be made on the basis of
densitometric criteria alone. It also states that for pre-menopausal women, Z-scores
(comparison with age group rather than peak bone mass) rather than T-scores should be
used, and that the diagnosis of osteoporosis in such women also should not be made on
the basis of densitometric criteria alone.[38]
Quantitative CT differs from DXA in that it gives separate estimates of BMD for
trabecular and cortical bone and reports precise volumetric mineral density in mg/cm3
rather than BMD's relative Z score. Among QCT's advantages: it can be performed at
axial and peripheral sites, is sensitive to change over time, can analyze a region of any
size or shape, excludes irrelevant tissue such as fat, muscle, and air, and does not require
knowledge of the patient's subpopulation in order to create a clinical score (e.g. the Z-
score of all females of a certain age). Among QCT's disadvantages: it requires a high
radiation dose, CT scanners are large and expensive, and because its practice has been
less standardized than BMD, its results are more operator-dependent. Peripheral QCT has
been introduced to improve upon the limitations of DXA and QCT.[35]
Quantitative ultrasound has many advantages in assessing osteoporosis. The modality is
small, no ionizing radiation is involved, measurements can be made quickly and easily,
and the cost of the device is low compared with DXA and QCT devices. The calcaneus is
the most common skeletal site for quantitative ultrasound assessment because it has a
high percentage of trabecular bone that is replaced more often than cortical bone,
providing early evidence of metabolic change. Also, the calcaneus is fairly flat and
parallel, reducing repositioning errors. The method can be applied to children, neonates,
and preterm infants, just as well as to adults. Once microimaging tools to examine
specific aspects of bone quality are developed, it is expected that quantitative ultrasound
will be increasingly used in clinical practice.[35]
[edit] Screening
The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommended in 2002 that all
women 65 years of age or older should be screened with bone densitometry.[39] The Task
Force recommends screening women of any age with increased risk factors that puts
them at risk equivalent to a 65 year old without additional risk factors.[40] The best risk
factor for indicating increased risk is lower body weight (weight < 70 kg), with less
evidence for smoking or family history. There was insufficient evidence to make
recommendations about the optimal intervals for repeated screening and the appropriate
age to stop screening. Clinical prediction rules are available to guide selection of women
ages 60–64 for screening. The Osteoporosis Risk Assessment Instrument (ORAI) may be
the most sensitive strategy[41]
Regarding the screening of men, a cost-analysis study suggests that screening may be
"cost-effective for men with a self-reported prior fracture beginning at age 65 years and
for men 80 years and older with no prior fracture".[42] Also cost-effective is the screening
of adult men from middle age on to detect any significant decrease in testosterone levels,
say, below 300.
[edit] Prevention
Methods to prevent osteoporosis include changes of lifestyle. However, there are
medications that can be used for prevention as well. As a different concept there are
osteoporosis ortheses which help to prevent spine fractures and support the building up of
muscles. Fall prevention can help prevent osteoporosis complications.
[edit] Lifestyle
Exercise
Achieving a higher peak bone mass through exercise and proper nutrition during
adolescence is important for the prevention of osteoporosis. Exercise and nutrition
throughout the rest of the life delays bone degeneration. Jogging, walking, or stair
climbing at 70-90% of maximum effort three times per week, along with 1,500 mg of
calcium per day, increased bone density of the lumbar (lower) spine by 5% over nine
months. Individuals already diagnosed with osteopenia or osteoporosis should discuss
their exercise program with their physician to avoid fractures.[44]
Nutrition
Proper nutrition includes a diet sufficient in calcium and vitamin D. Patients at risk for
osteoporosis (e.g. steroid use) are generally treated with vitamin D and calcium
supplements and often with bisphosphonates. Vitamin D supplementation alone does not
prevent fractures, and always needs to be combined with calcium.[45][46] Calcium
supplements come in two forms: calcium carbonate and calcium citrate. Due to its lower
cost, calcium carbonate is often the first choice, however it needs to be taken with food to
maximize absorption. Calcium citrate is more expensive, but it is better absorbed than
calcium carbonate and can be taken without food. In addition, patients who are taking
proton pump inhibitors or H2 blockers do not absorb calcium carbonate well; calcium
citrate is the supplement of choice in this population.[47] In renal disease, more active
forms of Vitamin D such as cholecalciferol or (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol or calcitriol
which is the main biologically active form of vitamin D) is used, as the kidney cannot
adequately generate calcitriol from calcidiol (25-hydroxycholecalciferol) which is the
storage form of vitamin D.In vitamin D assays, vitamin D2 (ergocalitrol) is not accurately
measured, therefore vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is recommended for supplementation.[47]
High dietary protein intake increases calcium excretion in urine and has been linked to
increased risk of fractures in research studies.[48] Other investigations have shown that
protein is required for calcium absorption, but that excessive protein consumption inhibits
this process. No interventional trials have been performed on dietary protein in the
prevention and treatment of osteoporosis.[49]
[edit] Medication
Just as for treatment, bisphosphonate can be used in cases of very high risk. Other
medicines prescribed for prevention of osteoporosis include raloxifene, a selective
estrogen receptor modulator (SERM).
In hypogonadal men testosterone has been shown to give improvement in bone quantity
and quality, but, as of 2008, there are no studies of the effects on fractures or in men with
a normal testosterone level.[26]
[edit] Treatment
There are several medications used to treat osteoporosis, depending on gender.
Medications themselves can be classified as antiresorptive or bone anabolic agents.
Antiresorptive agents work primarily by reducing bone resorption, while bone anabolic
agents build bone rather than inhibit resorption. Lifestyle changes are an important aspect
of treatment. A major problem is gaining long-term adherence to therapy from patients
with osteoporosis. Fifty percent of patients do not take their medications and most
discontinue within 1 year.[50]
• Bisphosphonates
• Estrogen analogs
• Raloxifene
• Calcitonin
• Teriparatide
• Calcium salts
• Sodium fluoride
Sodium fluoride treatment in patients with osteoporosis has been shown to cause
skeletal changes such as pronounced bone density with increased number and
thickness of trabeculae, cortical thickening, and partial obliteration of the
medullary space.[59]
• RANKL inhibitors
• Strontium ranelate
[edit] Nutrition
• Calcium
Calcium is required to support bone growth, bone healing and maintain bone
strength and is one aspect of treatment for osteoporosis. Recommendations for
calcium intake vary depending country and age; for individuals at higher risk of
osteoporosis (after fifty years of age) the amount recommended by US health
agencies is 1,200 mg per day. Calcium supplements can be used to increase
dietary intake, and absorption is optimized through taking in several small
(500 mg or less) doses throughout the day.[64] The role of calcium in preventing
and treating osteoporosis is unclear — some populations with extremely low
calcium intake also have extremely low rates of bone fracture, and others with
high rates of calcium intake through milk and milk products have higher rates of
bone fracture. Other factors, such as protein, salt and vitamin D intake, exercise
and exposure to sunlight, can all influence bone mineralization, making calcium
intake one factor among many in the development of osteoporosis.[65] In the report
of WHO (World Health Organization) in 2007, because calcium is consumed by
an acid load with food, it influences osteoporosis.[66][67]
A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials involving calcium and calcium
plus vitamin D supported the use of high levels of calcium (1,200 mg or more)
and vitamin D (800 IU or more), though outcomes varied depending on which
measure was used to assess bone health (rates of fracture versus rates of bone
loss).[68] The meta-analysis, along with another study, also supported much better
outcomes for patients with high compliance to the treatment protocol.[69] In
contrast, despite earlier reports in improved high density lipoprotein (HDL, "good
cholesterol") in calcium supplementation, a possible increase in the rate of
myocardial infarction (heart attack) was found in a study in New Zealand in
which 1471 women participated. If confirmed, this would indicate that calcium
supplementation in women otherwise at low risk of fracture may cause more harm
than good.[70]
• Vitamin D
Several studies have shown that a high intake of vitamin D reduces fractures in
the elderly,[68][71] The Women's Health Initiative found that though calcium plus
vitamin D did increase bone density by 1% but it did not affect hip fracture. It did
increase formation of kidney stones by 17%.[72] This study has been criticised for
using an inadequate dose of vitamin D (400 U) and for allowing the control arm
to take supplemental vitamin D.
Calcium and vitamin D are currently recommended for the primary prevention of
osteoporosis and the primary and secondary prevention of osteoporotic fractures.
However, calcium and vitamin D may reduce fracture risk by only 16%.[73] This
study followed 2532 community-dwelling residents (median age, 73 years; 59.8%
female) over 3 years who supplemented with 400 IU vitamin D3 and 1000 mg
calcium as calcium carbonate daily.
• Vitamin K
In osteoporosis research, vitamin K has been extensively studied for its ability to
stimulate collagen production, promote bone health and decrease fracture risk.
Vitamin K is a category that includes vitamin K1 and vitamin K2. Vitamin K1
(phylloquinone) is found in green leafy vegetables. Vitamin K2 itself is a category
that contains various forms of vitamin K2, including menaquinone-4
(menatetrenone, MK4) and menaquinone-7 (MK7). Among the vitamin K
analogues, the form most researched for osteoporosis treatment and fracture
reduction is MK4. MK4 is produced via conversion of K1 in the body, in the
testes, pancreas and arterial walls.[74] MK7 is instead not produced in humans, but
converted from vitamin K1 in the intestines by bacteria.[75]
MK4 and MK7 are both found in the United States in dietary supplements for
bone health. The US FDA has not approved any form of vitamin K for the
prevention or treatment of osteoporosis. With respect to osteoporosis, MK7 has
never been shown to reduce fractures. However, MK4 has been shown to reduce
fractures in clinical trials and has been approved for the prevention and treatment
of osteoporosis by the Ministry of Health in Japan since 1995.[76] In Japan MK4 is
used in the amount of 45 mg daily for the prevention and treatment of
osteoporosis. As an approved medication in Japan it has been extensively studied
and shown to decrease fractures in clinical trials up to 87% independent of the
number of falls sustained.[77] In clinical trials MK4 (45 mg daily) prevented bone
loss and/or fractures caused by corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone, dexamethasone,
prednisolone),[78][79][80][81] anorexia nervosa,[82] cirrhosis of the liver,[83]
postmenopausal osteoporosis,[84][85][86][87][88][89] disuse from stroke,[90] Alzheimer’s
disease,[91] Parkinson disease,[92] primary biliary cirrhosis[93] and leuprolide
treatment (for prostate cancer).[94]
Pathological fractures is a serious problem resulting from skeletal unloading in
handicapped children. Sugiyama et al.[95] published a case report of an
institutionalized, bedridden 8-year-old girl with Arnold-Chiari malformation with
low BMD whose BMD increased with MK4 treatment. MK4 also inhibited
phenytoin-induced bone loss in rats;[96] prevented and increased bone formation in
neurectomized rats,[97][98] an animal model for immobilization osteoporosis;
prevented and increased bone formation in orchidectomized (castrated) rats,[99] an
animal model for secondary osteoporosis caused by testosterone deficiency; and
improved healing time and bone quality in experimentally induced osteotomy in
rats alone and in the presence of glucocorticoids.[100] And MK4 therapy has been
cited as a potential strategy for drug-induced bone loss.[101]
The safety of MK4 in the doses used to treat and prevent osteoporosis (45 mg
daily) and in even higher amounts have been shown in multiple studies. In two
human studies, people using 45 mg per day of vitamin K2 (as MK4)[102] and even
up to 135 mg/day (45 mg three times daily) of MK4,[103] showed no increase blood
clot risk. Even doses in rats as high as 250 mg/kg body weight did not alter the
tendency for blood-clot formation to occur.[104] MK4 appears safe except in people
taking the blood clotting medication Coumadin (warfarin). Since warfarin, which
was originally used as a rat poison, decreases blood clot risk by interrupting the
vitamin K-dependent clotting factors, taking vitamin K in any amount interferes
with the actions of warfarin and can increase blood clot risk.
[edit] Exercise
Multiple studies have shown that aerobics, weight bearing, and resistance
exercises can all maintain or increase BMD in postmenopausal women.[105] Many
researchers have attempted to pinpoint which types of exercise are most effective
at improving BMD and other metrics of bone quality, however results have
varied. The BEST (Bone-Estrogen Strength Training) Project at the University of
Arizona identified six specific weight training exercises that yielded the largest
improvements in BMD; this project suggests squat, military press, lat pulldown,
leg press, back extension, and seated row, with three weight training sessions a
week of two sets of each exercise, alternating between moderate (6-8 reps at 70%
of 1-rep max) and heavy (4-6 reps at 80% of 1-rep max).[106] One year of regular
jumping exercises appears to increase the BMD and moment of inertia of the
proximal tibia[107] in normal postmenopausal women. Treadmill walking,
gymnastic training, stepping, jumping, endurance, and strength exercises all
resulted in significant increases of L2-L4 BMD in osteopenic postmenopausal
women.[108][109][110] Strength training elicited improvements specifically in distal
radius and hip BMD.[111] Exercise combined with other pharmacological
treatments such as hormone replacement therapy (HRT) has been shown to
increases BMD more than HRT alone.[112]
Additional benefits for osteoporotic patients other than BMD increase include
improvements in balance, gait, and a reduction in risk of falls.[113]
Vertebral fractures, while having a smaller impact on mortality, can lead to severe
chronic pain of neurogenic origin, which can be hard to control, as well as deformity.
Though rare, multiple vertebral fractures can lead to such severe hunch back (kyphosis)
that the resulting pressure on internal organs can impair one's ability to breathe.
Apart from risk of death and other complications, osteoporotic fractures are associated
with a reduced health-related quality of life.[116]
[edit] Epidemiology
Osteoporosis is a major public health threat which afflicts 55% of Americans aged 50 and
above. Of these, approximately 80% are women.[117] It is estimated[citation needed] that 1 in 3
women and 1 in 12 men over the age of 50 worldwide have osteoporosis. It is responsible
for millions of fractures annually, mostly involving the lumbar vertebrae, hip, and wrist.
Fragility fractures of ribs are also common in men.
Hip fractures are responsible for the most serious consequences of osteoporosis. In the
United States, more than 250,000 hip fractures annually are attributable to osteoporosis.
[118]
It is estimated that a 50-year-old white woman has a 17.5% lifetime risk of fracture of
the proximal femur. The incidence of hip fractures increases each decade from the sixth
through the ninth for both women and men for all populations. The highest incidence is
found among men and women ages 80 or older.[119]
Between 35-50% of all women over 50 had at least one vertebral fracture. In the United
States, 700,000 vertebral fractures occur annually, but only about a third are recognized.
In a series of 9704 of women aged 68.8 on average studied for 15 years, 324 had already
suffered a vertebral fracture at entry into the study; 18.2% developed a vertebral fracture,
but that risk rose to 41.4% in women who had a previous vertebral fracture.[120]
[edit] Wrist
In the United States, 250,000 wrist fractures annually are attributable to osteoporosis.[118]
Wrist fractures are the third most common type of osteoporotic fractures. The lifetime
risk of sustaining a Colles' fracture is about 16% for white women. By the time women
reach age 70, about 20% have had at least one wrist fracture.[119]
Fragility fractures of the ribs are common in men as young as age thirty-five on. These
are often overlooked as signs of osteoporosis as these men are often physically active and
suffer the fracture in the course of physical activity. An example would be as a result of
falling while water skiing or jet skiing. However, a quick test of the individual's
testosterone level following the diagnosis of the fracture will readily reveal whether that
individual might be at risk.
[edit] History
The link between age-related reductions in bone density and fracture risk goes back at
least to Astley Cooper, and the term "osteoporosis" and recognition of its pathological
appearance is generally attributed to the French pathologist Jean Lobstein.[121] The
American endocrinologist Fuller Albright linked osteoporosis with the postmenopausal
state.[122] Bisphosponates, which revolutionized the treatment of osteoporosis, were
discovered in the 1960s.[123]
[edit] Awareness
Various organizations have been established to raise awareness on osteoporosis.